People - Ancient Rome
From the Annals, Book XII (48-54 CE)
A stepmother's treacherous schemes. From the Annals, Book XIV (59-62 CE)
A long meditated crime. Book XV (62-65 CE)
A disaster followed.
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Finally, when his companions unanimously insisted on his trying to escape from the miserable fate threatening him, he ordered them to dig a grave at once, and then collect any pieces of marble that they could find and fetch wood and water for the disposal of the corps. As they bustled about obediently he muttered through his tears: "Dead! And so great an artist!"
A runner brought him a letter from Phaon. Nero tore it from the man's hands and read that, having been declared a public enemy by the Senate, he would be punished in 'ancient style' when arrested. He asked what 'ancient style' meant, and learned that the executioners stripped their victim naked, thrust his head into a wooden fork, and then flogged him to death with sticks. In terror he snatched up the two daggers which he brought along and tried their points; but threw them down again, protesting that the final hour had not yet come.
Then he begged Sporus to weep and mourn for him, but also begged one of the other three to set him an example by committing suicide first. He kept moaning about his cowardice, and muttering: 'How ugly and vulgar my life has become!' And then in Greek: 'This certainly is no credit to Nero, no credit at all,' and: 'Come pull yourself together, man!' By this time a troop of cavalry who had orders to take him alive were coming up the road. Nero gasped: 'Hark to the sound I hear! It is hooves of galloping horses.' Then, with the help of his scribe, Epaphroditos, he stabbed himself in the throat and was already half dead when a cavalry officer entered, pretending to have rushed to his rescue, and staunched the wound with his cloak. Nero muttered: 'Too late! But, ah, what fidelity!' He died, with his eyes glazed and bulging from their sockets, a sight which horrified everybody present. He had made his companions promise, whatever happened, not to let his head be cut off, but to have him buried all in one piece. Galba's freedman Icelus, who had been imprisoned when the first news came of the revolt and was now at liberty again, granted this indulgence.
They laid Nero on his pyre, dressed in gold-embroidered white robes which he had worn on 1 January. The funeral cost 2,000 gold pieces. Ecloge and Alexandria, his old nurses, helped Acte, his mistress, to carry the remains to the Pincian Hill, which can be seen form the Campus Martius.
Suetonius: Nero, 49, 50
Note: Gaius Suetonius Tranquilla was a Roman historian under Hadrian (AD 76-138).
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"Because the Jews at Rome caused constant disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus [Christ], he [Claudius] expelled them from the city [Rome]."
Suetonius' Life of the Emperor Claudius, chapter 25 (excerpt)
"During his reign many abuses were severely punished and put down, and no fewer new laws were made: a limit was set to expenditures; the public banquets were confined to a distribution of food, the sale of any kind of cooked viands in the taverns was forbidden, with the exception of pulse and vegetables, whereas before every sort of dainty was exposed for sale. Punishment was inflicted on the Christians, a class of men given to a new and mischievous superstition. He put an end to the diversions of the chariot drivers, who from immunity of long standing claimed the right of ranging at large and amusing themselves by cheating and robbing the people. The pantomimic actors and their partisans were banished from the city."
- Suetonius' Life of the Emperor Nero, chapter 16 (excerpt).
Note: Gaius Suetonius Tranquilla was a Roman historian under Hadrian (AD 76-138).
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Dio Cassius (c.155-235 CE): Roman History, 62.16-18
Nero had the wish---or rather it had always been a fixed purpose of his---to make an end of the whole city in his lifetime. Priam he deemed wonderfully happy in that he had seen Troy perish at the same moment his authority over her ended. Accordingly, Nero sent out by different ways men feigning to be drunk, or engaged in some kind of mischief, and at first had a few fires kindled quietly and in different quarters; people, naturally, were thrown into extreme confusion, not being able to find either the cause of the trouble nor to end it; and meantime met with many strange sights and sounds. They ran about as if distracted, and some rushed one way, some another. In the midst of helping their neighbors, men would learn that their own homes were blazing. Others learned, for the first time, that their property was on fire, by being told it was burned down. People would run from their houses into the lanes, with a hope of helping from the outside, or again would rush into the houses from the streets seeming to imagine they could do something from the inside. The shouting and screaming of children, women, men, and gray beards mingled together unceasingly; and betwixt the combined smoke and shouting no one could make out anything.
All this time many who were carrying away their own goods, and many more who were stealing what belonged to others kept encountering one another and falling over the merchandise. It was impossible to get anywhere; equally impossible to stand still. Men thrust, and were thrust back, upset others, and were upset themselves, many were suffocated or crushed; in short, no possible calamity at such a disaster failed to befall.
This state of things lasted not one day, but several days and nights running. Many houses were destroyed through lack of defenders; and many were actually fired in more places by professed rescuers. For the soldiers (including the night watch) with a keen eye for plunder, instead of quenching the conflagration, kindled it the more. While similar scenes were taking place at various points, a sudden wind caught the fire and swept it over what remained. As a result nobody troubled longer about goods or homes, but all the survivors, from a place of safety, gazed on what appeared to be many islands and cities in flames. No longer was there any grief for private loss, public lamentation swallowed up this---as men reminded each other how once before the bulk of the city had been even thus laid desolate by the Gauls.
While the whole people was in this state of excitement, and many driven mad by calamity were leaping into the blaze, Nero mounted upon the roof of the palace, where almost the whole conflagration was commanded by a sweeping glance, put on the professional harpist's garb, and sang "The Taking of Troy" (so he asserted), although to common minds, it seemed to be "The Taking of Rome."
The disaster which the city then underwent, had no parallel save in the Gallic invasion. The whole Palatine hill, the theater of Taurus, and nearly two thirds of the rest of the city were burned. Countless persons perished. The populace invoked curses upon Nero without intermission, not uttering his name, but simply cursing "those who set the fire"; and this all the more because they were disturbed by the recollection of the oracle recited in Tiberius's time, to this effect,
"After three times three hundred rolling years In civil strife Rome's Empire disappears."
And when Nero to encourage them declared these verses were nowhere to be discovered, they changed and began to repeat another oracle---alleged to be a genuine one of the Sibyl,
"When the matricide reigns in Rome, Then ends the race of Aeneas."
And thus it actually turned out, whether this was really revealed in advance by some divination, or whether the populace now for the first time gave it the form of a sacred utterance merely adapted to the circumstances. For Nero was indeed the last of the Julian line, descended from Aeneas.
Nero now began to collect vast sums both from individuals and nations, sometimes using downright compulsion, with the conflagration as his excuse, and sometimes obtaining funds by "voluntary" offers. As for the mass of the Romans they had the fund for their food supply withdrawn.
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Nero Coin ,
Agrippina Coin ,
Nero Bust 1 ,
Nero Bust 2 ,
Nero Bust 3 ,
Nero Bust 4
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Nero goes down in history as a vicious and crazy man who murdered his mother and his wife, and many others. He had a corrupt ancestry, especially on his father's side, his mother Agrippina was an evil woman, his childhood was perverted and corrupted. He was a glutton, homosexual, murderer and considered insane by many. There's no doubt that he did have a passion for art, but this was clouded by his arrogance and self glorification. He was extremely jealous of anyone suspected of rebellion, and he retaliated in persecution, suppression and murder. For the most part, Nero, was completely despised. Tacitus said:
"I began to hate you, when, after murdering mother and wife, you turned out to be a jockey, a mountebank, and an incendiary." (Tacitus annals 15:67).
Nero being faced with revolt committed suicide in June of 68 A.D.
Ultimately Christianity had been firmly planted throughout the Roman Empire by the apostle Paul during the reign of Nero. In fact Paul must have arrived in Italy during his Third Missionary Journey at around 60 A.D., just a few years before the great fire of Rome and the first imperial persecution of the Christian sect.
There is much speculation as to what happened during these few years, but there can be little doubt that the signs and wonders that followed the teaching of Christianity, and the testimony of the Holy Spirit in other cities were also happening in Rome and had reached the ears of those in the palace of Nero.
God established His purposes in ways that we cannot understand, and in the midst of circumstances and events that can only be discussed today by searching the Word of God. Every other source cannot be entirely trusted because historians and writers were persuaded in many ways politically and socially.
By the time of the destruction of the Temple, or shortly thereafter, all of the Books of the Bible were completed and the early church was established.
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Nero, A Heart Message.
TRUSTING UNDER PERSECUTION.
When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice; But when a wicked man rules, the people groan. (Proverbs 29:2).
Where there is no counsel, the people fall; But in the multitude of counselors there is safety. (Proverbs 11:14).
From our vantage point in 21st century USA, the reign of Nero is a safe intellectual study on the consequences of a wicked and prideful ruler. But from the point of view of the average Christian living in Rome during this time period, Nero was an unpredictable despot who at any time might gather them up for a brutal punishment and savage entertainment in a Roman coliseum. It was a horrific time that required a deep faith in the Father who works all things for the good of those called according to His purpose (Romans 8:28), and who hears the cry of the helpless and brings vengeance (Isaiah 35:4).
Nero’s attempts to scapegoat Christianity for his own faults caused many followers of Jesus to hold up their heads, walking forward, leaving loved ones, possessions, and life itself behind. They became a spectacle to the watching Roman cosmopolitan world. Their trust in Christ, in the face of torture and death, planted the seeds of redemption deep into the earth, and generations who reaped the good fruit of their sacrifice are indebted to them. Still today, the voices of the martyrs from Sudan to China cry out to the throne room of the Almighty.
Nero himself, who had much promise in the beginning, never acquired the taste for wisdom that his original counselors tried to inculcate. When left to his own devices he regressed into a beast like state and was swallowed by his own lusts. Still, God doesn’t rejoice at the death of the wicked (Ezek 33:11). Nero would have been wise if he could have found humility like that of King Nebuchadnezzar, another empire ruler who suffered from temporary insanity, but who finally turned to God and worshipped Him before the end of his life.
"And at the end of the time I, Nebuchadnezzar, lifted my eyes to heaven, and my understanding returned to me; and I blessed the Most High and praised and honored Him who lives forever: For His dominion is an everlasting dominion, And His kingdom is from generation to generation. All the inhabitants of the earth are reputed as nothing; He does according to His will in the army of heaven And among the inhabitants of the earth. No one can restrain His hand Or say to Him, "What have You done?" At the same time my reason returned to me, and for the glory of my kingdom, my honor and splendor returned to me. My counselors and nobles resorted to me, I was restored to my kingdom, and excellent majesty was added to me. Now I, Nebuchadnezzar, praise and extol and honor the King of heaven, all of whose works are truth, and His ways justice. And those who walk in pride He is able to put down." (Daniel 4:34,35)
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Introduction ,
Overview ,
His Birth and Youth ,
His Mother ,
Claudius ,
Senecca and Burrus ,
Nero Becomes Emperor ,
Nero's Character ,
The Great Fire of Rome ,
The Scapegoats ,
The Jewish Revolt ,
Timeline ,
Historical Writings ,
Dictionaries ,
Encyclopedias ,
Coins and Images ,
Conclusion
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BKA 106 - Nero. This Bible Knowledge Accelerator program contains a very brief overview of the life and history of the Roman Emperor Nero. Nero (AD37-68), fifth emperor of Rome and the last of the Julio-Claudian line.
Born Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus on December 15, 37, at Antium and originally named Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero was the son of the consul Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (died about 40) and Agrippina the Younger, great-granddaughter of Emperor Augustus. In 49 Agrippina married her uncle, Emperor Claudius I, and the following year she persuaded him to adopt her son, whose name was then changed. Later, Claudius married Nero to his daughter Octavia and marked him out for succession, bypassing his own son, Britannicus. On Claudius's death (54), the Praetorian Guards, under their prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, Agrippina's agent, declared Nero emperor at the age of 17.
The initial five years of Nero's reign, guided by Burrus and the philosopher Seneca, Nero's tutor, were marked by moderation and clemency, although Nero had his rival Britannicus poisoned. In 59 he had his mother put to death for her criticism of his mistress, Poppaea Sabina. In 62 he divorced (and later executed) Octavia and married Poppaea. Burrus died, possibly poisoned, and Seneca retired.
In July 64, two-thirds of Rome burned while Nero was at Antium. In ancient times he was charged with being the incendiary, but most modern scholars doubt the truth of that accusation. According to some accounts (now considered spurious), he laid the blame on the Christians-few at that time-and persecuted them. He sheltered the homeless, however, and rebuilt the city with fire precautions. The building programs, like the spectacles and free grain he provided for the populace, were financed by plundering Italy and the provinces. Viewing himself as an artist and a religious visionary, he scandalized the army and aristocracy when he appeared publicly as an actor in religious dramas.
Meanwhile, the empire was in turmoil. Nero established Armenia as a buffer state against Parthia, but only after a costly, unsuccessful war. Revolts broke out in Britain (60-61) and in Judea (66-70). In 65 Gaius Calpurnius Piso led a conspiracy against the emperor; 18 of the 41 prominent Romans implicated in the plot perished, among them Seneca and his nephew, the epic poet Lucan. Poppaea was kicked to death by Nero, and he married Statilia Messalina after executing her husband. In 68 the Gallic and Spanish legions, along with the Praetorian Guards, rose against him, and he fled Rome. Declared a public enemy by the Senate, he committed suicide on June 9, 68, near Rome.
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The Roman Empire beyond Italy was divided into about 40 provinces (territories), with each province having its own governor who kept order and collected taxes for Rome. He was either appointed by the emperor or named by the Senate.
During the first century A.D. the Roman Empire was near its peak with a population of 50-60 million. This was more than 1/5 of the world's population at that time. Jesus lived and died during the period known in Roman history as the Pax Romana or the "Peace of Rome".
It was an amazing time in history when the risen Jesus empowered His church to go into all the world to preach the good news of the gospel of Jesus Christ. In fact the apostles journeyed throughout the Mediterranean world which was part of the Roman Empire. They traveled through Roman cities on Roman roads and everywhere that they traveled they came into contact with Rome.
Julius Caesar had a dream for Rome but he was assassinated before he could see it fulfilled. The big problem was who would become the next emperor after his assassination. Very few had expected the young Octavian (Augustus) to become the chief heir and new emperor after Julius Caesar, but it was Augustus who turned out to be the most important emperor in all of Roman history.
Augustus was very aware of what had happened with Julius Caesar, and desired to avoid the same problems with the Roman Senate. He wanted his stepson Tiberius to be emperor after his death and to make sure that this would happen he began to share his power with Tiberius. When Augustus died in 14 A.D. Tiberius was easily accepted as emperor. In fact this became the new way that emperors would be chosen. Each emperor would choose a successor from among his family or he would adopt someone who he thought would be fit to rule after him.
During the 200 years after the death of Augustus, four dynasties (family lines) ruled the Roman Empire. Some of the emperors in each dynasty were somewhat moral emperors and others were horribly cruel. Each of the four dynasties ended with a violent overthrow of an unfit emperor.
Augustus’ family line ended in disgrace in 68 A.D. with the Emperor Nero, who came to power when he was a young boy at the age of 17. Nero Claudius Caesar was born in December of 37 A.D. at Antium and reigned as the fifth emperor (Princeps) of Rome, from 54-68 A.D. under the political system created by Augustus after Civil War had finally put an end to the Roman Republic.
Throughout the early years of his rule Nero was directed by his tutors (including the famous writer Seneca) and there was peace throughout the Empire. The Emperor Nero loved performing in the Theatre, races and games. He was not respected by the senators or the army. He was criticized by the people of Rome for being more interested in entertaining himself than in governing the empire. However, when his main advisors had either retired, or were dead, Nero revealed his true character. It did not take long for the people to realize that Nero was a tyrant. In 59 A.D. Nero executed his mother, his wife, Claudius’s son Britannicus, and several of his advisors and anyone that opposed him was executed.
In 64 A.D. a devastating fire swept through Rome destroying everything in its path. Everyone thought that Nero had started the fire so that he could rebuild a more beautiful city, including his Golden House. According to the Roman historian Suetonius, Nero sang and played the lyre while Rome burned. When Nero felt that the rumor had turned everyone against him he found some scapegoats to bare the blame for the fire, the Christians. He punished them severely and had many of them burned alive or torn apart by wild beasts. It is believed that the apostles Paul and Peter were martyred during this persecution.
There were many who sought Nero’s death and in 68 A.D. his own army rebelled against him and various military commanders attempted to seize the throne. The Emperor Nero was forced to flee from Rome and soon afterward he committed suicide. He was the last emperor who was of the dynasty of Augustus (Julio-Claudian dynasty).
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- Nero Himself - Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus
- Agrippina - Nero's dominating mother
- Claudius - The emperor before Nero
- Octavia - Claudius' daughter and Nero's first wife
- Britannicus - Claudius' son and rightful heir to the throne
- Seneca and Burrus - Nero's trusted tutors
- Poppaea - Nero's second wife
- Galba - General in Spain and the next emperor of Rome
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- The Great Fire of Rome 64 A.D.
- The First Imperial 'Persecution' of Christians 64 A.D.
- The first Jewish Revolt Against Rome 66 A.D.
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The main historical sources about the life of Nero were:
- Tacitus Tacitus Publius Cornelius (55-120 A.D. approx.)
- Suetonius Svetonius Tranquillus (70-140 A.D. approx.)
- Cassius Dio Dion Cassius Cocceianus (155-235 A.D. approx.)
- Jewish and Christian Tradition
- Archaeology
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Brief overview of the birth and childhood of the Emperor Nero.
On December 15, 37 A.D. Nero was born, his original name was Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. He was the only child of Julia Agrippina (the great-granddaughter of Augustus), and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, whose family descended from the ancient nobility and whose father had married a niece of Augustus.
Young Domitius had a rough childhood, he was taken from his mother when he was 2 years old, when his uncle Gaius Caesar (Caligula) took the throne sent the Ahenobarbus family into exile around 39 A.D. When Nero was 3 years old his father died. Caligula seized the entire Ahenobarbus family fortune, and the young boy spent many of his early years in poverty. Agrippina raised him with the help of Domitia Lepida, his aunt. His earliest tutors were apparently a dancer and a barber.
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Brief overview of Julia Agrippina, the Mother of the Emperor Nero
His mother was Julia Agrippina (The Younger) who bore him in her first marriage with Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus. Julia Agrippina was the daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder.
When Claudius became emperor in 41 A.D. Agrippina (his niece) was recalled from exile and allowed to return to Rome, and her estate was returned to her. In 49 A.D. following the fall and execution of Empress Messallina, Claudius married Agrippina, and many things changed for the young Domitius (Nero).
This was Julia Agrippina’s third marriage, she was 34 years old and Claudius was 59 years old at the time of their marriage. This marriage proved to play a big part in the diabolical planning of Agrippina. Claudius was a strong leader and a very influential man, and throughout his life he suffered from some form of cerebral palsy, and this is probably why historians mentioned Claudius as a man with many strange behaviors. Agrippina knew that she could have an influence over the affairs in Rome through Claudius, and his life expectancy played a big factor in her plotting.
She convinced Claudius to adopt her son and in 50 A.D. Nero became the probable heir to the throne, even over Claudius's real son Britannicus. Seneca became Nero’s tutor, and in 53 A.D. Nero married Claudius's daughter Octavia. In 54 A.D. Agrippina murdered Claudius by giving him a plate of poison mushrooms, and Nero became ruler at the age of seventeen.
By 59 A.D. Nero was fed up with her schemes and ordered her death. This had been the first time and the last time that a woman had ruled Rome.
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Brief overview of Claudius and the Emperor Nero
Tiberias Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus (10 B.C.-54 A.D.) was emperor of Rome from 41 A.D. to 54 A.D. He was born at Lyons and his parents were Drusus the Elder and Antonia. From his infancy he suffered from some sort of illness, many think that it was some form of cerebral palsy. His own family thought that it would be impossible for him to have any sort of public career, and they were humiliated by him. Yet underneath the surface was the mind of a scholar and orator.
Tiberias and Caligula saw no threat in Claudius, although many others and his family were either executed or went into exile. Claudius had served as consul for Caligula. By 41 A.D. Caligula was assassinated, and the praetorian guard had a difficult time finding a replacement. They chose Claudius and persuaded all of Rome to follow him, even the legions were happy because the brother of Germanicus was on the throne. The Senate had no choice in the matter because they feared the praetorian guard who were rewarded greatly by Claudius.
There was never a time in the Roman Empire when the Emperor was given so much power. There were six plots against his life, many of them being organized by the Senators. Claudius had married four times, and after his third marriage to Messalina he swore he would never marry again, and if he did the praetorian guard was to kill him. His first marriage bore him to children Drusus (died in childhood) and Claudia (illegitimate). His marriage to Messalina gave him two more children, Octavia and Britannicus.
When Claudius became emperor in 41 A.D. Agrippina (his niece) was recalled from exile and allowed to return to Rome, and her estate was returned to her. In 49 A.D. following the fall and execution of Empress Messallina, Claudius married Agrippina, and many things changed for the young Domitius (Nero).
This was Julia Agrippina’s third marriage, she was 34 years old and Claudius was 59 years old at the time of their marriage. This marriage proved to play a big part in the diabolical planning of Agrippina. Claudius was a strong leader and a very influential man, and throughout his life he suffered from some form of sickness, and this is probably why historians mentioned Claudius as a man with many strange behaviors. Agrippina knew that she could have an influence over the affairs in Rome through Claudius, and his life expectancy played a big factor in her plotting.
She convinced Claudius to adopt her son and in 50 A.D. Nero became the probable heir to the throne, even over Claudius's real son Britannicus. Seneca became Nero’s tutor, and in 53 A.D. Nero married Claudius's daughter Octavia. In 54 A.D. Agrippina murdered Claudius by giving him a plate of poison mushrooms, and Nero became ruler at the age of seventeen.
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Brief overview of Nero's tutors, Seneca and Burrus.
It wasn't long before Agrippina promoted her son Nero in the imperial household. She had already arranged for him to have excellent instructors, the famous philosopher Seneca the Elder, and also the commander (Prefect) of the Praetorian Guard, Burrus.
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Lucius Annaeus Seneca (5 A.D.-65 A.D.) was a poet and a writer, and one of the major literary figures and foremost Stoic philosophers of the first century A.D. He was the son of Seneca the Elder, born in Spain and taken to Rome as a youth. Caligula and the Senate saw Seneca the younger as an incredibly gifted orator and writer. When Claudius became emperor in 41 A.D. he exiled Seneca to Corsica, Spain (the place of his birth). Seneca finally saw the end of his exile when Agrippina The Younger, probably the most powerful person in Rome, called him back to Rome to become a tutor for her son, Nero.
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Sextus Afranius Burrus was prefect of the praetorian guard during the reigns of Claudius and Nero. According to an inscription became from Gaul, and was recognized for his military leadership. He served as a Tribune, and then as a procurator and private bodyguard for the Empress Livia, and later for Tiberius and Claudius. It was through Claudius that Burrus met Agrippina The Younger, who found him to be useful and trustworthy, and in 51 A.D. she made him the sole prefect of the guard. Burrus returned the favor by supporting Nero over Claudius’ son Britannicus, and Claudius died in 54 A.D. Burrus presented Nero to the cohorts of the praetorians. Burrus also became an advisor to Nero along with Seneca, and together they managed to preserve the Empire from Nero's eccentricities and to break the hold that Nero's mother had on him.
She convinced Claudius to adopt her son and in 50 A.D. Nero became the probable heir to the throne, even over Claudius's real son Britannicus. Seneca became Nero’s tutor, and in 53 A.D. Nero married Claudius's daughter Octavia. In 54 A.D. Agrippina murdered Claudius by giving him a plate of poison mushrooms, and Nero became ruler at the age of seventeen.
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Brief history of the events around Nero becoming Emperor of Rome. Agrippina murdered Claudius in October of 54 A.D. and Nero, with the help of Burrus, was accepted by the praetorian guard and became emperor.
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Nero became betrothed to Octavia (Claudius' daughter) and he was officially adopted in 50 A.D., and became the most probable heir to the throne, even over Claudius' own son Britannicus. Britannicus was four years younger than Nero and suffered greatly because of his disgraced mother Messalina. Nero’s mother Agrippina moved very shrewdly by appointing Nero as Britannicus' guardian and from that time on the young Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus would be known as Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus.
Having assured herself the title of Augusta, and her son the throne, Agrippina murdered Claudius in October of 54 A.D. and Nero, with the help of Burrus, was accepted by the praetorian guard and became emperor.
Nero succeeded and gave an inaugural address, probably written by Seneca, in which he promised to bring the empire the same peace and prosperity that existed in the days of Augustus, who exercised his authority in the midst of Republican rule and the Constitution.
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During the first five years of his rule, Nero allowed Seneca and Burrus to run things within the empire. This first five years of Nero's reign were known as the "quinquennium Neronis" which became a legend within the provinces for sound administration and peaceful order.
The senate and the consul's powers seemed to get back their ancient functions. They enjoyed more security and initiative than they had known for many years. The coinage from 55 to 60 contained an inscription as a gesture pleasing to the senate. Nero governed wisely in these few years and maintained peaceful order. He prevented provincial governors and certain parties from extracting large sums from the local population to view the gladiatorial shows. He also took measures to improve public order. There were new laws against forgery and many reforms in the area of taxes and provincial administration. Nero made many promises to the senate concerning his plans for judicial fairness and these reforms also marked the beginning of his reign.
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Nero had definitely come up with some interesting ideas. For example within the circuses and theaters there would normally be a large number of soldiers (Praetorian Guard) present, but Nero did not think that this gave the people a sense of freedom and at the end of 55 A.D. he had them removed from the games. This turned out to be a bad move because of the rival gangs and fights. The following year the soldiers were reinstated.
Nero was not pleased with killing unless it was deserved. In 57 A.D. he built a wood amphitheater for games, gladiator fights, and wild beast shows but he did not allow fighting to the death, even if those fighting were convicted criminals. It wasn’t long before the crowd cried for blood and Nero had to change his policy.
Nero soon became very suspicious and a bit paranoid. If he even suspected that someone was hostile to him in any way, he was ready to order their death, but he would not execute someone unless they committed some sort of treason. He did not like to execute people and when he was asked to sign an execution warrant, he would sigh "How I wish I never learned to write."
It is interesting that Seneca also did not like the idea of Roman executions. One situation that disturbed Seneca was in 61 A.D., when the city prefect Lucius Pedanius Secundus (a fellow Spanish citizen) was murdered by one of his slaves. According to Roman law (in case of a slave uprising) not only the murderer himself but every other slave in the house had to be killed. Lucius owned four hundred slaves including women and children. Though many protested against the slave executions Nero enforced the law.
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By 62 A.D. Nero was the established authority in Rome. His mother Agrippina was dead, Burrus, the praetorian commander, was also dead. Seneca had retired, Octavia was divorced and murdered. Poppaea was now married to Nero and she bore him a daughter in 63 A.D.
Poppaea had been Otho's wife and she had her eyes on Nero and plotted successfully to eliminate Octavia (Nero's wife), and Agrippina. Nero had his mother murdered in 59 A.D.
Nero considered himself an artist, although it is doubtful that he had much talent. He devoted his time to poetry, singing on the public stage, and to sport. He desired to replace the gladiatorial games with racing and Greek athletic contests, yet his biggest desires were never achieved.
Without those companions who had helped him in maintaining control of the empire, people were about to see Nero's true inward character. Ofonius Tigellinus, the new commander of the praetorian guard, was a bad influence on Nero. Nero also had many character flaws: vanity, greed, cruelty and a lust for power. He regarded the principate as tyrannical and none of his predecessors, he said "had realized what they could do" (Suetonius, Nero, 37).
Just like Claudius, Nero began to surround himself with the worst sort of people. The expense wars in Britain and Armenia caused many problems. There was also a deliberate depreciation of the coinage. The hated law of treason (maiestas) was revived and used to destroy the Senate and aristocracy.
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Brief overview of the character of the Emperor Nero, from his early ambitions to his insanity.
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Nero was described as a very handsome man. He was apparently short-sighted which made him squint often and had a lot of freckles. He had dark blond hair and grayish eyes. He maintained his good health even though he had a big belly and a large neck.
note: Presumably Nero was extremely short-sighted. Apparently he had an enormous emerald which he used as a glass to view gladiatorial fights. The Romans believed that emeralds were good for the sight, but Nero's emerald may have been hollowed out to act as a lens to help him see.
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Agrippina Runs Things – For Awhile.
Nero was a confident leader who was very interested in Roman arts and education. When he was young the control of the empire was in the hands of his mother, Agrippina. In fact on the first day that he began to rule he gave the tribune of the guard the watchword "The best of mothers" and she was authorized to handle all of the business of the empire for Nero. Burrus, the prefect of the Praetorian Guard, and his tutor, Seneca were his trusted advisors. During this time and under their direction Rome prospered, but this did not last.
Nero both loved and hated his mother, who had been continually trying to dominate him. Slowly as Nero became older and more independent, his mother began to lose power.
note: On Roman coins Nero and Agrippina faced each other and on the back was Agrippina's name showing she was more important. Slowly as Nero became older and more independent, his mother began to lose power. The coins showed Nero and his mother facing the same direction and his name was on the back.
Relations between Nero and his mother were at their worst. Nero tried to bestow honor on her in several ways, but she scorned him, and made him feel indebted to her for everything. She finally moved out of the palace in 55 A.D. to her own mansion, which was a sure sign that she was losing power. Agrippina suddenly began to show favor toward Britannicus (Nero’s brother) and so Nero ordered his execution.
By 59 A.D. Nero was fed up with her schemes and ordered her death. This had been the first time and the last time that a woman had ruled Rome.
After Agrippina had left the palace Burrus and Seneca successfully ran the empire. Three years later in 62 A.D. both Burrus and Seneca vanished from the political scene. Burrus apparently died from throat cancer, and Seneca resigned and later committed suicide. Nero appointed two Praetorian Prefects (Faenius Rufus and Gaius Ofonius Tigellinus). Tigellinus was previously exiled by Caligula and Nero called him back to make use of his renowned intelligence skills.
With the help of Tigellinus, Nero divorced Octavia and married Poppaea. Tigellinus framed Octavia on an immorality charge and she was exiled to an island and later executed.
62-63 A.D. marked the beginning of the degeneration of Nero's rule.
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Nero lavished himself in his own power, he used golden thread for his fishing nets, he never wore the same robe twice, he had his mules shod with silver. He was heavily into parties and practiced orgies and gluttony, and his dinners sometimes lasted twelve hours, from noon to midnight. He also murdered his 19-year-old wife so that he could marry his mistress, and then later he killed that mistress.
Nero was always interested in the arts, and he was a huge admirer of all things Greek, and he deliberately wore a charioteer's hair style and wore Greek clothing which upset his people continually. Nero was far more interested in writing poetry, acting, dancing, and singing than he was in being emperor. He introduced Greek games and arts contests to the Romans, wrote poetry, played the lyre, and considered himself gifted in them all, including singing (Nero employed the famous lyre player Terpnus to give him lessons). In 64 A.D. at Neapolis Nero performed in a public theater for the first time. He liked to come there and sing for large crowds of people. The first time he appeared on a Roman stage was in 65 A.D. at the second performance of the Neronian Games. Nero was an avid performer but he also suffered from severe stage fright.
He was fascinated by civil engineering and architecture. But his big mistakes were that he left his empire unattended, for example he never visited the legionary camps, and he scorned the Senate. When Nero learned of a senatorial conspiracy in 65 A.D. he had the organizers either killed or banished. Seneca, his own tutor, was among them. Whenever there was a hint of treason Nero ordered their execution or forced them to commit suicide.
Nero apparently slept with beautiful young women and young boys including Britannicus, his brother. He supposedly also slept with his mother Agrippina and had many physical relationships with men older than himself, and with eunuchs. Nero, according to Dio Cassius, "fastened young boys and girls to stakes, and then, after putting on the hide of a wild beast, attacked them and satisfied his brutal lust under the appearance devouring parts of their bodies". Nero wanted to marry a freedwoman, Acte, but this would have been socially unacceptable for an emperor.
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Nero became even more tyrannical, claiming that he was equal to Apollo and the other gods. He encouraged emperor worship and had a huge statue of himself erected in Rome.
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In 65 A.D. some senators concocted the Pisonian Conspiracy to murder Nero in the Circus Maximus, while the games were going on, and then place Caius Calpurnius Piso in Nero’s position. They were found out and Nero went on a rampage to root out any opposition and there were daily executions. In fact all together there were nineteen executions and suicides. Among the ones killed were Faenius Rufus, Seneca, Lucan and Poppaea. Corbulo commited suicide. In 66 A.D. a second wave of executions took place and some of the important men who perished were Caius Petronius, Paetus Thrasea the Stoic, and Barea Soranus. Almost everyone who was suspected of treason was executed including many senators and prefects.
This all took place in 66 AD, the same time when the horrible Jewish revolt broke out.
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Greece – Free from Taxation. In 67 A.D. Nero decided to take a trip to Greece where he participated in a variety of athletic contests and drama spectacles. He was awarded more than 1,800 prizes by the judges. During an oration in the stadium Nero declared Greece free from Roman taxation, though still part of the Roman empire. This was no doubt a huge blunder on Nero’s part and would bring many more revolts.
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Even though many revolts were breaking out throughout the empire, Nero did not seem to care. It was only a matter of time, his trusted bodyguards deserted him and he fled for his life. When he left Rome the Senate declared him a public enemy and ordered him arrested. Nero went into hiding and soon realized that there was no hope of escape and saw death as the only answer and cried out "Alas, What an Artist Is Dying in Me." He preferred suicide rather than the usual public flogging which was the standard punishments for any enemy of the state, and Nero said "how ugly and vulgar my life has become! This certainly is no credit to Nero." The Praetorian Guard came for him and he raised a knife to his throat and, according to Suetonius said these words "Hark to the sound I hear! It is hooves of galloping horses." And suddenly, with the help of his secretary Epaphroditus, he slit his own throat.
He died in 68 A.D. and the empire was on the verge of Civil War. In fact the Jews in Judea had already begun a revolt.
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Brief overview of the events surrounding the Great Fire of Rome.
In a hot July summer of 64 A.D., a fire broke out near the Capena Gate (the marketplace near the Circus Maximus) and spread quickly across the entire Circus, and finally it was completely out of control, the fire destroyed nearly half of Rome.
The Roman historian Tacitus records the event:
"First, the fire swept violently over the level spaces. Then it climbed the hills-but returned to ravage the lower ground again. It outstripped every counter-measure. . . Terrified, shrieking women, helpless old and young, people intent on their own safety, people unselfishly supporting invalids or waiting for them, fugitives and lingerers alike--all heightened the confusion."
As the fire blaze out of control some citizens tried every measure to put out the flames. It is told that the citizens were stopped. Also some of the mob lit torches and threw them into the flames to feed the fire. Tacitus make an interesting note about these arsonists who had claimed "they acted under orders. Perhaps they had ... or they may just have wanted to plunder unhampered."
Nero heard the news from his Palace at Antium and rushed to Rome just in time to see the Palatine Palace in flames. His newly built mansion, the Domus Transitoria, was nothing but a pile of smoldering ashes. Nero immediately organized a team of firefighters and provided shelter for the panic stricken people who had been left homeless. The fire burned for nine days, leaving 10 out of its 14 regions in ruins, with the loss of many lives.
Nero decided that he would place the blame on scapegoats, because there was a dangerous rumor that Nero himself had ordered the fire in order to vandalize the capital city, and to free up space for his new building plans. It is recorded that later he indeed take advantage of the situation and begin planning and building his Golden House. His scapegoats were none other than the Christians, who were already being accused in one way or another within Roman pagan society. This was officially the time that the active persecution of the Christian Church began. At some point soon after it became a crime to bear the name "Christian" and the suppression of the church became state policy. This persecution would last, off and on, for almost three centuries.
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The Christian Scapegoats and the Great Fire of Rome. It wasn't long before Nero arrived to bring order to the chaos. A rumor had gone forth which accused Nero of starting the fire himself, and had even sang a song from his Palace tower as he watched the flames engulf the city. Nero had also planned in detail for the cities reconstruction but the rumors continued.
Nero had to find a way to "suppress this rumor" according to Tacitus. Nero chose the new secret religious sect of the Christians as his scapegoats and punished them severely. They were arrested throughout the empire and "their deaths were made farcical." Nero took pleasure in the Christian persecutions and even offered many of them upon stakes to be burned to death as torches for his parties. According to history many of them were hunted down and tortured, some were sewn into skins of animals and fed to starving dogs while the mob cheered.
Even the historian Tacitus, who did not like Christians, objected to the way Nero had made scapegoats of them.
The persecution of the Christians under Nero revealed the growing resentment the people had toward the early church. It also revealed that 20 years after the reign of Claudius, the Christians in Rome had become recognized as a distinct group, separate from the Jews.
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Why the Christians? Christianity was a new religion and did not appear to be very threatening. The Christians refused to participate in pagan rituals and therefore those who practiced them found it very offensive, according to Tacitus. He describes the Christians as "depraved" and says that this religion is "deadly superstition", "mischief", and "shameful practices." Tacitus also indicted the Christians as "not so much for incendiarism as for their anti-social tendencies," and a hidden hatred for mankind, which was a label that had been originally put on the Jews. It is interesting that Tacitus was more than a historian, he was a member of the aristocracy and a friend of several emperors. Therefore his feelings toward the Christians may have reflected also among the aristocrats. Suetonius, a writer and government official, also indicted the Christians explaining that they were proponents of "a new and mischievous religious belief."
Before Nero had began persecuting Christians, they were generally non-threatening to the peace of the empire. The main hostility have been brought about by Jewish leaders who had gone to Roman officials about the Christians.
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The Jewish Revolt Against Roman Domination. In 66 A.D. the Jews rebelled against Rome. Nero had sent Mucianus to govern Syria, and he detached the current governor whose name was Vespasian to the south to put out this great rebellion in Israel.
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Nero made a foolish mistake, he departed for Greece to tour the country and compete in the games. He made another foolish mistake by ordering his competent eastern general Corbulo and two popular governors of Germany to commit suicide. This Sparked much bitterness in Rome and among the praetorian guard. In the spring of 68 A.D., one of the Gallic governors, Caius Julius Vindex, marched an army against Nero in Spain, and Clodius Macer in Africa. Vindex and his army were put down by Verginius Rufus, the loyal governor of Germany, but the praetorian guard in Rome was loyal to Galba and on June 9, 68 A.D. Nero committed suicide. His last words were "Qualis artifex Pereo" which means "what an artist dies in me"? This has been the subject of much speculation.
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As previously mentioned Nero did not seem to be very concerned about all the troubles there were happening within the empire, especially within the hot region of the province of Judea. Ever since the time of Tiberias, the Jews in israel had to deal with corrupted governors and they were losing patience. By 66 A.D. the Jews had began to rebel against Rome, in particular the Roman Procurator of Judea - Gessius Florus who’s wife Cleopatra had been a friend of Poppaea, Nero’s wife. A delegation of Jews protested against a pagan sacrifice that was set deliberately in front of a synagogue in Caesarea. Gessius Florus arrested them and later extracted money from the Temple treasury. He then ordered his troops to raid the markets in Jerusalem, and 3600 men, women and children were slaughtered. The Jews around Judea took up arms against the Romans, with the Zealots leading them. For the most part, the Jews and especially their leaders had wanted to maintain peace with the Romans, but the Zealots and the Sicarii (a group of secret assassins) took control of the revolt.
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The Rebels.
Herod Agrippa II sent 2000 riders to help out the Jewish leaders in the upper city from the rebels, the lower city was already under rebel control. When Herod's Calvary arrived they were driven out and the archives were set on fire. Apparently setting the archives on fire would encourage the common people to join in a rebellion. They also captured and set fire to the Antonia fortress. It wasn't long before all of Jerusalem was under rebel control. At the end of summer during this rebellion Cestius Gallus, the Syrian governor, dispatched the 12th Legion from Antioch to deal with the rebellion in Jerusalem. When they arrived the Jews, being outnumbered, somehow managed to overcome them and forced them to retreat. The Jews chased after them and slaughtered his entire rear guard, which consisted of about 400 men. It is interesting that at this time the Jews, feeling very triumphant, minted their own coins.
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Nero Hears Of the Rebellion. When Nero heard about the bitter defeat of the 12th Legion, he dispatched his most able commander, General Titus Flavius Vespasian, to put down the rebellion. Titus Vespasian was a very skilled military strategist and planned his attack starting with Galilee. He arrived with three legions and wiped out the Jewish forces in Galilee. It is interesting that the fortresses had been built by Josephus, who was captured by the Romans and later, as a prisoner, wrote the history of the remainder of the war.
Titus then marched his legions down the coast and then moved inward toward Jerusalem. By 68 A.D. Jerusalem was under siege. Nero had committed suicide on June 9th, 68 A.D. and Titus Vespasian was awaiting orders. At this time three emperors came to power and left the throne almost as quickly. Finally Titus Vespasian was named head of the realm. In 70 A.D. he sailed for Rome and left the final siege of Jerusalem in the hands of his son Titus. Titus arrived to the city border at the head of 80,000 soldiers, he brought so many because Jerusalem was a difficult city to capture and heavily fortified. On three sides it is nearly impossible to attack the city which leaves only the North side for the troops to attack, the North contained the heavy fortifications, with their high walls and towers. Titus strategically planned his attack and after a two-week siege, according to Josephus, his troops "became masters of the first wall." Five days later came down the second wall and the legions marched in, but "the Jews, constantly growing in numbers and greatly at an advantage through their knowledge of the streets, wounded multitudes of the enemy."
The Jewish victory would not last, for Titus sealed off the city by building a five-mile wall and then killed anyone that touched it. The Jews inside quickly ran short on supplies and became ridden with disease and starvation. Dead corpses filled the city and were finally thrown over the walls. After a month the Roman soldiers had reached the Temple and Titus made an offer to the Jews, he would spare the Temple if the rebels would come out and fight, but they resisted his offer. In fact they even set fire to portions of the Temple rather than allow the enemy entrance. The Roman troops fueled the fires, desiring to see the whole Temple in ashes, this was done against Titus' orders and they could not be stopped. The Temple was destroyed and set on fire never again to be rebuilt.
Josephus said:
"As the flames shot up, a cry, as poignant as the tragedy, arose from the Jews, who flock to the rescue,"
he also added:
"lost to all thought of self-preservation, all husbanding of strength, now that the object of all their past vigilance was vanishing."
The entire city was leveled except for three pillars in the northwest corner. Whoever was not killed was carried off into slavery. When Titus returned to Rome he marched triumphantly through the city bearing the Golden Menorah from the Temple, with hundreds of Jewish captives following behind.
Herod's two strong fortresses, Herodium and Machaerus, were also captured. Only Masada was left, the last stronghold of the Zealots, who had captured it in 66 AD. This is where they made their final stand. The new procurator of Judea was Flavius Silva, and he came up with a plan, he built a wall around the base of the mountain and then ordered his troops to build a massive ramp, slowly but surely, until it reached the top of the 300 ft. plateau where the fortress stood. The Romans brought a huge battering ram and rolled up the ramp to crush the outer wall. They then lit a fire which doomed those who were inside. All of the Jews inside committed suicide (about 960 men, women and children) except for two women and five children. The seven-year war had finally come to an end and the Jews lost the Temple, and whoever was left alive was taken into slavery.
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Timeline of Rome's Emperors from Augustus to Marcus Aurelius.
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Timeline of Events from 37 AD to 80 AD.
Dates In Nero’s Life
37 December 15 Nero is born.
39 Claudius marries fourteen year old Valeria Messalina.
39 Messalina bears Claudius a daughter (Octavia).
41 Messalina bears Claudius a son (Britannicus).
41 Claudius is Emperor.
48 Execution of Messalina.
49 Claudius marries niece Agrippina the Younger, (daughter of Claudius's brother Germanicus).
49 Seneca is appointed tutor to Nero.
50 Claudius adopts Nero (then, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus) as his own son, February 25.
50 The Senate votes Agrippina the title "Augusta."
51 Claudius Consul.
51 Emperor Claudius orders the exile of the Jews from Rome.
53 Nero marries Octavia, Claudius' daughter.
54 Claudius poisoned.
54 Claudius dies (Agrippina probably had him poisoned)
54 Nero becomes emperor at age 17.
Seneca and Burrus are his tutors.
55 Britannicus, the son of Emperor Claudius dies during dinner (Nero probably had him poisoned).
58 Beginning of Roman-Parthian hostilities over Armenia.
59 Agrippina the Younger is put to death for criticizing Nero’s mistress.
59 Nero begins to get out of control.
60 Paul the Apostle is in Rome
60 Revolts break out in Britain against Roman rule.
62 Burrus dies, and Seneca retires.
62 Nero divorces Octavia (banishes her and later kills her)
62 Nero marries his mistress Poppaea.
64 The Great Fire of Rome
64 First imperial 'persecution' of Christians;
65 Work begins on Nero’s 'Golden House' (Domus Aurea)
65 Nero's first public stage performance leads to scandals and plots on his life.
65 In the interest of personal security, Nero kills anyone suspected of
treason. 65 Seneca is forced to commit suicide.
66 Nero continues to execute any suspected of treason.
66 Outbreak of rebellion in Judea, the first Jewish revolt against Rome.
66 Nero goes on an extended tour of Greece, many theatrical performances
67 Nero makes Judea consular imperial province
67 Nero appoints Vespasian to head campaign against Jews
68 After receiving political pressure about military matters Nero returns to Rome.
68 (March) Revolt of Vindex
68 (April) Galba's troops in Spain hail Galba emperor.
68 (June 9) Nero is forced to commit suicide (end of Julio-Claudian dynasty).
68 The emperor Nero's assassination launches a year of civil war in Rome.
69 Year of the four emperors: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian.
69 Vespasian is sole emperor until 79.
70 Siege and fall of Jerusalem under military leadership of Vespasian's son, Titus.
70 Coliseum begun by Emperor Vespasian (funded by Jewish defeat).
77 Josephus publishes The War of the Jews
80 The New Testament writings were completed by this time (Bible closed).
80 The Early Church completed her work (foundation laid).
Note: Paul, James and Peter were executed between 60-68 A.D.
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In 53 B.C., at the age of 12, Octavian delivered the funeral ovation (the laudatio) for his grandmother Julia, which was his first public appearance, and several years later he served in the priesthood. Caesar was to play a determinative role in shaping the rest of Octavius's life. He saw his uncle’s triumph in Rome in 46 B.C. and in 45 young Octavian journeyed to Spain to be with him on campaign.
Octavian was not strong physically, he suffered from a variety of illnesses that plagued him his whole life. The trip to Spain was a very dangerous journey. He also suffered a shipwreck and was in a sorry shape when he arrived at Caesar’s camp. But his uncle recognized something unique in him, rewarding his efforts with military training and the young man was included as his Master of Horse for 43 B.C.
After a time Octavian was elected to the pontifical college and sent to Apollonia, in Epirus, to study philosophy and the arts of war. He took with him his two dearest friends, Marcus Agrippa and Marcus Rufus. His studies were cut short by the assassination of Caesar in Rome.
Octavian was only 18 years old, but the will of his uncle declared him his chief heir and adopted son and not Marc Antony as was expected.
Octavian’s position in Rome was now became radically different and bound by the obligation to avenge Caesar’s death. His family, now fearful for his life, urged him to renounce the adoption but Octavian traveled to Rome. Instead of rash action he found that cautious deliberation would be far more useful. His patience was a characteristic that would mark his later years.
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That the empire survived the civil wars that destroyed the republic was largely due to the long life (63 B.C.-14 A.D.) and political skill of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, later known as Augustus. He was the first emperor of Rome and founder of a Roman state that endured for centuries. Gaius Octavian was born on September 23, 63 B.C., to C. Octavius and atia, a niece of Julius Caesar, by his sister Julia. The family of Octavian was a good one, but its alliance to the Julians was far more important, and Octavian came under their direct influence when his father died in 59 B.C. Atia raised him and ensured his education by grammarians and philosophers, but it was Julius Caesar himself who had the most impact upon Octavian, and who had personally prepared him with the greatest opportunities.
The Roman world had thought Marc Antony, Caesar’s powerful Lieutenant, would be next in line after Caesar but they were soon to find that Julius Caesar would leave a will naming Octavian, a virtually unknown, as his adopted son and chief heir to his throne.
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Julius Caesar served in Spain as proconsul in 61 B.C., a year later he returned to Rome desiring the consulate, the supreme office of power during the Republic. The senators were opposed to him, yet he came up with a brilliant idea. He organized a coalition, known as the First Triumvirate, made up of Pompey, commander in chief of the army; Marcus Licinius Crassus, the wealthiest man in Rome, and himself. Pompey and Crassus were jealous of each other, but Caesar by force of personality kept things going.
In 59 B.C. he married Calpurnia. In the same year, as consul, he was in favor of an agrarian law providing Campanian lands for 20,000 poor citizens and veterans, in spite of the opposition of his senatorial colleague, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. Caesar also won the support of the wealthy equites by getting a reduction for them in their tax contracts in Asia. This made him the guiding power in a coalition between people and plutocrats.
He was assigned the rule of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul and Illyricum with four legions for five years (58-54 B.C.). The differences between Pompey and Crassus grew, and Caesar again moved (56 B.C.) to patch up matters, arriving at an agreement that both Pompey and Crassus should be consuls in 55 B.C. and that their proconsular provinces should be Spain and Syria. From this arrangement he drew an extension of his command in Gaul to 49 B.C. In the years 58-49 B.C. he firmly established his reputation in the Gallic Wars.
In 55 B.C., Caesar made explorations into Britain, and in 54 B.C. he defeated the Britons, led by Cassivellaunus. Caesar met his most serious opposition in Gaul from Vercingetorix, whom he defeated in Alesia in 52 B.C. By the end of the wars Caesar had reduced all Gaul to Roman control. These campaigns proved him one of the greatest commanders of all time. In them he revealed his consummate military genius, characterized by quick, sure judgment and determined energy. The campaigns also developed the personal devotion of the legions to Caesar. His personal interest in the men (he is reputed to have known them all by name) and his willingness to undergo every hardship made him the idol of the army-a significant element in his later career.
In 54 B.C. occurred the death of Caesar's daughter Julia, Pompey's wife since 59 B.C. She had been the principal personal tie between the two men. During the years Caesar was in Gaul, Pompey had been gradually leaning more and more toward the senatorial party. The tribunate of Clodius (58 B.C.) had aggravated conditions in Rome, and Caesar's military successes had aroused Pompey's jealousy. Crassus' death (53 B.C.) in Parthia ended the First Triumvirate and set Pompey and Caesar against each other.
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In 43 B.C., Octavian, Lepidus, and Mark Antony were named as the Second Triumvirate, the three rulers who shared the office of emperor.
Civil war broke out after Caesar's assassination. Two of the assassins, Brutus and Cassius, led one side. Octavian and Mark Antony, one of Caesar's lieutenants, took the other. In 2 quick battles, the assassins were crushed.
The victory catapulted young Octavian- or Augustus, as he was later called- into the political limelight. Besides the power of his father's name, Octavian seems to have been rather striking in appearance. One of his chroniclers describes him in this highly personal and informal way.
"He was quite handsome.... Sometimes he would clip his beard; sometimes he would shave it. While his barbers were at work on him, it was not unusual for him to read or write.... His eyes were clear and radiant.... His complexion was between dark and fair. Though only five feet, six inches in height . . his shortness was not too noticeable because of the good proportions of his figure." –SEUTONIUS
While Octavian was growing in political stature, so was Mark Antony. Among the Antony's political friends was Herod, Antipater's son. After Antipater's death by poisoning, Antony helped Herod eventually get the title "King of Judea."
Antony failed to recognize that in Octavian he was dealing with a natural born politician. Octavian never was an imposing figure physically, and he owed his military victories largely to the skill of his able lieutenants. Yet In the political arena he was without peer, rising as a virtual unknown in 44 B.C. to become the first of the Julio-Claudian emperors by 27 B.C.
Antony's days of power were numbered. When Antony had divorced Octavia (Octavian’s sister) to marry Cleopatra, Octavian declared war and a showdown took place at Actium in 31 B.C. Octavian won a decisive victory over Antony, but Antony managed a spectacular escape to Egypt. There, months later, he and his famous lover, Cleopatra, ended their lives in suicide.
When Herod got wind of Antony's death, he knew his own kingship now hung by a thread. He decided to make a bold move. When he was to meet with Octavian, he took off his crown and placed it at the leader's feet. This worked according to plan. Octavian picked up the crown and returned it to Herod, saying in effect: "Serve me as faithfully as you did Antony." Herod did just that, from that moment forward.
After the death of Herod in 4 B.C., his dominions were divided among his sons by Augustus, almost in exact accordance with his will.
In 27 B.C. Octavian became Rome's first emperor, being surnamed Augustus Caesar "majestic." He was saluted as emperor (imperator, military commander in chief originally). Leaving the names and rights of the chief republican officers unchanged, he united them all, one by one, in himself.
Although he wore platform shoes to look taller, Augustus turned out to be a giant, politically. In later years he boasted, not incorrectly, that he had found Rome in bricks and left it in marble.
Augustus was emperor at the birth and during half the lifetime of our Lord, and his name occurs in the Bible (Luke 2:1) as the emperor who ordered the census, and because of this edict Joseph and Mary went to Bethlehem, the place where the Messiah was to be born.
Augustus brought order and prosperity to the Roman Empire after the long period of civil war, and for his successes he was worshiped in many places. With him began the emperor cult, and Herod the Great built temples to the divine Augustus at Caesarea and Samaria; both of these have been excavated. Augustus was worshiped in Ephesus too, and a great lintel with an inscription to the divine Augustus has been excavated there and re-erected over the gate to the Greek agora. Paul would have seen it and passed under it often as he ministered in the city for most of three years on his third missionary journey.
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That the empire survived the civil wars that destroyed the republic was largely due to the long life (63 B.C.-14 A.D.) and political skill of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, later known as Augustus. In 44 B.C. Octavian, great nephew and adopted son of the murdered dictator, rallied Caesar's veterans and used them first against Marc Antony, the chief leader of the Caesarians, and then in alliance with Antony and Lepidus (the Second Triumvirate), against the republicans. Proscriptions caused the death of some 300 senators and 2000 nobles. Opponents of the triumvirate were defeated, and much property was made available with which to reward the troops.
After Brutus and Cassius had been defeated at Philippi (42 B.C.), and Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium (31 B.C.), Octavian was now without opposition and master of the empire.
Octavian brought peace to the Roman Empire and became a popular leader. In 27 B.C., the Senate voted to give him the title Augustus, which means "the respected one." He ruled the empire until 14 A.D. In the Bible Luke refers to him as "Caesar Augustus."
With the settlement of 27 B.C. he laid the foundations of the `principate', a system of government that was to give the empire internal peace with only brief interruptions for around 250 years.
In reality this monarchy was much different than in the previous era and it was much more acceptable to men familiar with free republican institutions. The ruler was not king but first citizen (princeps). Of his formal titles, Caesar proclaimed that he was a descendant of the dead dictator, and Imperator (emperor), that he was commander in chief.
The Senate made aware the fact that this citizen had unique prestige and influence by giving him the title of Augustus. The princeps' power was like that of a king in that it rested on hereditary loyalty, especially of the army, to himself, his family and descendants (whether by birth or adoption).
His personality was magnified and publicized through the so-called imperial cult, a complex of ceremonies making use of the forms of religion to express and instill loyalty to the ruler. At the same time Augustus voluntarily restricted his actions within the limits of various constitutional powers conferred by the Senate, for which, taken singly, republican precedent could be found. Moreover, he let his position evolve through a series of settlements, and thus avoided outrage to public and especially senatorial opinion. In 27 B.C. he was granted a proconsular command, or province including Gaul, Spain and Syria, and by far the greatest part of the Roman army. In 23 B.C. he received the power of a tribune, and his proconsular authority was made greater than that of any other provincial governor. In 19 sc he received (probably) consular powers that entitled him to introduce administrative reforms in Rome and Italy. This complex of powers remained the constitutional basis of the imperial office and continued to be granted by the Senate, which thus retained, in theory at least, a share in the appointment of the emperor.
Augustus reduced the huge armies of the civil war to around 300,000 men, made up half of Roman citizens serving in legions and half of provincials in auxiliary units. The army was stationed in frontier provinces. After around 25 years service legionaries received a lump-sum pension from a military treasury fed by two special taxes. Auxiliaries, on retirement, were given Roman citizenship. Augustus was lucky to have able yet reliable generals, notably his friend Agrippa, and in later years his stepsons Tiberius and Drusus.
These and others expanded the empire very considerably until in 9 A.D. the loss of three legions in the disastrous battle of the Teutoburg Forest ended a sustained attempt to conquer Germany, and reconciled Augustus to frontiers stabilized along the Rhine, Danube and Euphrates. By and large growth of the empire had come to an end. The conquest of Britain, begun under Claudius, was the only major post-Augustan addition to the empire to prove lasting. Suspicion of successful generals, and the strain on the economy of recruiting, paying and pensioning the extra troops required by expansion reconciled most emperors to a basically defensive policy. In time the army had to be enlarged nevertheless-at great social cost.
Augustus reorganized the administration of the whole empire. At Rome he appointed an equestrian praefectus annonae to organize supplies for the free issue of corn that was the privilege of the inhabitants of the capital. For the first time the city received a police force, fire brigade and organization for flood control.
After the death of Augustus the public assemblies lost their electoral and legislative functions to the Senate. Public opinion could still find expression in demonstrations in the theatre or circus, where emperors were expected to watch the shows in the midst of huge numbers of their subjects. Numerous colonies were founded for the settlement of veterans, especially in southern France, in Spain and North Africa. In this way the surplus population of Italy, which had contributed to the instability of the late republic, was dispersed, and the raising of revolutionary armies made much more difficult for the future.
Appointment of provincial governors was shared between emperor and Senate. Imperial provinces were governed by a legatus Augusti of senatorial rank or by an equestrian official. Senatorial provinces were governed by ex-consuls or ex-quaestors, with the title of proconsul. In imperial provinces finance was in the hands of an equestrian procurator, in senatorial provinces of a quaestor. But inhabitants of both kinds of province looked upon the emperor as their head of state. Similarly resolutions of the Senate (senatus consulta) had legal force for the whole empire.
Under Augustus literature flourished. The epic of Virgil (70-19 B.C.), history of Livy (59 B.C.-17 A.D.), the personal poetry of Horace (65-8 B.C.), Propertius (after 16 B.C.), Tibullus (48-19 B.C.) and Ovid (43 B.C.-17 A.D.) were soon recognized as Latin classics worthy to be mentioned with those of the Greeks. Among the themes treated most memorably were the history and traditional values of the Roman people and the emotions of personal relations, especially of love.
After his death, the title "Augustus" was given to all Roman emperors. The "Augustus Caesar" mentioned in Acts 25:21, 25, for instance, is not Octavian but Nero.
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The Princeps was an unofficial but important title that mean "First Citizen" or "First Statesman."
During the Republican era the princeps was used to give honor to special leaders. Pompey the Great was called princeps out of recognition for his victories for the state and his position within Rome.
Others received the name, including Cicero for the Catiline Affair in 63 B.C. Julius Caesar won the title from Cicero in 49 B.C.
Julius Caesar had wanted to transform Roman society and Octavian wanted to re-establish it within a new order. For example Octavian forced men out of the Senate if they were not a direct descendant of the highest Roman nobility. He made a decree that no Roman citizen could marry a freeman, or anyone outside his own rank.
Octavian restored the old Republican Temples with marble and the old forms of the Republican government were to be observed. When Octavian acted it was only through the Senate and Assembly. In 27 B.C. he laid down all of his powers and it was the Senate who would grant them back to him through the people. Therefore by senatorial proclamation Octavian became:
Princeps – The head of the Senate and first citizen of the state
Imperator Caesar Divi filius – Commander-in-chief of the armed forces and son of the divine Julius (thus he became an object of worship).
Augustus – Restorer and augmenter of the state (a title bestowed on gods).
The Senate therefore recognized that the old order was gone and new times had come. After nearly a century of civil war the biggest desire of all Romans was peace and order and Augustus Caesar would give it to them.
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In his later years, Augustus withdrew more and more from the public eye, although he continued to transact public business. He was getting older and Tiberius had been installed as his successor and by 13 A.D. he was virtually emperor already. He had already received grants of both proconsular and tribunician power and Tiberius's imperium had been made co-extensive with that of Augustus.
While traveling in Campania, Augustus died peacefully at Nola on August 19, 14 A.D. Tiberius, who was en route to Illyricum, hurried to the scene and, either, depending on the source, arrived too late or spent a day discussing his rule with the dying emperor.
The tradition that Livia poisoned her husband is scandalous and probably not true. Whatever the case about these details, Imperator Caesar Augustus, adopted son of Julius Caesar, called "Father of his Country," the man who had ruled the Roman world alone for almost half a century, was dead.
He was given a magnificent funeral, buried in the mausoleum he had built in Rome, and entered the Roman pantheon as Divus Augustus.
In his will, he left 1,000 sesterces to each of the men of the Praetorian guard, 500 to the urban cohorts, and 300 to each of the legionaries. In death, as in life, Augustus acknowledged what he considered the true source of his power.
The inscription entitled "The Achievements of the Divine Augustus" (Res Gestae Divi Augustae; usually abbreviated RG) remains a remarkable piece of evidence deriving from Augustus's reign. The fullest copy of it is the bilingual Greek and Latin version carved into the walls of the Temple of Rome and Augustus at Ancyra in Galatia (for this reason the RG used to be commonly referred to as the Monumentum Ancyranum). Other evidence, however, demonstrates that the original was inscribed on two bronze pillars that flanked the entrance to the Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome. The inscription remains the only first-person summary of any Roman emperor's political career and, as such, offers invaluable insights into the Augustan era as it was publicly presented.
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o-gus'-tus Augoustos:
(1) The first Roman emperor, and noteworthy in Bible history
as the emperor in whose reign the Incarnation took place (Lk
2:1). His original name was Caius Octavius Caepias and he was
born in 63 BC, the year of Cicero's consulship. He was the
grand-nephew of Julius Caesar, his mother Atia having been the
daughter of Julia, Caesar's younger sister. He was only 19
years of age when Caesar was murdered in the Senate house (44
BC), but with a true instinct of statesmanship he steered his
course through the intrigues and dangers of the closing years
of the republic, and after the battle of Actium was left
without a rival. Some difficulty was experienced in finding a
name that would exactly define the position of the new ruler
of the state. He himself declined the names of rex and
dictator, and in 27 BC he was by the decree of the Senate
styled Augustus. The epithet implied respect and veneration
beyond what is bestowed on human things:
"Sancta vocant augusta patres: augusta vocantur
Templa sacerdotum rite dicata manu."
--Ovid Fasti. 609; compare Dion Cass., 5316...
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An important Roman emperor
Lu 2:1; Ac 25:21,25; 27:1
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(venerable) Cae'sar the first Roman emperor. He was born
A.U.C. 691, B.C. 63. His father was Caius Octavius; his mother
Atia, daughter of Julia the sister of C. Julius Caesar. He was
principally educated by his great-uncle Julius Caesar, and was
made his heir. After his murder, the young Octavius, then
Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, was taken into the triumvirate
with Antony and Lepidus, and, after the removal of the latter,
divided the empire with Antony. The struggle for the supreme
power was terminated in favor of Octavianus by the battle of
Actium, B.C. 31. On this victory he was saluted imperator by
the senate, who conferred on him the title Augustus, B.C. 27.
The first link binding him to New Testament history is his
treatment of Herod after the battle of Actium. That prince,
who had espoused Antony's side, found himself pardoned, taken
into favor and confirmed, nay even increased, in his power.
After Herod's death, in A.D. 4, Augustus divided his
dominions, almost exactly according to his dying directions,
among his sons. Augustus died in Nola in Campania, Aug. 19,
A.U.C. 767, A.D. 14, in his 76th year; but long before his
death he had associated Tiberius with him in the empire.
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the cognomen of the first Roman emperor, C. Julius Caesar
Octavianus, during whose reign Christ was born (Luke
2:1). His
decree that "all the world should be taxed" was the
divinely
ordered occasion of Jesus' being born, according to
prophecy
(Micah 5:2), in Bethlehem. This name being simply a
title
meaning "majesty" or "venerable," first given to him
by the
senate (B.C. 27), was borne by succeeding emperors.
Before his
death (A.D. 14) he associated Tiberius with him in the
empire
(Luke 3:1), by whom he was succeeded.
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The first Roman emperor, reigning at Christ's birth (Luke 2:1,
etc.). His decree that all the world should be taxed, each
going to his own city, was the divinely ordered (Micah 5:2)
occasion of Jesus' birth taking place at Bethlehem. Born 63
B.C. Also called Octavius and Octavianus from his father, who
died while he was young. Educated by his great uncle Julius
Caesar, triumvir with Antony and Lepidus. Dissension having
arisen, Octavianus overcame Antony, and gained supreme power
at the battle of Actium, 31 B.C.
Saluted emperor (imperator, military commander in
chief originally), and surnamed Augustus Caesar, "majestic."
Leaving the names and rights of the chief republican officers
unchanged, he united them all, one by one, in himself. Herod,
who had been on Antony's side, he not only pardoned, but even
increased in power; Herod thereby became attached to his
dynasty, and built him a temple of marble near the sources of
the Jordan. Augustus Caesar died at Nola in Campania, in his
76th year, A.D. 14. Some time before his death he associated
Tiberius with himself in the empire (Luke 3:1).
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Luke 2:1-6 "And it came to pass in those days that a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be registered. This census first took place while Quirinius was governing Syria. So all went to be registered, everyone to his own city. Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David, to be registered with Mary, his betrothed wife, who was with child."
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Dates in the Life of Augustus Caesar from his birth in 63 BC to his death in 14 AD.
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Ancient text written attributed to Caesar Augustus.
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The Lives of the Caesars - The Deified Augustus by Suetonius
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Conclusion. The awesome empire that Augustus had shaped was immense. Its boundaries were--the Atlantic on the west; the Euphrates on the east; the Black Sea, the Danube, and the British Channel on the north; and the deserts of Africa and Arabia, and the cataracts of the Nile, on the south. Only the German tribes in the far north, and the Parthians on the east, remained independent.
The population of the Roman Empire during the time of Augustus was probably between 85,000 and 120,000. His standing professional army consisted of over 170,000 soldiers, besides the troops stationed in the capital, and it was they who guarded the frontiers from the many barbarous tribes.
Augustus administered the whole Empire through the Provinces, who were governed by officers that received their commission from Rome. People grew up without knowing any form of government other than the Principate. Augustus brought peace and prosperity throughout the empire, but it was Jesus Christ, the Prince of Peace, who would ultimately utilize this young empire and bring true peace to mankind.
It is amazing to see just how much the Lord had prepared the world for the spreading of His gospel. Edward Arthur Litton well said:
"The devout student of history must recognize in the political state of the world at this time a remarkable preparation for the promulgation of Christianity. The peace which the empire enjoyed; the excellent roads which the Romans constructed wherever they established themselves; the presence of the imperial legions in every important place repressing the outbreaks of religious fanaticism, and so affording protection to the infant church; the increase of commerce; and the leveling tendency of an imperial despotism--all manifestly contributed to the success of the gospel...There could not have been a more favorable moment for the heralds of the gospel to commence their mission."
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Tra'jan, (Lat. Traja'nus; It. Trajano, tRa-ya'no ;
Fr. Trajan, tRi'zhoN'; Ger. Trajan, tRa-yan',1 or,
more fully, Mar'cua Ul'pl-us Ner'va Tra-ja'nus,
Emperor of Rome, born near Seville, in Spain, about
52 A.n., was the son of Trajan, an Iberian officer, whom
he accompanied in his campaigns in Asia' Minor. He
was chosen consul in 91 A.n., and was afterwards appointed
to command the legions on the Lower Rhine.
His eminent virtues and ability obtained for him the
favour and confidence of the emperor Nerva, who
adopted him and made him his successor. On the
death of Nerva, in 98 A.D., Trajan was proclaimed emperor,
and soon after marched against Decebalus, King
of the Dacians, whom he repeatedly defeated. In 106
A.D. Dacia became a Roman province, and a column
(which is still extant) was erected on the Forum Trajani,
in commemoration of these victories, by Apollodorusof
Damascus. In the
year 115 he commanded in person an
army which invaded Parthia, and defeated the Parthians
in several battles. He took Ctesiphon, the capital of
Parthia, and deposed the king of that country. In
116 he descended the Tigris to the Persian Gulf. He
was returning to Rome, when he died, without issue, at
Selinus, in Cilicia, in 117 a.d., and was succeeded by
Hadrian. Trajan was one of the greatest and best emperors
of Rome. He is commended for his moderation,
sound judgment, and the simplicity of his mode of living.
Yet he persecuted the Christians, and presided as judge
at the tribunal when the martyr Ignatius was sentenced
to death. Among his friends was Pliny the Younger,
who wrote a "
Panegyric on Trajan."
SeeTn.i.KMONT,
" Histoiredes Emperettrs;" Rittkr, "Trajanus
in Lucent reproduces," 1768 ; H. Franckk, " Zur Geschichte
Trajan's,"
etc., 1840: Gknf.rsich, "Trajan ; biographisches GemiiMe,"
1811 ; Msrivale, "History of the Romans tinder the Empfre ;"
Mokalss,
" Hechos y Diclios de Trajano," 1654; "Nottvelle Biojrapliie
Generate.
"
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Tul'lus Hos-til'i-us, third King of Rome, succeeded
Numa Pompilius in 673 B.C. He carried on a war against
the Albans, in which occurred the celebrated combat
between the Horatii and Curiatii, and which ended in
the conquest of Alba. He was a very warlike king.
According to tradition, he was killed by lightning about
640 B.C.
See Gkbauhr, "Tullus Hostilius," 1720 ; Schoemann,
" Di»-
ftertatio critica de Tullo Hostilio," 1847.
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Valens, (Flavius,) Emperor of the East, born about
328 A.D., was a brother of Valentinian I., to whom he
was indebted for the imperial power. He began to reign,
in 364, over Thrace, Asia, and Egypt. In 366 he suppressed
a rebellion of Procopius. He was an Arian, and
persecuted the orthodox. He defeated the Goths in 369,
after which he waged war against Sapor, (Shapoor,) King
of Persia. His dominions were invaded by the Goths,
by whom he was defeated and killed in a great battle
near Adrianople in 378 A.D.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Tillemont,
"
Histoire des Empereurs ;"
" Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
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Val-en-tin'i-an [Lat. Valenttnia'nus ; Fr. Vai.entinien,
vi'loN'te'ne-aN'] I., (Flavius,) born in Pannonia
in 321 A.D., succeeded Jovian as Emperor of Rome in 364, and,
having made his brother Valens his colleague,
reserved for himself the western part of the empire. He
carried on wars with the Franks, Allemanni, and other
German tribes, over whom he gained several important
victories. The Picts and Scots were also defeated, and
a rebellion in Africa was suppressed by his general
Theodosius. While marching against the Quadi and
SvBiaUe, who had invaded Pannonia, Valentinian died
suddenly, (375 a.d.) He was a Catholic, but tolerated
the Arians.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Tn.-
LBHONT, "' Histoire des Empereurs;" Bakonius, "Annales;"
" Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale."
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Valentinian (Valentinianus) III., (Placidius,)
son of Constantius, born in 419, was made ruler over the
Western empire by his uncle, Theodosius II., (425 A.D.,)
but the government was conducted by his mother, Placidia.
During this period Africa was conquered from
the Romans by Genseric, in consequence of the discord
between the Roman generals Aetius and Honifacius.
Aetius, having previously defeated the Huns under
Attila, was murdered by Valentinian, who was jealous
of his superior ability, (454.) The emperor perished
himself, in 455, by the hand of Petronius Maximus,
whose wife he had dishonoured.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Tille-
MONT, "
Histoire des Empereurs."
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Va-le'ri-an [
Lat. Vai.eria'nus, (Puhlius Licinius;)
Fr. Valerien, vS'la're^N'] succeeded vEmilianus as
Emperor of Rome in 253 A.D., and appointed his son
Gallienus his colleague. The empire was soon after
invaded by the Goths and other barbarous tribes, and
by Sapor, (Shapoor,) King of Persia, who defeated the
Romans near Kdessa in 260 and took Valerian prisoner.
He was treated in the most insulting manner by his
captor, who is said to have placed his foot upon him when he
mounted his horse. He died in Persia about
268 A. I)., and was succeeded by his son Gallienus.
See Aurklius Victor, "De Csesaribus;" Tillbmont, "Histoire
des Empereurs."
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Varro, [Fr. Varron,] (Marcus Terentius,) a celebrated
Latin author, styled
" the most learned of the
Romans," was born in 116 B.C., probably in Rome. He
was a pupil of L. MYnm Stilo and of Antiochus of Ascalon,
an Academic philosopher. He became an intimate
friend of Cicero. About the year 67 B.C. he had a high
command under Pompey in the war against the pirates.
He fought for the senate against Caesar in the civil war
which began in 49 B.C. Soon after the battle of Pharsalia,
he retired from public life and devoted himself to
literary pursuits. He was profoundly versed in nearly
every department of literature, and. wrote a great number
of works on various subjects. (lis capital work was
"
Antiquitatum Libri," consisting of twenty-five books
on Human Antiquities and sixteen books on Divine
Antiquities, which is not extant. Saint Augustine derived
from this book materials for his work " De Civitate
Dei." Nearly all of Varro's works are lost, except
a part of his treatise on the Latin language, (" De Lingua
Latina,") and his excellent work on agriculture,
" De Re
Rustica Libri tres,") which is preserved entire. In 43
B.C. he was proscribed by Mark Antony ; but he escaped
death by concealment, and survived till 28 or 27 B.C.
See E. Berwick,
"
Life of Pollio, Varro, and C. Gallus," 1815;
Pafr,
" De Varrone," 183s ; G. Boissiek,
"
Essai sur la Vie et lei
Ouvrages de Varron," 1861; Orbu.i,
"
Ononiasticon Tullianum ;'*
F'AnRicms, "Bibliotheca Latina;"
" Nouvelle Biographic Generate
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Vespasian, vis-pa'zhe-an, [Lat. Vespasia'nus; Fr.
Vespasien, vJs'pi'zg-^N' ; It. Vespasiano, ves-pa-sea'no,]
or, more fully, Ti'tus Fla'vius Vespasia'nus,
Emperor of Rome, was born near Reate in 9 a.d. He
served as military tribune in Thrace, and held the offices
of quaestor of Crete and Cyrene, under Caligula. He
was afterwards made praetor ; and, having distinguished
himself by several important victories in Britain, he was
appointed proconsul of Africa about 60 A.D. As commander
of the forces against the revolted Jews in 66
A.D., he subjected nearly the whole of Judea in less than
two years. In 69 A.D. Vespasian was proclaimed emperor
by Tiberius Alexander, prefect of Egypt, in opposition
to Vitellius, who was soon after put to death by
the Roman soldiers. The principal events of the reign
of Vespasian were the conquest of Jerusalem by Titus, in 70
A.D., the victories of Agricola in Britain, and of
I'etilius Cerealisover the Batavi, commanded by Civilis.
Under his wise and beneficent rule Rome enjoyed a high
degree of prosperity ; he patronized learning and the
arts, introduced important reforms into the army and
courts of justice, and repaired the ravages caused by
civil war. He also restored the Capitol, built the
magnificent
Temple of Peace, and began the erection of the
amphitheatre, afterwards called the Colosseum, and also
the Flavian Amphitheatre, from his name Flavius. He
died in 79 A.D.
See Suetonius,
"
Vespasianus ;" A. W. Cramer,
"
Flavins Vespasianus,"
1785 ; Tacitus,
"
History of Rome :" Berneggbr, "Vita
Imperatoris Vespasiani," 1625; Hhimbrod,
" Flavii Vespasiani Iniperatoris
Vita," 1S33; Tillemont, "Histoire des Empereurs :"
Mkrivalk,
"
History of the Romans under the Empire;" "Nouvelle
Biographie G&ierale."
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Ve-tra'ni-o, a Roman general, who was persuaded
by his troops to assume the title of emperor in 350 a.d.
About the end of that year he abdicated in favour of
Constantius. Died in 356.
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A Greek bucolic poet, who flourished in the second half of the second century B.C. He lived mostly in Sicily, where he is said to have died by poison. Besides a number of minor poems from his hand, we have a long descriptive epic called The Dirge of Adonis. His style is more remarkable for grace than for power or simplicity.
A native of Borysthenes, near the mouth of the Dnieper, who flourished about B.C. 250. Sold as a slave when a boy, he was freed by his master, who was a rhetorician. After studying at Athens, he lived for a considerable period at the court of Antigonus Gonatas in Macedonia. His sharp, incisive sayings were proverbial in antiquity, as in the passage of Horace (Epist. ii. 2, 60).
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Vi-tel'li-uB, (Aulus.) Emperor of Rome, born about
15 A.D. He was distinguished by the favour of Caligula,
Claudius, and Nero, and was appointed by Galba to
command the German legions. He was soon after proclaimed
emperor by his army, and, Galba having been
put to death
by
the partisans of Otho, the empire was
now disputed between the latter and Vitellius. Otho
was defeated, and Vitellius recognized as emperor ; but,
Vespasian having been meanwhile proclaimed at Alexandria his
general Antonius Primus marched against
Rome, subdued the adherents of Vitellius, and put him
to death, (69 A.D.)
See Suetonius,
"
Vitellius ;" Tacitus,
"
" History;" Tili.emont, Histoire des Empereurs :" Franz
Horn, "Historische Gemaide*
Galba. Otho, Vitellius," 181a.
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Poppae'a (pop-pee'a) Sa-bi'na, a Roman empress,
the wife of Nero, was more remarkable for beauty than
modesty. Died in 65 A.D.
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Pro'bus, (Marcus Aurei.ius,) an excellent Roman
emperor, born at Sirmium about 235 A.D. He served
with distinction in the armies of Valerian and succeeding
emperors, in Egypt, Arabia, Persia, and Germany. He
received the command of all the legions in the East from
Tacitus, at whose death, in 276 A.D., Probus was proclaimed
emperor by his army. The senate confirmed
their choice. He defeated the Germans in Gaul, and
his rivals Saturninus, Proculus, and Bonosus. He was
killed by mutinous soldiers in 282 A.D., and left a very
high reputation for virtue and ability. It is said that
he had offended his troops by the expression of a hope
that the time was near when armies would be no longer
necessary.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Aurelius
Victor,
" De Czesaribus" and "
Epitome."
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Propertius, pro-pet 'shejis, [Fr. Properce, pRo'-
pSi
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Pu-pi-e'nus Maxl-mus, (Clodius,) a Roman
officer, who was elected (238 A.D.) emperor with Balbinus.
He was killed in 239 by his mutinous soldiers
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Quin-til'I-an, [Lat. Quintilia'nus or Quinctilia'.
nus ; Fr. Quintilien, kiN'te'leJ.N',] (Marcus Fabius,)
a celebrated Roman critic and teacher of rhetoric, was
born probably between 40 and 50 A.n. Jerome states
that he was a native of Calagurris, (Calanorra,) in the
northern part of Spain ; but some modern writers think
he was born in Rome. He obtained a high reputation
as a pleader, and was the first public instructor who
received from the imperial treasury a regular salary.
Among his pupils was the Younger Pliny. He taught
rhetoric for twenty years, and retired from that profession
in the reign of Domitian, who appointed him
preceptor of his grand-nephews. His chief work is a
treatise on the education of an orator,
" Institutio Oratoria,"
divided into twelve books. This is the most
complete and methodical treatise on rhetoric that has
come down to us from antiquity. An entire copy of it
was found by Poggio at Saint Gall in 1417. His style
is clear, elegant, and highly polished. His practical
ideas are good, but his criticisms are rather superficial.
He gives judicious precepts for students, and interesting
details of the education and classic studies of the
ancients.
His merit consists in sound judgment, propriety,
and good taste, rather than in originality or elevation of
mind. He is supposed to have died about 118 a.d. He
wrote a work on the corruption or decadence of eloquence,
"De Causis Corruptee Eloquentiae," which is
not extant. His "Institutio" has been translated into
English by Guthrie (1756) and Patsall, (1774.)
See ROdiger, "De Quintiliano Paedagogo," 1S50; V. Otto,
"Quintilian und Rousseau," 1836; J. Janin, "Piine le Jeune
et
Quintilien," 183S : Hummel, "Quintiliani Vita," 1843;
"Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
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Sal'lust, [Lat. Sallus'tius ; Fr. Salluste, st'liist';
It. Sali.ustio, sil-loos'te-o,] (or, more fully, Caius
Sallustius
Crispus,) a celebrated Roman historian, who
was born of a plebeian family at Amitemum in 86 B.C.
He was elected tribune of the people in 52 B.C., and was
expelled from the senate by the censors in 50 for alleged
immoral conduct. He was a partisan of Caesar in the
civil war. In the
year 47 he obtained the office of praetor,
and accompanied Caesar in his African campaign. He
was appointed governor of Numidia by Caesar in 46 B.C.
According to Dion Cassius, he enriched himself by the
oppression and plunder of the people of that province.
After the death of Julius Caesar he returned to Rome,
and built a sumptuous palace on the Quirinal, with
large gardens, still called Horti Sallustiani. Having
retired from public life, he devoted his latter years to
literary pursuits. He died in 34 B.C. The scandalous
charges against the character of Sallust, made by several
ancient and modem writers, may have been true, but, in
the opinion of some of the best critics, they are far from
having been established by any decisive evidence. He
was much influenced by party spirit, and probably
hated the aristocratic party more than he loved the
plebeians.
Sallust wrote a "
History of the Conspiracy of
Catiline," (" Bellum Catilinarium,") and a "History of
the War between the Romans and Jugurtha," (" Helium
Jugurthinum.") The speeches which he ascribes to
Cato, Cxsar, and others in his histories, though probably
expressed in the language of Sallust, give us, there
is reason to believe, the substance of what was said by
those eminent men. He also wrote a history of Rome
for the period included between 78 and 66 B.C., which
is lost. "The ancient critics," says Macaulay, "placed
Sallust in the same rank with Livy ; and unquestionably
the small portion of his works which has come down to
us is calculated to give a high opinion of his ta'ents.
But his style is not very pleasant ; and his most powerful
work, the account of the conspiracy of Catiline, has
rather the air of a clever party pamphlet than that of a
history." (Essay on History in the "Edinburgh Review,"
1828.)
See Dks Brosses, "Vie de Salluste;" D. W. Moi.i.er, "De C.
Sallustio," 1684; MiJl.l.KR, "C. Sallustius, nder
historische Untersuchung,"
etc., 1817; F. D. Geri.ach,
" Ueber den Geschichtsschreiber
C. Sallustins Crispus," 1831 ; E. C. de Gkri.achh,
" Etudes sur Salluste." etc., 1847; Bregolini, "Vita di C.
C.
Sallustio," 1802; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate;"
"
Frascr't
Marine" for February, 1846.
Read More
Scaevola, seVo-la, [Fr. Scevole, si'vol',] (C. Mu-
Cius,) a Roman, who, according to the ancient legends,
went to the camp of Porsena, then besieging Rome,
and attempted to kill him with a dagger. He was seized
by the guards of the king, who ordered him to be put to
death. Scasvola, it is said, held his right hand in a fire,
which was at hand, until it was consumed, so that Porsena,
struck with admiration at his extraordinary fortitude,
spared his life. From this circumstance he is said
to have received the surname of Scaevola, or "
lefthanded."
Read More
Scip'io iEmilia'nus Africa'nus Mi'nor, (Publius
Cornklius,) a famous Roman general, born about 185
B.C., was a son of /Emilius Paulus, and an adopted son
of Publius Cornelius Scipio, whose father was the great
Scipio. He was liberally educated, and was well versed
in Greek literature and philosophy. In 168 B.C. he fought
at the battle of Pydna, where his father commanded.
He formed an intimate friendship with the historian
Polybius, who became the companion of his studies and
military expeditions. As military tribune, he went to
Spain in 151 B.C., and signalized his courage in a single
combat with a gigantic Spanish chief, whom he killed.
In the third Punic war, which began about 149, he displayed
great military ability in Africa. Having returned
to Rome in 148, he was elected consul for 147, and obtained
Africa as his province. He finished the Punic war
by the capture and destruction of the city of Carthage in
146 B.C., and was granted a splendid triumph at Rome for
this victory. In the year 142 he became censor with L.
Mummius. He endeavoured to restrain the growing
love of luxury of the Romans and to maintain the simple
habits and austere virtues of their ancestors ; but in this
he was not successful. Having been elected consul, 134
B.C., he obtained the chief command in Spain, and took
Numantia, after a long and obstinate defence, in 133. He
was an inflexible supporter of the aristocratic party, and
approved the execution of Tiberius Gracchus, although
his wife Sempronia was a sister of that tribune. He lost
his popularity by his course in this affair. He was found
dead in his bed in 129 B.C. The public suspected that
he was murdered ; but no person was convicted of the
crime. Scipio was eminent for his learning, and was
one of the most eloquent Roman orators of his time.
Cicero expresses a high opinion of him in his book
" De Republica." A report prevailed among the ancients
that he assisted Terence in the composition of
his plays.
See Polybius. books xxxii.-xxxix. : Carlo Sir onio,
" De Vita et
Rebus gestis P. Scipionis," 1569: F. D. Gerl .ch, "Tod des
P.
C. Scipio ^Kmilianus." 1839; L. Normann, "
Sripio Africanus Minor,"
Upsala, 1688: "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieYale."
Read More
Se-ja'nus, [Fr. Sejan, sa'zho\',| (Lucius /Elius,)
a celebrated Roman courtier and favourite of the emperor
Tiberius, was born at Vulsinii, in Etruria. He rose through
various promotions to be commander-inchief
of the praetorian cohorts, and, aiming at the imperial
power, soon after effected the death of Drusus, son
of the emperor, by poison, in 23 A.D., having previously
seduced Livia, the wife of Drusus, and made her an
accomplice in his crime. With a view of obtaining the
sole direction of public affairs, he induced Tiberius to
retire to the island of Caprex, and subsequently caused
Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, and her sons, to be
put to death. The emperor, aroused at length to suspicion,
deprived Sejanus of his office, and ordered him
to be arrested and executed, 31 a.d.
See Tacitus, "Annales;" J. Arrhenius,
"
Dissertatio de Sejano,"
1696; Merivale, "The Romans under the Empire."
Read More
Sen'e-ca,[Fr. SENEQUE,*.sa'n?k'.](r.ucius Ann.eus,)
an eminent Roman Stoic, philosopher, and moralist, born
at Corduba, in Spain, about 5 H.c. He was educated in
Rome, whither he was brought by his parents in his
childhood.
Having studied rhetoric, philosophy, and law, he
gained distinction as a pleader. Accused by Messalina
of improper intimacy with Julia, a niece of Claudius, he
was banished to Corsica in4l A.n. During his exile he
composed his " Consolatio ad Helviam." (Ilelvia was
the name of his mother.) Through the influence of
Agrippina, he obtained permission to return to Rome in
49 A.D., was raised to the prastorship, and appointed
tutor to L. Domitius, (commonly known as Nero,) who
became emperor in 54 a.d. According to Tacitus, Seneca
endeavoured to reform or restrain the evil propensities
of his pupil. Some writers, however, censure his
conduct in this connection, by arguments which derive
plausibility from the immense wealth which Seneca
amassed. About the year 56 he wrote a treatise on
clemency, addressed to Nero,
" De Clementia, ad Neronem."
Seneca consented to the death of Nero's mother,
Agrippina, who was killed by order of her son in 60 a.d.,
and wrote the letter which Nero addressed to the senate
in his justification. He was afterwards supplanted in
the favour of Nero by Tigellinus and Rufus, who sought
to ruin Seneca by exciting the suspicion of the tyrant
against him. He was accused of being an accomplice
of Piso, (who had conspired against the emperor,) and
was ordered to put himself to death. Having opened
his veins, he died in a warm bath in 65 a.d. He was
an uncle of the poet Lucan.
Seneca was an eloquent and popular writer. His style
is aphoristic, antithetical, and somewhat inflated. Anion"
his numerous works are a treatise "On Anger," (" De
Ira,") "A Book on Providence," (" De Providentia
Liber,") "On Tranquillity of Mind," ("De Animi
Tranquillitate,")
"On the Brevity of Eife,"("De Krevitate
Vita?,") essays on natural science, entitled
"
Qutestiones
Naturales," and numerous epistles,
"
Epistolae ad Lucilium,"
which are a collection of moral maxims. We
have also ten tragedies in verse which are attributed to
Seneca, and which, though not adapted to the stage,
have considerable literary merit.
There has been great diversity of opinion respecting
the character and writings of Seneca. He has been
quoted as an authority by councils and fathers of the
Church. He was highly extolled as a writer by Montaigne.
Quintilian observes that his writings "abound
in charming defects," (dulcibusvitiis.) Macaulay is among
those who take the least favourable view of the character
and influence of the great Stoic. He says, "It is very
reluctantly that Seneca can be brought to confess that
anv philosopher had ever paid the smallest attention
to anything that could possibly promote what vulgar
people would consider as the well-being of mankind.
. . . The business of a philosopher was to declaim in
praise of poverty, with two millions sterling out at
usury ; to meditate epigrammatic conceits about the evils of
luxury, in gardens which moved the envy of sovereigns
; to rant about liberty, while fawning on the
insolent and pampered freedmen of a tyrant." ("Essay
on Lord Bacon.")
See Rosmini, "Vita di Seneca," 1793; Justus Lipsius, "Vita
L. A. Senecas," 1607; Klotzscu, "Seneca," 2 vols., 1799-
1802;
Rkinhardt, "De Seneca Vita et Scriptis," 1817; Vernier,
" Vie
de Seneque," 1812; Am. Fi.euky, "Seneque et Saint-Paul," 2
vols., 1853; P. Ekerman, "Vita et Dogmata L. A. Senecae,"
1742;
Hitter,
"
History of Philosophy;" Hirschig,
" Dood en Gedachtenis
van Seneca," 1831 ; Denis Diderot, " Essai sur la Vie de
Seneque," 1779; F. Salvador], "II Filosofo cortigiano, o sia
il Seneca," 1674; Tacitus, "Annales;" "Nouvelle Biographie
Generate?
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Severus, [Fr. Severe, sa'vaiR',j(Lucius Septimius,)
a Roman emperor, born at Leptis, in Africa, in 146 A.D.
He was educated at Rome, and, after filling various
offices, became proconsul of Africa. While commander
of the Pannonian legions in Germany, he heard of the
death of Commodus, upon which he hastened to Rome,
and was proclaimed emperor by the army in 193 A.D.
in opposition to Didius Julianus, who was soon after
assassinated. He next marched against Pescennius
Niger, commander of the Syrian legions, who had lately
been proclaimed emperor by his troops. He defeated
Niger at Issus or Cyzicus in 194, after which he waged
war with success against the Parthians. In 197 he
gained a decisive victory over Albinus (a rival claimant
of the throne) near Lyons. He renewed the war against
Parthia in 198, defeated the Parthians, and took Ctesiphon,
their capital. In 208 he led an army to Britain
to subdue the Caledonians, and built a rampart, called
the wall of Severus, extending across the island. He
died at York in 211 A.D., leaving two sons, Caracalla
and Geta.
See Dion Cassius,
"
History of Rome." books xxiv.-xxvi. :
Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" "Nouvelle
Biographie Gdne'iale."
Read More
Se-ve'rus, [Fr. Severe, sa'vaiR',] (Alexander,) a
Roman emperor, born in Phoenicia about 205 A.D., was
a son of Gessius Marcjanus and Julia Mammaea. In
221 he was adopted by his cousin Elagabalus, then emperor,
who also gave him the title of Caesar. He was
called M. Aurelius Alexander before his accession to
the throne. Elagabalus soon became jealous, and made
several unsuccessful efforts to destroy Alexander. He
succeeded Elagabalus in March, 222 A.D , and assumed
the name 0/ Severus. During the first nine years he
reigned in peace, and applied himself to the reform of
abuses. The King of Persia having renewed hostilities,
Severus marched across the Euphrates, defeated the
Persians in 232, and returned to Rome. He was preparing
to repel an irruption of the Germans, when he
was killed by his mutinous troops in 235 A.D. He was
greatly distinguished for his wisdom, justice, clemency,
and other virtues.
See Gibbon, '* Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire :"
Tili.emont,
"
Histoire des Empereurs ;" Lampridius, "Alexander
Severus."
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Spar'ta-cus, a Thracian soldier, who was taken
prisoner by the Romans, reduced to slavery, and trained
as a gladiator. Having escaped with a number of his
associates, he became leader of a numerous band, and
defeated Claudius Pulcher, who was sent against him
about 73 R>c. Having proclaimed freedom to all slaves
who should join him, he raised a powerful army and defeated
several times the consuls sent against him. He
was prudent as well as brave. His army amounted to
about 100,000 men, and was invincible until dissensions
arose among them. In 71 B.C. he was blockaded by
M. Licinius Crassus at Rhegium, and killed in a battle
which ended the great Servile war. Spartacus was an
extraordinary man, and had the qualities of a hero.
See Livv,
"
Epitome;" Merimeb, "Guerre sociaie;"
"
Nouvelle
Biographie Generale."
Read More
Stili-cho, [Gr. ZtiMxoh ; Fr. Stilicon, ste'le'k6N',]
(Flavius,) an eminent commander of the Roman armies,
was a son of a Vandal officer. He rose rapidly in the
reign of Theodosius, and was sent as ambassador to
Persia in 384 a.d., at which date he was a young man.
On his return he married Serena, a niece of Theodosius
I., and became commander-in-chief of the army. He
found a rival and dangerous enemy in Rufinus, the chief
minister of Theodosius. In 394 Theodosius appointed
Stilicho guardian of his young son Honoiius, to whom
he gave the Western Empire. Rufinus at the same time
was chief minister of Arcadius, Emperor of the East.
After the death of Theodosius, (395,) Stilicho ruled
with unlimited authority at Rome. He marched against
the Goths, who had invaded Thrace, and who were
aided by the treacherous intrigues of Rufinus. This
rival was removed by assassination in 395 A.n. Stilicho
drove Alaric out of the Peloponnesus in 396 A.D. ; but
his victorious progress was checked by the jealousy of
Arcadius, who made a treaty with Alaric and took him
into his own service. The war was renewed by Alaric, who
invaded Italy about 402. Stilicho gained a decisive
victory over him at Pollentia (or Polentia) in 403, soon
after which the Goths retired from Italy. It is stated
that he formed an alliance with Alaric against Arcadius,
with a design to make himself master of both the
Eastern and Western Empires. In 406 he defeated a
host of barbarians who invaded Northern Italy under
Radagaisus. The enemies of Stilicho excited the fears
and suspicion of Honorius against him, and procured
an order for his death. He was massacred at Ravenna
in 408 A.D.
See Claudian,
" De Laudibus Stilichonis:" Gibbon, "History
„Jh£ Tjecll -e a"d Fall of the Roman Empire;" C. F. Schulzbl
F. Stilicho em Wallenstein der Vorzeit," 1805; Ln Beau,
"Histonedu
Bas-Empire;"
"
Nouvelle Biogiaphie Gdmirale."
Read More
Sulla or Sylla, [It. Silla, sel'la,] (Lucius Cornelius,)
surnamed FelLX, (the "Fortunate,") a famous
Roman general, born in 138 B.C., was of a patrician
family. Though addicted to pleasure, and though his
favourite companions are said to have been actors,
buffoons, and mimics, he early gave indications of uncommon
powers, and was particularly distinguished by
the art he possessed of reading the various characters
of men. He obtained the office of quaestor in 107 B.C.,
and served under Marius against Jngurtha, who was betrayed
by Bocchus into the power of the Romans. Sulla
took a prominent part in the capture of Jugnrtha, and
shared with Marius the credit of that achievement. In
104 he was employed as legate of Marius in the war
against the Cimbri and Teutones. He joined the army
of L. Catulus in 102, and gave proof of great military
talents. His personal qualities were eminently adapted
to render a general popular with his soldiers. Having
been elected praetor in 93 B.C., he was sent the next
year to Cilicia, and restored Ariobarzanes to the throne
of Cappadocia.
In the year 9t began the Social war, in which, says
Plutarch,
" Sulla performed so many memorable things
that the citizens looked upon him as a great general,
his friends as the greatest in the world, and his enemies
as the most fortunate." Sulla became the leader of the
aristocratic party, was elected consul for 88 B.C., and
obtained from the senate the command of the war
against Mithridates, which command was also coveted
by his rival Marius. A violent contest arose between
these two leaders, which was the beginning of a great
civil war. Sulla marched with an army against Rome,
and Marius escaped to Africa,' leaving his enemy master
of the capital. Sulla departed from Rome early in 87 H.C.,
and commenced the war against Mithridates by an attack
on Athens, which he took, after a long siege, in March,
86 B.C. The Athenians were treated with great cruelty
by the victor on this occasion. Sulla gained a decisive
victory over Archelaus, a general of Mithridates, at
Chaeronea,
and again at Orchomenus, in 85 B.C., after which
he crossed the Hellespont. In the mean time the Marian
party had recovered possession of Rome, and had massacred
many partisans of Sulla. He concluded a peace
with Mithridates, extorted large sums of money from
the Orientals, and returned, with his army of veterans, to
Italy, where he arrived in the spring of 83, and renewed
the civil war. The popular party had a larger
army than that of Sulla, but had no able geneials. Sulla
defeated Norbanus near Capua in the year 83, and young
Marius at Sacriportus in 82 B.C. He then became master
of Rome, massacred his opponents and prisoners by
thousands, and gained a victory over the Samnites and
Lucanians near Rome. He made a list of his enemies,
whom he outlawed, and called this list a Proscriptio.
This was the first instance of a proscription among the
Romans. Sulla was appointed dictator for an unlimited
time, and made important changes in the constitution,
tending to increase the power of the senate and aristocracy
and to destroy the authority of the tribunes of
the people. He also made reforms in the criminal law,
which were more enduring than the changes just mentioned.
He resigned the dictatorship in 79, and died
in 78 B.C. Byron apostrophizes Sulla in the following
striking lines :-
"O thou, whose chariot roll'd on fortune's wheel,
Triumphant Syila I thou who didst subdue
Thy country's foes ere thou wouldst pause to feel
The wrath of thy own wrongs, or reap the due
Of hoarded vengeance till thine eagles flew
O'er prostrate Asia ;-thou, who with thy frown
Annihilated Senates,-Roman, too,
With all thy vices, for thou didst lay down,
With an atoning smile, a more than earthly crown."
Chihie Harold, canto iv., stanza lxxxiii.
See Plutarch,
" Life of Sulla ;" Dkumann, "
Geschichte Roms,"
vol. ii. ; f. A. Hartmann\ "Dissertatio de Sulla," 1727 ; L.
Sachsk, " Lebendes Dictators Sulla," 1791 ; ZACHARtas,
"
L. Cornelius Sulla
als Ordner des Rbmischen Freistaales," 1S34: Appian,
" Bellum
Civile:" Pliny, "Natural History," books vii., xi., and
xxvi. ;
Mommskn, "
Histoire Romaine :" A. Cybulski, "De Bello Civili
Sullano," 1S38.
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Tac'I-tua, [
Kr. Tacite, tS'set'; It. Tacito, ta'che-to,]
(Caius Cornelius,) a celebrated Roman historian, was
born about 55 A.D. The events of his early life have
not been recorded. He entered the public service in
the reign of Vespasian, and married a daughter of C.
Julius Agricola, the famous general, in 78 A.I). He was
an intimate friend of Pliny the Younger, from whose
letters we derive a large part of the knowledge which
we have of his life. In the year 88 he obtained the
office of praetor. He was one of the most eloquent
orators of his time. In the reign of Nurva he became
consul, 97 A.D., and about the same date he wrote his
work on Germany,-"On the Situation, Customs, etc.
of Germany," (" DeSitu, Moribuset Populis Germanise.")
Tacitus and Pliny conducted the prosecution against
Marios Priscus, who was convicted of cruelty and other
crimes in too A.D.
Among his earlier works is a " Life of Agricola,"
which is much admired. After the death of Ncrva, he
wrote "The Histories," (" Historiarum Libri XIV.,")
which treat of the period from 68 to 96 a.d. This work
is lost, except the first five books. His reputation is
chiefly founded on his "
Annals," (" Annales,") in sixteen books, which record the
history of the Roman empire from
the death of Augustus, 14 A.D., to the death of Nero, 68
A.D. This excellent work is extant, except the seventh,
eighth, ninth, and tenth books, and parts of three other
books. His "Annals" were completed about 116 A.D.
The date of his death is not known. He was a Stoic in
philosophy, and probably knew nothing of Christianity.
According to Gibbon, " he was the first historian who
applied the science of philosophy to the study of facts."
(" History," vol. i. 225.) He displays profound insight
into the motives of human conduct and the dark recesses
of character. His style is eminently concise and vigorous.
"Of the Latin historians," says Macaulay, "Tacitus
was certainly the greatest. His style, indeed, is not only
faulty in itself, but is in some respects peculiarly unfit
for historical composition. . . . He tells a fine story
finely, but he cannot tell a plain story plainly. He
stimulates
till all stimulants lose their power. ... In the
delineation of character, Tacitus is unrivalled among
historians, and has very few superiors among dramatists
and novelists." (Essay on "
History," published in the
"Edinburgh Review," 1828.)
"Tacitus," says F. W. Farrar, "towered like a giant
above all his contemporaries, isolated and unapproachable.
. . . The little we know of his private life is in
perfect accordance with the noble standard of his recorded
sentiments." (" Encyclopaedia Britannica.")
See Botticher,
" De Vita. Scriptis ac Sii!o Tacili," 1834 ; Sievers,
"Tacitus und Tiberius," 1850; Di'buis-Gucuan, "Tacite et
son Siecle," 2 vols., 1857; Baylk, "Historical and Critical
Dictionary;"
D. W. Mollhh, *
Disputatio de C C. Tacito,
: ' 16S6;
Malvezzi,
"
Discorsi sopra Tacito," 1622; "Nouvelle Biographie
Generale."
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Tarquin the Proud, [Lat. Lu'cius Tarquin'ius
Sii'er'bus; Fr. Tarquin le Superhe, laVkaN' leh
sii'paiRb',] son of Tarquinius Priscus, and seventh King
of Rome. In 534 B.C. he succeeded Servius Tullius,
whom he had caused to be assassinated, and whose
daughter Tullia he had married. He put to death the
senators who had favoured the reforms of Servius, and,
while displaying great ability, governed with despotic
power. He conquered several neighbouring cities, built
the Capitol and other public edifices, and established
colonies at Signia and Circeii.
The outrage committed by his son Sextus upon Lucretia
roused the people, already exasperated by his
tyranny, to throw off the yoke, and Tarquin was deposed
by an armed force led by Junius Brutus. Alter several
ineffectual attempts to regain his power, he formed an
alliance with Lars Porsena of Clusium, in conjunction
with whom he fought, the battle of Lake Regillus, (496
B.C.) They were totally defeated by the Romans, and Tarquin
escaped to Cumse, where he died in 495 B.C.
He was the last of the Roman kings.
See Livv,
"
Histoid of Rome," books i. and ii. ; Niebuhr,
" History
of Rome;" V. Malvezzi, "Tarquinio Superbo," 1635; K. O.
Muli.rr, "Etrnsker;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale;"
Purruckrr,
"
Programmata II. de Taiquinii Superbi Rebus gestis,"
1764-66.
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Theodosius (the-o-do'she-us) [Fr. Theodose, ti'o'-
doz'; It. Teodosio, ta-o-do'se-oj I., Flavius, a Roman
emperor, sumamed the Great, was the son of
the preceding, and was born in Spain in 346 A.D. He
accompanied his father in his various campaigns, and
acquired at an early age great proficiency in the art of
war. In 379 A.D. the emperor Gratian conferred upon
him the title of Augustus, with the command over the
Eastern provinces. Having been received into the
Christian Church, he distinguished
himself by his zeal
against the Arians, and in 380 appointed Gregory Nazianzen
Archbishop of Constantinople. He carried on a
successful war with the Goths, whom he induced to
become the allies of the Romans. After the death of
Gratian, Maximus, who had usurped his empire and
invaded Italy, was defeated by Theodosius, with the
assistance of the Huns and Goths, in 388. Theodosius
reigned at Constantinople, and Valentinian II. was emperor
at Rome until his death, in 392. After this event
Theodosius became sole emperor of the Roman world.
Before his death he divided his dominions between his
two sons Arcadius and Honorius, to the former of
whom he gave the Eastern empire, and to the latter the
Western. Died in 395 a.d. Although he was guilty of
several acts of cruelty, his character is generally
eulogized
by historians.
See Gibbon,
"
History of the Decline and Fall " ;" Tii.i.emont,
Histoire des Empereurs ;" Fi.schier,
" Histoire de Theodose le
Grand," 167Q ; Socrates,
" Historia ecclesiaslica ;" Le Beau
"
Histoire du Bas- Empire ;"
" Nouvelle Biograplue Ge'nerale."
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A Lacedaemonian who, in
B.C. 631, built the town of Cyrené with a colony from the island of Thera. His proper name was Aristoteles, but he received the name of Battus from his having an impediment in his speech (βατταρίζω=to stutter), though Herodotus (iv. 155) says that βάττος is a derivative from a Libyan dialect, and means "king." He reigned over Cyrené for about thirty years, and was succeeded by his son Arcesilaüs. See Battiadae; Cyrené.
A shepherd of Pylos, who promised Hermes that he would not expose his theft of the flocks of Admetus, which were in charge of Apollo. Having broken his promise, he was turned into a stone (Ovid, Met. ii. 702).
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Ti-be'ri-us, [Fr. Tibere, te'baiR' ; It. Tiberio, teba're-
o,] or, more fully, Ti-be'rI-us Clau'dl-us Ne'ro,
a celebrated emperor of Rome, born in 42 B.C. He was
a son of Livia Drusilla, the wife of Augustus, by her
first marriage, and belonged to the patrician peps Claudia,
His father was T. Claudius Nero. At an early
age he acquired a high reputation in military affairs, and
served with distinction in Spain, Asia Minor, and Germany.
His talents were respectable, if not superior. He
was well versed in Greek and Latin literature. His first
wife was Vipsania Agrippina, a daughter of Agrippa.
About 12 B.C. he was compelled to divorce her, and to
marry Julia, a daughter of the emperor Augustus. He
passed seven years at Rhodes in retirement, and returned
to Rome in 2 A.D. After the death of Caius Caesar, in 4
A.D., Augustus adopted Tiberius as his son and successor.
He became emperor in the year 14, and at first
used his power with moderation. He had a suspicious
temper, and was a most artful dissembler. He chose
for his favourite minister and adviser the infamous
Sejanus, to whom he soon abandoned the direction of
the government. Tiberius was suspected of being accessory
to the death of Germanicus, (19 A.D.) His only
son, Drusus, was poisoned by Sejanusin 23. In the year
26 he left Rome, to which he never returned, and retired
to the island of Capri, (Capreae.) Avoiding publicity
and neglecting affairs of state, he abandoned himself to
debauchery. In 31 A.D. Sejamis was put to death by the
order or permission of Tiberius, and Macro became the
powerful favourite. Tiberius died in 37 A.D., without
appointing his successor. It is stated that he was
suffocated
by Macro, by whose aid Caligula then became
emperor. "The historian," says Macaulay, (referring to
Tacitus,)
" undertook to make us intimately acquainted
with a man singularly dark and inscrutable,-with a
man whose real disposition long remained swathed up
in intricate folds of factitious virtues, and over whose
actions the hypocrisy of his youth and the seclusion of
his old age threw a singular mystery. . . . He was to
exhibit the old sovereign of the world sinking into a
dotage which, though it rendered his appetites eccentric
and his temper savage, never impaired the powers of
his stern and penetrating mind, conscious of failing
strength, raging with capricious sensuality, yet to the
last the keenest of observers, the most artful of
dissemblers,
and the most terrible of masters. The task
was one of extreme difficulty. The execution is almost
perfect." (Essay on "
History.")
See Suetonius,
" Tiberius ;" Tacitus,
" Annales ;" Sievers,
"Tacitus und Tiberius," 1850: V. Duruy, " De Tiberio
Imperatore,"
1853 ; Merivai.e,
"
History of the Romans under the Empire
;" Hose,
" De Tiberio Cajsare," 1661 ; "Nouvelle Biosraphie
Generale."
Read More
Ti-bul'lus, [Fr. Tibulle, te'bul'; Ger. Tibull,
te-bdol'; It. Tibullo, te-bool'lo,] (Albius,) a
distinguished
Roman elegiac poet of the Augustan age, was
bom in Italy about 55 B.C. He was a son of a knight,
(eques,) from whom he inherited an estate between Tibur
and Praeneste. This estate was confiscated in the civil
war, but he recovered a part of it, and passed much
of his life there, enjoying the peaceful pleasures of the
country, of which he was a warm admirer. He was
patronized by Valerius Messala, whom he accompanied
in a campaign in Gaul in 31 B.C. He was an intimate
friend of Horace, who addressed to him an epistle and
an ode, (" Carmina," i. 33.) His character is said to have
been amiable. He wrote amatory elegies addressed to
Delia and Nemesis. His poems are models of graceful
simplicity and genuine tenderness. The best editions
of Tibullus are those published by Lachmann (1829) and
by Dissenus, (or Dissen,) (1 835.) Died about 18 B.C.
See Ayrmann, "Vita Tibulli," 1710 : Degkn, "A. Tibull,"
1780: Grui*pk,
"
Die Rbmische Elegie," 1838; Hednkk, "Tibullus.
Propertius et Ovidius," 1841 ; De Golbery,
"
Dissertatio de
Tibulli Vita," etc., 1825; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale."
Read More
O'tho, [Fr. Othon, o't6.N',] (Marcus Salvius,) Emperor
of Rome, born about 32 a.d., was descended from
a patrician family. He was for a time an intimate associate
of Nero, until the attachment of the latter for Poppaea,
Otho's wife, caused a rupture between them. He
supported Galba in his revolt against Nero, in 68 A.D.,
but, disappointed that the former did not appoint him
his successor, he conspired with the guards, took the
life of Galba, and assumed the supreme power. He soon
after marched against Caecina, a general of Vitellius,
who had been proclaimed emperor by the legions in
Germany. His army having been totally defeated near
Bebriacum, Otho destroyed himself in April, 69 A.D.,
and was succeeded by Vitellius. Otho was a man of
profligate character.
See Plutarch, "Life of Otho;" Mrrivai.e, "The Romans
under the Empire :" Suetonius, "Otho;" W. E. Weber, "Kaiser
M. Salvius Otho," 1815 ;
" Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale."
Read More
Ov'id, [Lat. Ovid'iiis; It. Ovidio, o-vee'de-o ; Fr.
Ovidk, o'ved',] or, more fully, Pub'lius Ovid'ius
Na'so, a popular Roman poet, was born at Sulmo,
(Sulmona,) about ninety miles east of Rome, in 43 B.C.
He studied rhetoric in Rome under Arellius Fuscus and
l'orcius Latro, and made himself master of Greek at
Athens. His poetical genius was manifested in early
youth, and afterwards diverted him from the practice of
law, which, in compliance with his father's will, he began
to study. He held, however, several civil or judicial
offices at Rome, and became one of the Decemviri. He
sought and obtained the acquaintance of Propertius,
Horace, Macer, and other poets. He also enjoyed for a
time the favour of the emperor Augustus. Among his
earliest productions were three books of "Amores."
Before the age of fifty he had published "The Art of
Love," (" Ars Amatoria,")
" Medea," a tragedy, and
" Heroic Epistles," (" Ileroides.") He had also nearly
finished his celebrated "Metamorphoses," ("Metamorphoseon
Libri XV.,") wiiich display great poetical
genius. In the year 8 A.D. he was suddenly banished
by Augustus to Tomi, on the Euxine, near the mouth
of the Danube. The reason assigned for this penal
measure was the publication of his immodest poem
"The Art of Love ;" but this is believed to have lieen
a mere pretext, as that poem was published about ten
years earlier. Ovid in his later writings alludes to some
offence which he mysteriously conceals, and for which
he admitted that he deserved to suffer. This question
appears to have baffled the ingenuity and curiosity of
scholars. He has been censured for the abject terms
in which he petitioned Augustus for a pardon, which
was inexorably refused. He died at Tomi in 18 A.D.,
which was also the year of Livy's death. His " Medea,"
which some ancient critics esteemed his most
perfect work, is lost. During his exile lie wrote, besides
other minor poems, "Twelve Books of Fasti," ("Fastorum
Libri XII.,") six of which have come down to us.
This is a poetical Roman calendar, and has historical
value as well as literary merit. Ovid was thrice married,
and divorced his first wife and his second. He also loved
and courted a woman of high rank, whom he celebrated
under the fictitious name of Corinna. Some writers
suppose she was Julia the daughter, or Julia the
granddaughter,
of the emperor Augustus. The best English
translation of Ovid is
" Ovid's Metamorphoses, in Fifteen
Books, translated by the Most Kminent Hands," London,
1717. Among these translators were Dryden, Addison,
Congreve, and Garth.
See Masson, "Vita P. Ovidii Nasonis," 1708; C. Rosmini,
"Vitadi Publio Ovidio Naso," 1789; Vk.lknavk, "Vie d'Ovide,"
Paris, 1809; Bavle,
" Historical and Critical Dictionary.**
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Paulus, (Lucius ^milius,) a son of the preceding,
was born about 230 B.C., and was the most celebrated
member of his family. He was a fine specimen of the
old Roman aristocracy, and was a brother-in-law of
Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hannibal. Elected
praetor for the year 191 B.C., he obtained as his province
Farther Spain, where he defeated the Lusitani in a great
battle. In the year 189 he returned to Rome, and in 182
was elected consul, after having been defeated at several
elections. With a view to finish the Macedonian war,
the people elected him consul in 168 B.C. He gained in
the same year a decisive victory over Perseus at Pydna,
and afterwards took that king prisoner. He returned to
Rome in 167, and obtained the honour of a triumph, with
the surname of Mackdonicus. He died in 160 B.C.,
leaving a high reputation for honour and integrity.
Plutarch has written his life and drawn a comparison
between him and Timoleon. One of his sons was adopted
by the son of the great Scipio above named, and became
afterwards celebrated as Scipio Africanus the younger.
See Livv, "History of " Rome," books xxxiv.-xl. ; Plutarch,
Paulus jEmilius ;" Aurelius Victor,
" De Viris illustribus.
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Pe-la'gl-us, [Gr. IbAayioc ; Fr. Pelage, pl'lSzh',] the
founder of the sect of Pelagians, or rather the chief
advocate of a system of doctrines called Pelagianism,
was born probably in Britain. He began to propagate
his doctrines at Rome about 400 A.D., and formed a
friendship with Celestius, who became his ardent disciple.
He was an admirer of Origen, and an adversary of Saint
Augustine in relation to grace and election. Pelagius
rejected the dogmas of original sin and absolute
predestination.
He maintained that the effects of Adam's first
sin were confined to himself, and that man's salvation
depends on his own exertions. He was condemned by
several councils, and was banished from Italy in 418.
The eminent purity of his life was freely admitted by
his opponents. A system called Semi-Pelagianism prevailed
widely in the middle ages, and has many adherents
at the present day. As the numerous works of Pelagius
are nearly all lost, it is difficult to ascertain exactly
what
doctrines he taught. His adversaries complained of
the haze of subtle dialectics with which he involved
every subject of dispute. Among his extant works is a
"
Commentary on the Epistles of Saint Paul."
See Norkis,
" Historia Pelagians;" I.. Patouillet, "Vie de
Pelage," 1751 ; Bayi.e,
"
Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Saint
Augustine, "De Gratia Christi" and "De Peccato Originali;" "
Nouvelle Biographie Generale.
Read More
Per'ti-nax, (Helvius,) a Roman emperor, born at
Alba Pompeia, on the Tanaro, in 126 a.d., was a son
of a dealer in charcoal. He was a teacher of grammar
before he entered the army. As prefect of a cohort, he
served with distinction against the Parthians. He was
admitted into the senate, and obtained command of a
legion in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. In 179 A.D. he
was consul. He suppressed a mutiny in Britain in the
reign of Commodus, and was proclaimed emperor by the
senate at the death of Commodus, in January, 193 A.p.
Bv the announcement of important reforms, and his
efforts to restore discipline, he made enemies among the
courtiers and praetorians, who murdered him in his
palace in March, 193 a.d.
See Capitounus, "Pertinax;" Dion Cassius, "History of
Rome :" Gibbon,
" Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
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Ni'ger, (Caius Pescennius.) a Roman commander,
and governor of Syria. On the death of Pertinax, 193
a.d., he became a competitor for the empire, with Septimius
Severus and Clodius Albinus for his rivals. Aftei
his army had been several times defeated by the former
in Asia Minor, he was made prisoner and put to death
in 194 A.D.
See Tu.lemont,
" Histoire des Empereurs."
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Pe-tro'nI-us, [Fr. Petrone, pi'tRon',] or, more fully,
Petro'nius Ar'biter, a licentious Latin writer, supposed
to have lived in the reign of Nero. He described
the vices of his time in a satire or novel, in mingled
prose and verse, entitled "Satyricon," fragments of
which are extant. His
style
is classical, and the work
displays much talent, but is extremely licentious. The
author of this is supposed to be identical with Petronius,
a refined voluptuary who figured at the court of Nero as
arbiter elegantia, (umpire of fashion and taste,) and who
killed himself in 66 A.D.
See Tacitus,
"
Annales," book xvi. : J. C. von Orei.i.i, "Lectiones
Petronianae." 1836; Dunlop,
"
History of Fiction;"
" Nouvelle
Biographie Ge'ne'rale."
Read More
Philippus, (M. Julius,) a Roman emperor, was a
native of Trachonitis. He obtained the imperial power
by the murder of Gordlan, in 244 A.D. The senate
confirmed the choice of the army. He made peace with
Persia in 244. In 248 or 247 A.D. he celebrated the
thousandth anniversary of the origin of Rome. He was
killed at Verona in 249 A.D., in a battle against Decius,
who had usurped the title of emperor. According to
Eusebius and other writers, Philippus was a Christian.
His son, M. Julius Philippus, who had been associated
with him in the empire, (247 A.D.,) was killed by
the partisans of Decius, in 249 a.d.
Read More
Autocrates was an Ancient Athenian poet of the old comedy. One of his plays is mentioned by Suidas and Aelian.[1] He also wrote several tragedies. [2]
The Autocrates quoted by Athenaeus[3] seems to have been a different person.
Read More
Plau'tns, [Fr. Plaute, plot ; It. Plauto, plow'to,]
(Marcus Acciusor Attius,) the most celebrated of the
Roman comic poets, was a native of Sarsina, in Umbria.
It is supposed that he was born about 254, or, as some
say, in 224 B.C. In his youth he served a baker by
grinding corn with a hand-mill. Little is known of his
history. According to Cicero, he died in 184 B.C. His
plays were very popular in his own time, and are generally
admired by modern critics. His elegance, re-'
finement, and wit are commended by Cicero and other
ancient critics. Horace censures his coarse jests and
his versification. The titles of his extant plays are
"Amphitruo," "Asinaria," "Aulularia,"
"
Bacchides,"
"Captivi," "Curculio," "Casina," "Cistellaria,"' "Epidicus,"
"Menaschmi," "Mercator,"
" Miles Gloriosus,"
"Mostellaria,"
"
Persa,"
"
Poenulus,"
"
Psettdolus,"
" Rudens,"
"Stichus," "Trinummus," and "Truculentus."
There is a good English version of Plautus by Bonnel
Thornton. The "Captivi" was pronounced the most
perfect of comedies by Lessing, who, as a critic, had
scarcely any superior.
See Gronovior,
" Lectiones Platitinse/' 1740; Loman. "Specimen
critico-literarium in Plautum et Terentium," 1845 ; Andesrn,
•' De Vita Plauti," 1843: Lessing, "Von dero Leben und den
Werken des Plautus," in the third volume of his works,
Berlin, 183S : " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale ;"
"
Foreign Quarterly Review"
for April, 1843.
Read More
Plln'y [Fr. Punk, plen ; It. Plinio, plee'ne-o] THE
Elder, (or, more fully, Ca'ius Plin'ius Secun'dus,)
a celebrated Roman naturalist, was born at Verona, or,
according to some authorities, Novum Comum, (the
modern Como,) in 23 a.d. He served in the army in
Germany, under Lucius Pomponius, and returned to
Rome about the age of thirty. He studied law, and
practised as a pleader for a few years. He was afterwards
procurator in Spain in the reign of Nero, and
became a friend and favoured officer of Vespasian. We
possess but little other information of his public life,
except that at the time of his death he had command
of a fleet stationed at Misenum. In August, 79 a.d.,
occurred a great eruption of Vesuvius. Observing the
immense cloud of smoke which arose in the form of a
tree from the volcano, he embarked at Misenum on a
vessel and approached nearer to the scene of danger.
He calmly noted the variations of the portentous phenomenon,
amidst the shower of cinders and pumicestones
which fell around his vessel, and landed at Stabia.
In the ensuing night he attempted to return to the vessel,
but he perished on land, suffocated by ashes or sulphurous
exhalations. This was probably the eruption
which destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herc'tilanetim.
He left historical and grammatical works, which are
lost. The only work of Pliny that has come down to us
is his " Natural History," (" Naturae Historiarmn Libri
XXXVII.,") which is thus characterized by Cuvier, (in
the "
Biographie Universelle :")
" It is at the same time
Be of the most precious monuments that antiquity has left
4
* o«e 01
ityfojj us, and the evidence of an erudition very wonderful
in
~-i.%
v% *arrfer and statesman. In order to appreciate justly
r* ;;trii^va$A'£nd celebrated composition.it is necessary to
ejr# 1
p-t;
,t oag attention to the plan, the facts, and the style.
./, ,^'?r|jjTOpla*v5s\jrtjmen.se. . . . He includes
astronomy,
#>6|*-al yV geography, agriculture, commerce medicine, and
the arts, as well as natural history properly
so called. . . . Pliny was not an observer like Aristotle;
still less was he a man of genius, capable, like that great
philosopher, of tracing the laws and relations in accordance
with which the works of nature are formed
and arranged, (co-ordonnee.) In general, he is only a
compiler. ... A comparison of his extracts with the
originals which are extant, especially with Aristotle,
convinces us that Pliny did not prefer to take from the
authors he consulted that which was most important
or most exact. In general, he prefers the singular and
marvellous. ... If Pliny has for us little merit as a
naturalist and critic, it is far otherwise in respect to his
talent as a writer, and the vast treasury of Latin terms
and locutions which have made his work one of the richest
depositories of the language of the Romans." He
was a decided pantheist, and had no faith in the future
existence of the human soul. His style is vigorous,
condensed, pointed, and abounds in antithesis. Among
the best editions of Pliny is that published bv Sillig,
Hamburg.
" His profound erudition," says Buffon, "is
enhanced by elevation of ideas and nobleness of style.
He not only knew all that could be known in his time,
but he had that large faculty of thinking which multiplies
science, he had that delicacy (finesse) of reflection
on which depend elegance and taste, and he imparts to
his reader a certain freedom of spirit and boldness of
thought, which is the germ of philosophy."
See Salmasius,
" Exercitationes Plinianze," 1629; A. Jos. a
Turrs Rezzonico,
"
Disquisitiones Plinianae," 2 vols., 1763-07;
Paul Ebhr,
"
Dissertatio de Vita C. Plinii," 1556; A. U A. Fee,
"
Eloge de Pline le Naturaliste," 1S21 ; Baiir,
"
Gesclliclite der
Rdtnischen Literatur:" "Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale."
Read More
Autocrates was an Ancient Athenian poet of the old comedy. One of his plays is mentioned by Suidas and Aelian.[1] He also wrote several tragedies. [2]
The Autocrates quoted by Athenaeus[3] seems to have been a different person.
Read More
Autolycus of Pitane (c. 360 BC – c. 290 BC) was a Greek astronomer, mathematician, and geographer. The lunar crater Autolycus was named in his honour.
Life and work
Autolycus was born in Pitane, a town of Aeolis within Western Anatolia. Of his personal life nothing is known, although he was a contemporary of Aristotle and his works seem to have been completed in Athens within the years 335 BC and 300 BC. Euclid references some of Autolycus' work, and Autolycus is known to have taught Arcesilaus. Autolycus' surviving works include a book on spheres entitled On the Moving Sphere and another On Risings and Settings of celestial bodies. Autolycus' works were translated by Maurolycus in the sixteenth century.
On the Moving Sphere is believed to be the oldest mathematical treatise from ancient Greece that is completely preserved.[1] All Greek mathematical works prior to Autolycus' Spheres are taken from later summaries, commentaries, or descriptions of the works.[1] One reason for its survival is that it had originally been a part of a widely used collection called "Little Astronomy".[2] In his Sphere, Autolycus studied the characteristics and movement of a sphere. The work is simple and not exactly original since it consists of only elementary theorems on spheres that would be needed by astronomers, but its theorems are clearly enunciated and proved.[2] Its prime significance, therefore, is that it indicates that by his day there was a thoroughly established textbook tradition in geometry that is today regarded as typical of classical Greek geometry.[2] The theorem statement is clearly enunciated, a figure of the construction is given alongside the proof, and finally a concluding remark is made. Moreover, it gives indications of what theorems were well known in his day (around 320 BCE).[2] Two hundred years later Theodosius' wrote Sphaerics, a book that is believed to have a common origin with On the Moving Sphere in some pre-Euclidean textbook, possibly written by Eudoxus.
In astronomy, Autolycus studied the relationship between the rising and the setting of the celestial bodies in his treatise in two books entitled On Risings and Settings. The second book is actually an expansion of his first book and of higher quality. He wrote that "any star which rises and sets always rises and sets at the same point in the horizon." Autolycus relied heavily on Eudoxus' astronomy and was a strong supporter of Eudoxus' theory of homocentric spheres.
Footnotes
# ^ a b Boyer (1991). "The age of Plato and Aristotle". p. 97. "A few years after Dinostratus and Menaechmus there flourished a mathematician who has the distinction of having written the oldest surviving Greek mathematical treatise. We have described rather fully the work of earlier Hellenic mathematicians, but it must be borne in mind that the accounts have been based no on original work but on later summaries, commentaries, or description. Occasionally a commentator appears to be copying from an original work extant at the time, as when Simplicius in the sixth century of our era is describing the quadrature of lines by Hippocrates. But not until we come to Autolycus of Pitane, a contemporary of Aristotle, do we find a Greek author one of whose works has survived."
# ^ a b c d Boyer (1991). "The age of Plato and Aristotle". pp. 97–98. "One reason for the survival of little treatise, On the Moving Sphere, is that it formed a part of a collection, known as the "Little Astronomy," widely used by ancient astronomers. On the Moving Sphere is not a profound and probably not a very original work, for it includes little beyond elementary theorems on the geometry of the sphere that would be needed in astronomy. Its chief significance lies in the fact that it indicates that Greek geometry evidently had reached the form that we regard as typical of the classical age. Theorems are clearly enunciated and proved. Moreover, the author uses without proof or indication of source other theorems that he regards as well known; we conclude, therefore, that there was in Greece in his day, about 320 B.C., a thoroughly established textbook tradition in geometry."
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Pompey the Great, [Lat. Pompk'uis Mag'nus ;
Fr. PompEe le Grand, po.v'pl' leh gRON,] (Cneius,)
a famous Roman general and triumvir, was born on
the 30th of September, 106 B.C., in the same year as
Cicero. He fought under his father in the Social war,
(So, n.C.,) and saved his lather's life when China attempted
to assassinate him in 87 B.C. He raised, without a
commission,
three legions to fight for Sulla against the
party of Marius in 83 B.C., and began to display his
great military talents in the defeat of a hostile force
under Brutus. For this success Sulla saluted him with
the title of imperator. He gained another victory over
the legates of Carbo in 82 B.C., reduced Numidia in 81,
and obtained the honour of a triumph, although he
was but a simple eques.
In 76 B.C. he obtained command of an army sent to
Spain against Sertorius, who defeated Pompey in two
battles, but was assassinated in the year 72, soon after
which Spain was reduced to subjection. With a high
degree of popularity, Pompey returned to Italy in 71 B.C.,
and was elected consul (with Crassus) for the year 70,
although he had not held any of the lower civil offices
and was not legally eligible for other reasons. Among
the important acts of his administration was the restoration
of the power of the tribunes, by which he signalized
his defection from the aristocratic party. He remained
at Rome inactive during 69 and 68 B.C. In the next
year his friends procured the passage of a law by which
he was selected to conduct a war against the pirates
(who infested the Mediterranean in great numbers) and
was invested with irresponsible power for three years.
He performed this service with complete success in less
than one year, and, it is said, took 20,000 prisoners.
The next enterprise to which he was called by his own
ambition and the favour of the people was the termination
of the Mithridatic war, which had been protracted
for years. His claims having been advocated by Cicero
in a long oration, (" Pro Lege Manilla,") he superseded
Lucullus in 66 B.C. He defeated Mithridatts in Lesser
Armenia in the same year, and after that king had
escaped to the Crimea, which was difficult of access
to the Roman army, Pompey turned southward, and
reduced Syria to a Roman province in 64 H.C. After a
siege of three months, he captured Jerusalem in 63, and
entered the sanctuary of the Temple. Having received
intelligence of the death of Mithridates, and having reduced
Pontus and Bithynia to subjection, he returned to
Italy in 62 B.C., and was received with general enthusiasm.
The triumph which he obtained on this occasion was the
most brilliant which the Romans had ever witnessed.
Offended by the refusal of the senate to sanction his
public acts in Asia, he identified himself with the popular
party, and formed with Caesar and Crassus a coalition
)r triumvirate, (59 B.C.) Pompey, having divorced Mucia his
third wife, married Julia, a daughter of Caesar. He
made no effort to prevent the banishment of Cicero, but
he supported the bill for his restoration, in 57 B.C. His
popularity was now on the decline. He had lost the
confidence of the senate by his coalition with Caesar, who
was his successful rival in respect to the favour of the
people. Pompey could only obtain the consulship in 55
B.C. by the aid of Cxsar, with whom he and Crassus had
formed another secret treaty or bargain.
Anticipating the open hostility of Caesar to his ambitious
projects, Pompey renewed his connection with the
aristocracy, who accepted him as their leader in 51 B.C.
About the end of the next year the friends of Pompey
obtained a decree of the senate that Caesar should disband
his army. In defiance of this decree, Caesar marched
to Rome with a force which Pompey was unable to resist.
His self-confidence was such that he had neglected to
levy troops, and he was compelled to retreat to Epirus,
where he collected, an army. (See CAESAR.) Urged on
by the civilians and nobles of his camp, against his own
judgment he offered battle to Caesar in the plain of
Pharsaliain August, 48 B.C. and was completely defeated.
lie escaped by sea, with his wife Cornelia, and sought
refuge in Egypt, but was murdered in the act of landing,
by order of Theodotus and Achillas, the chief ministers,
in September, 48 B.C. His moral character is represented
as better than that of the majority of Roman
generals in his time. He was deficient in political
abilities, and was guided by no fixed principles as a
statesman.
See Plutarch, "
Life of Pompey ;" G. Long, " The Decline of
the Roman Republic:" Dion CassiUS,
"
History;" Cickro,
"
Oratio
pro Lege Martina;" Drumann, "Gescliichte Roms ;" " Appian,
Bellum Civile ;" J. Upmarck. "
Dissertatio de Pompejo Magno,"
1709;
" Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ue'rale."
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Lucretius, lu-kree'she^s, [Fr. Lucrece, Ki'kRjss';
It. Lucrezio, loo-kReYse-o; Sp. Lucrf.chi, loo-kRa'-
theo,] or, to give his full name, Ti'tus Lucre'tius
Ca'rus, one of the greatest Latin poets, was born in
Italy in 95 B.C., and was contemporary with Cicero.
The records of antiquity throw scarcely any light on his
life, which was probably passed in studious retirement.
It is not known whether he ever visited Greece ; but
it is evident from his writings that he had profoundly
studied the language, philosophy, and manners of that
people. A doubtful tradition asserts that he was subject
to insanity caused by a love-potion ; and the statement
that he committed suicide in his forty-fourth year is
generally
credited. He left only one work,-a philosophic
and didactic poem, in six books, entitled "De Return
Natur3," (" On the Nature of Things,") in which lie expounds
and illustrates the physical and ethical doctrines
of Epicurus, of whom he was a disciple. From such
abstruse speculations and intractable subjects he has
produced one of the most admirable poems in the language.
Although his system is erroneous and incoherent,
his reasoning is remarkably clear and close. Probably
no other work so amply demonstrates the power of the
Latin language to utter the sublimest conceptions with
a sustained majesty and harmony. "A great atheistic
poet," says Villemain, "is surely a surprising phenomenon.
His genius finds sublime accents to attack all
the inspirations of genius. He renders even nothingness
poetic; he insults glory; he enjoys death. Out of
the abyss of skepticism he sometimes soars to a height
of enthusiasm which is rivalled only by the sublimity of
Homer." Referring to this work, Macaulay remarks,
"The finest poem in the Latin language-indeed, the
finest didactic poem in any language-was written in
defence of the silliest and meanest of all systems of
natural and moral philosophy." Ovid appears to be
the only contemporary writer who fully appreciated the
genius of Lucretius.
See the article on Lucretius, bv Vili.emain, in the
"
Paographia
Universelle ;" Sellar,
" Roman Poets of the Republic ;" Carl F.
Sciimid, "Dissertatio de T. Lucretio Cam," 1768; J.
Sieiikiis,
"QuaistionesLucrettanai," 1844 ; J. I.egris, Rome, ses
Novateurs, M Onst-rvateurs, etc. E"tudes hisforiques
surl.ucrece, Catulle," etc.,
1846: Farricics, "fiibliotheca Latina :" Smith, "Dictionary
of
Greek and Roman Biography ;"
"
Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807.
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Lu-cul'lus, (Lucius Licinius,) a celebrated Roman
general, born of a patrician family about no B.C. In
the year 87 he went to Asia as quajstor under Sulla,
who gave him many proofs of his confidence. After an
absence of several years, during which the civil war between
Marius and Sulla raged at Rome, he returned, and
was elected consul in 74 B.C. In this year he obtained
the chief command in the war against Mithridates, whom
he defeated at Cyzicus in 73, and, after other victories,
drove him out of the kingdom of Pontus. He afterwards
defeated Tigranes of Armenia, whose capital he took
about 68 11.C The mutiny of his troops prevented his
final triumph over Mithridates, and he was superseded
by Pompey in the year 66. Cicero expressed the opinion
that so great a war was never conducted with more
prudence and courage. (" Pro Murama.") Lucullus then
retired from public affairs, and expended part of the
immense
fortune he had acquired in the East in building
magnificent villas, giving sumptuous entertainments, and
collecting expensive paintings and statues. He was a
liberal patron of learning and the arts. Sulla had dedicated
to him his Commentaries. Plutarch, after comparing
him with Cimon, says it is hard to say to which side the
balance inclines. He was living in 59, but was
not living in 56 B.C.
See
"
Lucullus," in Plutarch's " Lives ;" Cicero,
" Pro Lege
Manilia;" Johan Upmahck, "Dissertatio historic* de Lucullo,
1701 Dion Cassius,
"
History of Rome," books xxxv. and xxxvn, ;
Dkumann, "Geschiclue Roras," vol. iv. ;
" Nouvelle Blugrauhie
GiSiKSrale."
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Ma-cri'nus, [Fr. Macrin, mfkitiN',] (M. Opelius
or Oi'iLius,). a Roman emperor, was born of obscure
parents in Mauritania in 164 A.n. He obtained the high
office of prefect of the praetorians under Caracalla. In
April, 217 A.D., he instigated the assassination of Caracalla,
and was proclaimed emperor by the army, whose
choice was confirmed by the senate. In the same year
he was defeated by the Parthians at Nisibis. He was
defeated near Antioch in June, 218, by the partisans of
Elagabalus, and put to death.
See Tillemont,
" Histoire des Empereurs;"
" Nouvelle Bicgraphie
Generale."
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(Ἀριστέας). An epic poet of Proconnesus, of whose life we have only fabulous accounts. His date is quite uncertain. He is represented as a magician, whose soul could leave and re-enter its body according to its pleasure. He was connected with the worship of Apollo, which he was said to have introduced at Metapontum. He wrote an epic poem on the Arimaspi (q.v.), in three books, from which the pseudoLonginus quotes. See Herod. iv. 13.
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Maecenas, me-see'nas, [It. Mecknate, ma-cha-na'tl,
orMECENATO; Fr. Mecenk, ma'sjn',] (Caius Cii.nius,)
a celebrated patron of literature at Rome, was born probably
about 70 li.c. He was descended from an ancient
and royal Etruscan family, and belonged to the equestrian
order. (Horace, Carm. I. 1-20.) He was the friend
of Octavius before his accession as the emperor Augustus.
His fidelity and talents having been approved in
many important negotiations, Octavius intrusted to him
the administration of Rome during his absence in 36 B.C.
when he went to war against Sextus Pompeius. After
the battle of Actium (31 A.D.) had rendered Octavius
master of Rome, he is said to have followed the counsel
of Maecenas in founding an empire instead of restoring
the republic. Agrippa and Maecenas were the favourites
and chief ministers of Augustus for many years. The
political career of the latter ended about 16 B.C. Ma=-
cenas was versed in Greek and Roman literature, and
rendered his name memorable by his liberal patronage
of Horace, Virgil, and other poets, who were his intimate
friends. His name had become proverbial as a patron
of letters as early as the time of Martial. It is said that
Virgil's
"
Georgics" was written at the request of Maecenas.
In the councils of state he advocated mild and
liberal measures and the free expression of opinions. He
wrote several mediocre works, of which only small
fragments are extant. Died in 8 B.C.
See A. Rivisr*. "
Ilisscnationes II. de Majcenate," t64g-e2;
Henri Richer. "Vie de MeCenas," 1746; R. Schomberg, "Life
of M-eceiias," London, i;ho; C. Capokai.1, "Vila di
Mecenate,"
1604; 8. Viola, "Storia di C. C. Mecenato," 18:6: Frandsen.
"C,
cenas," etc, 1S43; MKtiiOMirs,
" De C. C. Msecenatis Vita,"
1653: Bellman, " MleceiUM Literatorum Patronus," Upsal,
1705;
Tacitus, "Annates," books i., iii., vi., and " xiv. ; Dion
Cassius,
History of Rome."
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Magnentius, mjg-nen'she-us, [Fr. Magnence, mtn'-
yONss'7] (Fi.avius,) a Roman general, born in Germany
about 300 A.D. While commanding an army in Gaul,
he revolted against the emperor Constans, and usurped
the empire of the West in 350. Constans was killed by
his orders. Magnentius made himself master of the city
of Koine. A war ensued between him and Constantius,
who defeated the usurper on the river Drave in 351.
He retreated to Gaul, was again defeated, and killed
himself in August, 353 A.D.
See Gikhon^" !><< in and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le
Beau, " Hiatnin tin Bas-Empin."
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Maxi-mus, [Fr. Maxime, mik'sem'; It. Massimo,
mas'se-mo, ] (Magnus Clemens,) a usurper of the
Roman empire, was a native of Spaiti. Having for several
years commanded the Roman army in Britain with
success, he revolted against Gratian about 381 A.D.,
and was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers. He then
invaded Gaul to offer battle to Gratian, who was defeated,
or fled without fighting, and was killed in 383. Theodosius
and Valentinian recognized him as Emperor of
Gaul, Spain, and Britain. Attempting to obtain Italy
also by conquest, he was defeated by Theodosius, taken
prisoner, and executed in 388 A.D.
See Le Beau,
" Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" Tillemont,
" Histoire
des Empereurs."
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Mar-cel'lus, (Caius Claudius,) a Roman consul,
who married Octavia, the sister of Octavius Caesar.
He became consul in 50 B.C., before which he had attached
himself to the party of Pompey. While in this
office he made a motion in the senate to deprive Caesar
of his command, but did not succeed. He remained in
Italy during the civil war, and shared the clemency of
Caesar after the victory of the latter. Died about 40 B.C.
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Au-re'll-us An-to-ni'nus, (Marcus,) commonly
called Mar'cusAure'lius,[Fr.MARC-AuRELE,miR'korjl',
1 sometimes sumamed the Philosopher, a Roman
empeior, celebrated for his wisdom, learning, and virtue,
was burn at Rome in April, 121 A.D. He was a son of
Annius Verus, who once held the office of praetor. His
ohm original name was Marcus Annius Verus. He was
educated by able teachers, among whom were Fronto,
Apollonius of Chalcis, and Herodes Atticus. In philosophy
he was a disciple of the Stoics, of which sect he
became an illustrious ornament by his practice as well
as by his writings. Having been adopted by Antoninus
Pius in 138 a.d., he assumed the name of M. /Elius
Aurelius Verus Caesar. In .139 Antoninus, who had just
become emperor, associated him in the administration.
Aurelius married Faustina, a daughter of Antoninus,
about 146 A.D., and succeeded his adopted father in 161,
after he had been urged by the senate to accept the
throne. He associated with himself in the empire Lucius
Commodus, alias Lucius Verus. They reigned harmoniously
together until the death of Verus in 169 A.D.
His reign was disturbed by many insurrections, and
by inroads of northern barbarians, especially the German
tribes of the Marcomanni and Quadi. Though he preferred
peace, he was almost continually involved in war,
in which he acted on the defensive and was generally
victorious. He is said to have shown himself a skilful
general. He commanded in "erson the army that drove
the Marcomanni out of Pannunia. His victory over the
Quadi in 174 A.D. is attributed to a miracle by some
writers, who affirm that the thirsty Romans were refreshed
by a shower during the battle, while the enemy were
assailed by a violent storm of hail and lightning. An
ancient tradition ascribes this miracle to the prayers
of a Christian legion which formed part of the army of
Aurelius.
In 175 A.D., Avidius Cassius, an able general, who
commanded the Roman army in Syria, revolted, declared
himself emperor, and made himself master of
Egypt and of the part of Asia which lies east of Mount
Taurus. He was killed by his own officers in the same
year. Aurelius visited Syria, Egypt. Athens, etc., in 176.
He was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries at Athens,
and on other occasions conformed to the established
religious
rites. In 177 he associated his son Commodus
with himself in the empire. He was engaged in a campaign
against the Marcomanni and Quadi, when he died
at Siruiium, or at Vindebona, (Vienna,) in March, 180 A.D.
Commodus erected to his memory the Antonine column,
which stands at Rome in the Piazza Colonna. His
thoughts and doctrines were recorded by himself in a
Greek work, called "Meditations," which is considered
an excellent manual of moral discipline. His biographers
find it difficult to explain the persecution which the
Christians suffered in his reign, and which is perhaps
the only stain on his memory. We learn from one short
passage of his writings that he was prejudiced against
the Christians. No monarch was ever more beloved by
his subjects. He acquired the boasted equanimity of
the Stoic philosophy, without the asperity which was a
characteristic of the Stoics in general. A good English
version of "The Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,"
by George Long, appeared in 1862.
See Cakitolinus, "Marcus Antoninus Philosophus ;"
Tii.lemont.
" Histoire des Empereurs;" Ripault, "Histoire (ie TEmpereur
Marc-Antonin," 5 vols., 1S20; Dion Cassius, lib. Ixxi.;
Fabricius
"Bibliotheca Grajca ;" De Suckau, "Etude sur Marc
Aurele," 1857; Aurelius Victor,
" De Ca:saribus Historia." See
also the notice
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Brutus, (Marcus Junius,) a noted Roman, son of the
preceding, was born in So B.C. Cato Uticensis was his
maternal uncle, and afterwards his father-in-law, Brutus
having married his daughter Porcia. In the civil wars
he sided with Pompey. After the battle of Pharsalia he
was treated with great kindness by Caesar, and appears
to have been sincerely attached to him for a time. He
.it the instigation of Caesar's enemies, induced to
the conspiracy against the life of the dictator.
Subsequently
he and Cassius became the leaders of the
republican army against Antony and Octavius. At the
battle of Philippi, Brutus, who commanded the right was at
first completely successful, and drove the
troops of Octavius even to their camp ; but Antony,
ving the mistake his enemies had committed iii
pursuing fugitives, instead of assuring the victory to their
own friends, turned upon the exposed flank of Cassius
and entirely changed the fortune of the day. The republican
troops were totally defeated; and Brutus, after
seeing many of his bravest and most attached followers
ay down their lives in order to prevent his falling into
the hands of his enemies, killed himself with his own
sword, 36 B.C.
Plutarch "Lives;" Appian, "Bellum Civile;" Quevedo
rVllLEC.AS, "VidadeM. Bruto," 1648.
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Ma'ri-us, (Caius,) a Roman general, distinguished
for his splendid talents, indomitable energy, and
unprincipled
ambition, was born near Arpinum (now Arpino)
in 157 B.C. His parents were poor and plebeian. He
served under Scipio Africanus at the siege of Numantia,
and was chosen tribune of the people in 119. He obtained
the praetorship in 115, though strongly opposed
by the patrician party, and about the same time married
Julia, an aunt of Julius Caesar. Having accompanied
Metellus as legate and second in command into Africa,
(109 B.C.,) he won such popularity by his skill and bravery
that he was elected consul for 107 B.C. and intrusted ,
with the command of the Jugurthine war. He defeated
J«gurtha, who was made prisoner in 106. In 104 B.C.
Marius was again chosen consul, as being the only one
capable of defending the state from the threatened invasion
of the Teutones and Cimbri. He defeated the
barbarians at Aix, (Aquae Sextiae,) in Gaul, in 102 B.C.
Having been elected consul the next year, for the fifth
time, Marius, in conjunction with Catulus, gained a signal
and overwhelming victory over the Cimbri in the
plain of Vercellae, (Vercelli.) By the aid of the tribune
Saturninus, Marius became consul for 100 B.C., in spite
of the determined hostility of the patricians. Durirg
this consulate an agrarian law was passed, and Metellus
Nuniidicus was exiled for refusing to conform to it. On
the expiration of his term of office, Marius went to Asia,
under the pretext of sacrificing to Cybele, but really in
order to excite Mithridates to a war with Rome, that he
might again distinguish himself in his congenial element.
In 90 B.C. both Marius and Sulla entered the service
of the consuls Octavius and China in the Marsian or
Social war ; but, jealous of the reputation of his rival,
the former soon resigned. Sulla, having become consul
in 88 B.C., obtained the command in the Mithridatic
war, upon which Marius, assisted by his friends, caused
a law to be passed transferring it to him. He was soon
driven from the city by Sulla and his adherents, and
forced to take refuge in Africa. When Sextilius, Governor
of Libya, sent him orders to leave the country, on
pain of being treated as an enemy, Marius replied to the
messenger, "Go tell him that you have seen the exile
Marius sitting on the ruins of Carthage." The next
year, while Sulla was absent in Greece, Marius, joined
by the consul Cinna, entered Rome and ordered a
general massacre of the opposite party. Among the
patricians who perished was M. Antonius, the orator so
highly praised by Cicero. Marius and Cinna became consuls,
(86 B.C.,) but the former was attacked by a fever,
of which he died the same year.
See Plutarch, "Life of Marius:" George Long, "Life of
Marius," London, 1844; Merimbe, "Etudes sur l'Histoire
Romaine,"
etc. : Sallust,
"
Jugurtha;" F. Weiland, "C. Maiii septies
Consulis Vita," Berlin, 1845: P. Ekerman,
"
Dissertatio de C.
Mario seplies Consule," 1742; Smith, "Dictionary of Greek
and
Roman Urography;."
" Nouvelle Biographie Generate."
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(Ἀρίστιππος). A Greek philosopher, a native of Cyrené and a pupil of Socrates, after whose death in B.C. 399 he travelled about the Greek cities, imparting instruction for money. He was founder of the Cyrenaic School, or the system of Hedonism (from ἡδονή, pleasure). His doctrine was that as a basis for human knowledge the only things real and true are our sensations, and not the external objects that produce them; that the aim of life is what all living things strive after, pleasure; and that virtue is only so far a good thing as it tends to the production of pleasure. The wise man shows his wisdom in governing his desires; mental training, indeed, being the only thing which can qualify us for real enjoyment. In pleasure there is no difference of kind, only of degree and duration. Aristippus's writings seem to have disappeared early; five letters, in the Doric dialect, which have come down under his name are undoubtedly spurious. See Ueberweg, Hist. of Philosophy, pp. 59-98, Eng. trans. (N. Y. 1872); his life by Diogenes Laertius; and the articles Cyrenaici; Epicurus; Philosophia.
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Martial, mar'she^l, [Fr. Martial, mtR'se'tl' ; Lat.
Martia'lis ; It. Marziale, maRt-se-a'la,] or, more
fully,
Mar'cus Vale'rius Martia'lis, a famous Latin epigrammatic
poet, born at Bilbilis, in Spain, about 40 a.d.,
went to Rome at the age of twenty-two, and resided there
thirty-five years. The events of his life are very
imperfectly
known ; but it appears that he devoted his atten
tion chiefly to poetry. Some epigrams which he wrote
on the occasion of the public spectacles given by Titus
about the year 80, procured him the favour of that prince.
He was also patronized by Domitian, who made him a
tribune and a Roman knight. He was intimate with
Juvenal, Quintilian, and Plniy the Younger. About 98
a.d. he returned to his native place, where he died a few
years later. Fourteen books of his
"
Epigrams" are still
extant, and are much admired by some eminent critics,
such as Scaliger, Lipsius, and Malte-Brun. The latter
thinks his writings are among the most interesting monuments
of Roman literature, though many of them offend
against good taste and pure morality. Probably no poet ever
estimated his works more justly than he did in the
following line :
"Sunt bona, sunt quxdam mediocria, sunt plura mala."
(" Some are good, some indifferent, and more are bad.")
See Crush's,
"
Life of Martial," in " Lives of the Roman Poets,"
J726: Lrssing, "Vermischte Schriften;" A. Pbricaud. "
Essai sur
Mutial," 1^16; Fabricics,
"
Uibliotheca Latina:" " M. V. Mar-
!
; s Men-ch und Dichter," Berlin, 1S43: "Martial and his
Times," in the "Westminster Review" for April, 1853.
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Maxentius, maks-en'she - us, [Fr. Maxence, mik'-
s6nss',] (Marcus AureliuSTValerius,) a Roman emperor,
was the son of Maximian, who abdicated in 305
A.D. He married the daughter of the emperor Galerius.
He thought himself slighted by the promotion of Constantine
to the rank of Caesar in 306, and excited a
revolt among the Praetorian guards, who proclaimed him
emperor at Rome in the same year. Galerius, who was
then in a distant province, sent against him an army
under Severus, who was defeated and killed by the aid
of Maximian. Maxentius and his father reigned together
for a short time, and made an alliance with Constantine,
who married Fausta, a sister of Maxentius. Maximian
was expelled from Rome in 308, in consequence of a
quarrel with his son. In 312 the army of Constantine
defeated that of Maxentius, who, in the retreat, was
drowned in the Tiber.
See Gibbon,
" Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Tille-
MONT,
" Histmre des Empereurs."
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Max-im'i-an, [Fr. Maximien, maVse'me-i.N' ; Lat.
Maximia'nus,] or, more fully, Mar'cus Vale'rius
Maximia'nus, a Roman emperor, born in Pannonia,
was the son of a peasant. He had obtained high rank in
the army when Diocletian, in 286 A.D., adopted him as
his colleague in the empire. In the division of the empire,
Italy and Africa were assigned to Maximian. In
305 Diocletian and Maximian formally abdicated in
favour of Galerius and Constantius Chlorns. The next
year he joined his son Maxentius in an effort to recover
power, and was proclaimed emperor. In the war that
ensued between hiin and Constantine he was taken
prisoner, and executed in 310. (See Maxentius.)
See Gibbon, "Dec'ine and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Tille-
MONT,
" Histoire des Empereurs."
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(Ἀριστομένης). A Messenian, the hero of the second war with Sparta, who belongs more to legend than to history. He was a native of Andania, and was sprung from the royal line of Aepytus. Tired of the yoke of Sparta, he began the war in B.C. 685. After the defeat of the Messenians, in the third year of the war, Aristomenes retreated to the mountain fortress of Ira, and there maintained the war for eleven years, constantly ravaging the land of Laconia. In one of his incursions the Spartans overpowered him with superior numbers, and, carrying him with fifty of his comrades to Sparta, cast them into the pit where condemned criminals were thrown. The rest perished; but not so Aristomenes, the favourite of the gods; for legends tell how an eagle bore him up on its wings as he fell, and a fox guided him on the third day from the cavern. But the city of Ira, which he had so long successfully defended, fell into the hands of the Spartans, who again became masters of Messenia, B.C. 668. Aristomenes settled at Ialysus, in Rhodes, where he married his daughter to Damagetus, king of Ialysus.
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Max-i-mi'nus Da'za, an Illyrian peasant, a relative
of Galerius, was raised by him to the dignity of Caesar,
A.D. 305. He ruled over Syria and Egypt, and persecuted
the Christians. On the death of Galerius, in 311,
Maximinus took possession of all the Asiatic provinces.
He afterwards made war on Licinius, but was defeated,
and died by poison at Tarsus in 313 A.D.
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Ne'ro, [Fr. Neron, na'r6N'; It. Nerone, nl-ro'na,]
(Lucius Domitius,) the sixth of the Roman emperors,
born in 37 A.D., was the son of Domitius Ahenobarbus
and Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus. His mother,
after becoming a widow, having married her uncle the
emperor Claudius, the latter adopted Nero and gave to
him his daughter Octavia in marriage, adding to his
name that of Claudius Drusus. On the death of Claudius,
who was poisoned by Agrippina, A.D. 54, Nero was
proclaimed emperor, to the exclusion of Britannicus, the
son of Claudius. The counsels of Seneca and Burrus,
who were placed at the head of government, had for a
time a salutary effect upon Nero, and the first years of
his rule were marked by kindness and justice ; but his
evil passions eventually prevailed, and the remainder of
his reign was signalized by a series of atrocities. Becoming
jealous of Britannicus, he caused him to be
poisoned, and, having soon after formed an attachment
to Poppaea, murdered his mother at her instigation and
made her his wife. He next caused Octavia, whom he
had divorced, to be put to death. In A.D. 64 Rome was
nearly destroyed by a fire which Nero was accused of
having kindled. It was said that he amused himself,
while viewing the conflagration, with reciting verses
descriptive of the fall of Troy. In order to remove
suspicion
from himself, he charged the crime upon the
Christians, many of whom were in consequence subjected
to the most cruel tortures. A conspiracy formed against
the tyrant, A.D. 65, was discovered, and many distinguished
citizens were executed, among whom were
Lucan and Seneca. Soon after this, Vindex and Galba
revolted against the emperor, who, on hearing of their
defection and that of the praetorian guards, destroyed
himself, with the assistance of a servant, A.D. 68.
See Tacitus, "Annales;" Suetonius, "Vita Neronis ;"
Tii.lemont,
"
Histoire des Empereurs :" Mf.rivai.e, "History of the
Romans under the Empire ;"
" Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;"
Denis Diderot,
" Essai sur les Regnes de Claude et de Ne>on,'
2 vols., 1782.
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Ner'va, (Marcus Cocceius,) a Roman emperor, born
in Umbria in 32 A.D. He was consul with Vespasian
in 71, and with Domitian in 90 A.D. On the death of
Domitian, in the year 96, he was proclaimed emperor by
the army and the people. His administration was mild
and liberal. He recalled exiles who had been banished
by former emperors, and enforced penalties against informers.
He made and performed a vow that he would
not put any senator to death. His mutinous praetorian
soldiers compelled him to permit the execution of the
assassins of Domitian. He adopted Trajan as his son
and successor, and died in 98 A.D.
See Xillsmont,
" Histoire des Empereurs;" Aurelius " Victor, De Viribus
illustribus ;" F. J. de Barrett,
" Histoire des deux
Regnes de Nerva et de Trajan," 1790
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Nu'ma Pom-pil'i-us, the second king of Rome,
celebrated in Roman legends or fables as the author of the
religious ceremonies of the Romans. According to
these legends, Numa was a Sabine, and was elected
king as successor to Romulus. Instructed by the Camena
Egeria, he prescribed the rites of public worship,
and appointed pontiffs, augurs, flainens, and vestals.
His reign was pacific and prosperous. There was a
prevalent tradition among the ancients that Numa derived
his wisdom from Pythagoras.
See Plutarch,
"
Lives;" Nihbuhr,
" Romische Geschichte ,"
J. Meyer,
"
Delineatio Vita? Numse Pompilii," 1765.
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The greatest writer of Greek comedy. He lived at Athens, B.C. 444-388. His father, Philippus, is said to have been not a native Athenian, but a settler from Rhodes or Egypt, who afterwards acquired citizenship. However this may be, the demagogue Cleon, whose displeasure Aristophanes had incurred, tried to call in question his right to the citizenship. His first comedy appeared in B.C. 427, but was not performed under his own name because of his youth; and several more of his plays were brought upon the stage by Callistratus and Philonides, till in 424 he brought out The Knights in his own person. Forty-four of his plays were known to antiquity, though four of them were considered doubtful. Of these we possess eleven, the only complete Greek comedies which have survived, besides the titles and numerous fragments of twenty-six others. The eleven are:
* 1. The Acharnians (Ἀχαρνεῖς), which gained him the victory over Cratinus and Eupolis, B.C. 425, written during the great Peloponnesian War to induce the Athenians to make peace.
* 2. The Knights (Ἱππεῖς) mentioned above, B.C. 424, also crowned with the first prize, and aimed directly against the demagogue Cleon.
* 3. The Clouds (Νεφέλαι), B.C. 423, his most famous and, in his own opinion, his most successful piece, though when played it only won the third prize. We have it now in a second, and apparently unfinished, edition. It is directed against the pernicious influence of the Sophists, as the representative of whom Socrates is attacked.
* 4. The Wasps (Σφῆκες), brought out in B.C. 422, and, like the two following, rewarded with the second prize; it is a satire upon the Athenian passion for lawsuits.
* 5. The Peace (Εἰρήνη), of the year B.C. 421, recommending the conclusion of peace.
* 6. The Birds (Ὄρνιθες), acted in B.C. 414, and exposing the romantic hopes built on the expedition to Sicily. This is unquestionably the happiest production of the poet's genius, and is marked by a careful reserve in the employment of dramatic resource.
* 7. The Lysistraté (Λυσιστράτη), B.C. 411, a Women's Conspiracy to bring about peace; the last of the strictly political plays.
* 8. Thesmophoriazusae (Θεσμοφοριάζουσαι), probably to be dated B.C. 410. It is written against Euripides's dislike of women, for which the women who are celebrating the Thesmophoria drag him to justice.
* 9. The Frogs (Βάτραχοι), which was acted in B.C. 405, and won the first prize. It is a piece sparkling with genius, on the decay of tragic art, the blame of which is laid on Euripides, then recently deceased.
* 10. Ecclesiazusae (Ἐκκλησιάζουσαι), or The National Assembly of Women, B.C. 392. It is levelled against the vain attempts to restore the Athenian state by cut-and-dried constitutions.
* 11. Plutus (Πλοῦτος), or The God of Wealth. The blind god is restored to sight, and better times are brought about. This play was acted first in B.C. 408, then in 388 in a revised form suitable to the time, and dispensing with chorus and parabasis. This play marks the transition to the Middle Comedy. See Comoedia.
In the opinion of the ancients, Aristophanes holds a middle place between Cratinus and Eupolis, being neither so rough as the former nor so mild as the latter, but combining the severity of the one with the grace of the other. What was thought of him in his own time is evident from Plato's Symposium, where he is numbered among the noblest of men; and an epigram attributed to that philosopher says that the Graces, looking for an enduring shrine, found it in the soul of Aristophanes. He unites understanding, feeling, and fancy in a degree possessed by few poets of antiquity. His keen glance penetrates the many evils of his time and their most hidden causes; his scorn for all that is base, and his patriotic spirit, burning to bring back the grand days of Marathon, urge him on, without respect of persons or regard for self, to drag the faults he sees into daylight, and lash them with stinging sarcasm; while his inexhaustible fancy invents ever new and original materials, which he manipulates with perfect mastery of language and technical skill. If his jokes are often coarse and actually indecent, the fact must be imputed to the character of the Old Comedy and the licentiousness of the Dionysiac festival, during which the plays were acted. No literature has anything to compare with these comedies. Ancient scholars, recognizing their great importance, bestowed infinite pains in commenting on them, and valuable relics of their writings are enshrined in the existing collections of scholia.
The principal MS. of Aristophanes is that of Ravenna, which contains the eleven extant plays. Next in importance is the Codex Venetus Marcianus of nearly the same date, but which lacks the Acharnians, Thesmophoriazusae, Ecclesiazusae, and Lysistraté. Both of these are probably derived from one Alexandrian archetype. The editio princeps of Aristophanes is that of Aldus (Venice, 1498), containing nine plays, to which Junta added two more (1515). The ed. of Invernizzi-Beck contains a collation of the Ravenna MS. Other editions are those of Bekker (1829); Dindorf (5th ed. 1869); Meineke (1860); Blaydes (1886); Holden (5th ed. 1887). Eng. trans. of eight plays by Rudd (1867); of five plays by Frere (1871). There is a complete concordance by Dunbar (1883).
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Nu-me'ri-an, [Lat. Numeria'nus; Fr. Numeriex,
nu'mS're4,N',| (Marcus Aurelius,) son of Cams, succeeded
him as Emperor of Rome in 284 A.D., in conjunction
with his brother Carinus. He was afterwards put
to death in the same year, as is supposed, by his fatherin-
law, Arrius, and Diocletian was chosen emperor.
Numerianus was famed as an orator and a poet. His
character is said to have been excellent.
See Vopiscus,
" Numerianus."
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Decius, dee'sbe-us, [Fr. Dece, dis,] (Caius Messius
Quintus TrajanusJ a Roman emperor, born in Pannonia
about 200 a.d. He was Governor of Mcesia, under
Philip, when his army proclaimed him emperor. A
battle follower! between the two rivals, in which Philip
was defeated and killed, 249 a.d. Decius persecuted the
Christians with great cruelty. In a battle with the Goths,
who had invaded his dominions, he was killed in 251.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
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Did'I-us, (Julianus Severus,) a Roman emperor,
born at Milan in 133 A.D., was the son of Petronius Didius
Severus. He served in the army with distinction,
and was made consul with Pertinax. After the murder
of this emperor, in 193, the Prsetorians offered the empire
at public auction to the highest bidder. The chief
competitors were Sulpitianus and Didius, who was immensely
rich. The latter made the highest bid, (6250
drachmas for each soldier,) and was proclaimed emperor.
But Septimius Severus and other generals refused to
recognize him, and, after a reign of about two months,
he was killed by the soldiers in his palace. Severus
was his successor.
See Dion Cassius,
"
History of Rome ;" Tillemont, "Histoire
des Empereurs."
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Diocletian, dl-o-kle'she-an, [Lat. Diocletia'nus ;
Fr. Diocletien, de'o'kla'te^aV,] or, more fully, Cai'ua
Vale'rius Aure'ljus Diocletia'nus, a Roman emperor,
was born of obscure parents at Dioclea, in Dalmatiaabout 245
A.D. He entered the army young, served under
Aurelian, and obtained a high command under Probus.
He accompanied Carus in his expedition against Persia,
and at the death of that prince, in 283, he became commander
of the imperial guards of his successor, Niimerianus.
The latter having been assassinated by Aper,
the army at Chalcedon proclaimed Diocletian emperor
in 284. In 286 he adopted Maximian as his colleague
in the empire, and gave him the title of Augustus. They
were successful in suppressing revolts in Gaul and other
parts of the empire. About 292 they nominated two
Csesars to divide the labours of the administration,-
namely, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus. Diocletian
reserved to himself Asia and Egypt, and fixed his court
at Nicomedia. He assigned Italy and Africa to Maximian,
Gaul and Spain to Constantius, and Thrace and
lllyricum to Galerius. The supremacy of Diocletian
was recognized by the other three, and general prosperity
resulted from this arrangement. One design of
this policy was to prevent the revolt of the armies in
favour of their commanders, by which so many emperors
had been ruined. After this division the Roman arms
were successful in Egypt, Persia, and Britain. In 297 a
peace was made with Persia, which was maintained forty
years. The Christians had enjoyed the favour and protection
of Diocletian ; but in 303 Galerius, by false accusations,
persuaded him to issue an edict against them.
This persecution, to which he unwillingly assented, is
the chief error of a reign otherwise honourable and
happy. In 304 he had a long attack of sickness, and
in the next year he abdicated in favour of Galerius, and
retired to Salona, where he turned his attention to the
cultivation of a vegetable-garden, and died in 313. His
political talents were superior, and entitle him to a place
among the most eminent Roman emperors.
See Tillemont, "Histoiredes Empereurs:" Gibbon, "Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Ai'kelius Victor, "De
Cjesaribus
;" J. C. Sickel, "Dioclelianus et Maximums," 1792.
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Domitian, do-mish'e-an, [Lat. Domitia'nus; Fr.
Domitien, do'me'se'aN7^ or, more fully, Ti'tua Fla'-
vius Domitia'nus, a Roman emperor, the second son
of Vespasian, born in 51 A.D., succeeded his brother
Titus in 81. Though his character was depraved and
cruel, he at first affected a zeal for public virtue and
justice.
He was defeated by the Dacians, and made a disgraceful
treaty, by which he bound himself to pay them
tribute. His armies were generally unsuccessful, except
in Britain, which was conquered by Agricola. He married
Domitia Longina, to whom he gave the title of
Augusta. Many innocent persons fell victims to his
suspicions, his cruelty, or his rapacity. He banished the
philosophers and literati, among whom was Epictetus.
One of his favourite pastimes was hunting and killing
flies. A conspiracy was formed among his guards and
courtiers, and he was killed in his palace in 96 A.D., when
the senate chose Nerva as his successor.
See Tacitus,
"
Historia ;" SuETONlus,"Domitianus ;" Niebuhr, " Rbmische
Geschichte," vol. ii. ; J. Arrhenius,
"
Vita Imperatoris
Domitiani," 1696.
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Drusus, (Claudius Nero,) a Roman general, born
38 B.C., was the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and
Livia, whose second husband was the emperor Augustus.
He married Antonia, the daughter of Mark Antony. In
the year 13 B.C. he commanded an army on the Rhine,
and defeated several German tribes. Horace composed
an admired ode in honour of this victory, (lib. iv. 4.) In
the ensuing campaigns he extended his conquests as far
as the Elbe, after which the senate gave him the surname
Germanicus. He died at the age of thirty, leaving a
fair reputation for talents and virtue. The emperor Tiberius
was his brother. It is said that Augustus intended
to give a portion of the empire to Drusus, who was born
a few months after the marriage of the former with
Livia.. Drusus left two sons, Germanicus, and Claudius
who became emperor.
See Dion Cassius, books xlviii. and liv. ; Tacitus, "Annals;"
Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie."
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Dissertatio de M. L. Drusis Patre et Filio," 1826.
Dru'sus Cae'sar, (see'zar,) sometimes called Drusus
Junior, a son of the emperor Tiberius, married Livia, a
sister of Germanicus. His character was depraved by
cruelty and other vices. Died in 23 A.D., from poison.
See Tacitus, "Annals."
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El-a-ga-ba'lus or El-a-gab'a-lus, or He-H-o-gaba'lus,
[Fr. Elagabale, a'lI'gS'bil', or Hei.iogab ale,
1'le'o'gi bSl',] (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,) a Roman
emperor, born at Antioch in 204 A.D., was supposed
to be the natural son of Caracalla. His original name
was Varius Avitus Bassianus ; but, having become a
priest in the Temple of the Sun, (the Syrian Elagabal,)
he adopted the name of that idol. In 218 he was proclaimed
by the army as successor to Caracalla, and,
having defeated his rival Macrinus.he assumed the name
of M. A. Antoninus. His reign was short, and was disgraced
by cruelty, extravagance, and infamous vices. He
was assassinated by his soldiers in 222, and was succeeded
by Alexander Severus.
See Tii.lemont,
" Histoire des Emperenrs;" Gibbon, "Decline
and Fall of the Roman " Empire;" Lampridius, "Elagabalus;"
Nouvelle Biographie Generate.
"
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Ep-ic-te'tus, [Gf.'EOT/cT^ros-; Fr. Epictete, i'pekW; Ger.
Epiktet, a-pik-tat' ; It. Epitetto, 4-pe-tet'to,] a
celebrated Stoic philosopher, was born at Hierapolis, in
Phrygia, about 60 a.d. He was a freedman of Epaphroditus,
a favourite servant of Nero. He retired from Rome
to Nicopolis, in Epii us, in consequence of an edict by
which Doniitian banished the philosophers, in 89 A.D.
Few other events of his life are known. He acquired a
great reputation as a teacher of philosophy, which he made
subservient to practical morality. His fife was an example
of temperance, moderation, and other virtues. His
temper and principles were less austere, and more allied
to the spirit of the gospel, than those of the early Stoics.
He left no written works ; but his doctrines were recorded
by his disciple Arrian in eight books, four of which have
come down to us. No heathen philosopher taught a
higher or purer system of morality. "The maxim suffer and
abstain (from evil)," says Professor liiandis, "which
he followed throughout his life, was based with him on the
firm belief in a wise and benevolent government of
Providence;
and in this respect he approaches the Christian
doctrine more than any of the earlier Stoics, though
there is not a trace in the Epietetea to show that he was
acquainted with Christianity." (Smith's "Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.") His
"Enchiridion," or "Manual," has been translated into
English by Mrs. E. Carter.
See Ritter, "History of Philosophy;" Fabricius,
"
P.ibliotheca
Graca ;
'
J. V. Bkver, " Ueber Epiktet imd sein Handbuch
der Stoischen Moral," 1705; (;. BoiUtAU, "Vie d'Epictete et
sa
Philosophic 1655, and English version of the same, by I
Davies
1670.
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Eugenius, a Gaul, who was noted for his rhetorical
talents, and was proclaimed emperor about 392 a.d. He
was defeated by Theodosius and put to death in 394.
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Eu-tro'pl-us, [Fr. Eutrope, uh'tRop',] sometimes
called Fla'vius Eutro'pius, a Latin historian of the
fourth century. He-was secretary to the emperors Constantine
and Julian, the latter of whom he attended in
his expedition against the Parthians. He wrote an
"
Epitome of Roman History" (" Breviarium Rerum Romanorum")
from the foundation of the city to the time
of Valens, which has been popular for many centuries
and extensively used as a school-book in modern times.
The language is pure, and the style clear and simple.
Little is known of the author's life.
See Suidas, "Eutropius;" Gennadius, "De Viris illustribus ;'
Moi.ler,
"
Disputatio de Eutropio," 1685.
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Fa'bl-us Max'I-mus, (Quintus,) a son of the following,
and grandson by adoption of Paulus ^Emilius,
was chosen consul 122 B.C. Having the department of
Transalpine Gaul, he carried on a successful war against
the Arverni and the Allobroges. On one occasion he
defeated the enemy, who lost 120,000 men, while the
loss of the Romans was very small. For this victory
he received the surname of Allobrogicus.
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Fla-min'i-us, (Caius,) a Roman general, noted for
his valour, became tribune of the people in 232 B.C., and
procured the passage of an agrarian law which was
violently opposed by the Optimates. In 225 or 223 he
was elected consul, and led an army against the Gauls.
Having been chosen consul a second time, he commanded
at the battle of Lake Thrasymene, where, after
a brave and desperate resistance, the Romans were
defeated by Hannibal, and Flaminius was slain, in 217
B.C. During this battle an earthquake destroyed the
greater part of several cities of Italy; but it is said the
armies were entirely unconscious of its shock. The
I
" Via Flaminia," a great highway, was made during his
censorship, and named in his honour.
His son Caius was consul in 185 B.C., and defeated
the Ligurians.
See Niebuhr, "Lectures on Roman History;" Livy, "History
of Rome," books xxi. and xxii.
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highly praised by Cicero.
Galba, (Servius Sulpicius,) a Roman emperor, born
in 3 or 4 B.C., of a noble family. He was consul under
Tiberius in 33 A.D., and in the reign of Caligula commanded
the army in Germany, where he acquired reputation
for military skill. Claudius, having succeeded to
the throne, appointed Galba Governor of Africa, in which
post he obtained successes. He commanded an army in
Spain at the death of Nero, 68 a.d. He was then proclaimed
emperor by his own troops and the Praetorian
guards, whose choice was confirmed by the senate. But
he speedily lost the popular favour by his severity,
parsimony, and impolitic measures. The army declared
for Otho, and Galba was slain, after a reign of seven
months, in 69 a.d. According to Tacitus, he would have
been universally considered worthy to reign if he had
never been emperor.
See Plutarch, "Life of Galba;" Suetonius, "Galba;" Tacitus,
"Annates;" Niebuhr, "History of Rome;" Franz Horn,
"Historische Gemalde: Galba, Cftho und Vitellius," 1812.
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Ga-le'rl-us, [Fr. Gai.ekk, gi'iaiR',] (Cai'us Vai.k'-
RIUS Maximia'.ni's,) a Roman emperor, was a native
of Dacia. and of humble origin. From the rank of private
soldier he rose to the highest commands in the
army. In the year 292 A.D. he was adopted as sou or
heir, with the title of Caesar, by Diocletian, whose
daughter he married ; and a few years later he commanded
the army which defeated the Persian king
Narses. The violent persecution of the Christians by
Diocletian is ascribed to the instigation of Galerius.
When Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, in 305, Galerius
and Constantius Chlorus succeeded as colleagues
in the empire, and the former took for his share Illyria,
Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, and the Eastern provinces.
His colleague having died in 306, Galerius wished to
choose Severus in his place; but Constantine and Maxentius
opposed him, and Severus was slain. After he
had failed in an attempt to capture Rome, he retired
to one of his provinces, and died in 311 a.d.
See Gibbon,
" Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" TlEfcsmont,
H
Histoire des Lnipereurs."
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Pla-cid'i-a, (Fr. Pi.acidie, pli'se'cle',1 a Roman
princess, borii aliout 390 A.D., was a daughter of Theodosius
the Great. She was taken captive by the Goths,
ami became the wife of Ataulphus, King of the Goths,
(414.) Died in 450 a.d.
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Gal-li-e'nus, [Fr. Gallien, gfle-aN',] (Publius Li-
Cinius Valerius,) a Roman emperor, born about 233
A.D., was a son of the emperor Valerian, who admitted
him to a share in the empire in 253. Valerian having
been defeated and taken prisoner by the Persians in 260
A.D., Gallienus succeeded to the throne. He made no
effort to liberate his father from captivity, and disgraced
himself by his cruelty and profligacy. His frontiers were
invaded by barbarian armies, while Ingenuus, Aureolus,
and other Roman generals revolted in different parts
of the empire. After he had defeated Aureolus in
battle, a conspiracy was formed against Gallienus by
his own officers. During the siege of Milan, 26S a.d.,
"he received a mortal dart from an uncertain hand,"
says Gibbon, who thus describes him: "He was master
of several curious but useless sciences, a ready orator,
an elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook,
and a most contemptible prince." He was succeeded
by Claudius II.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;"
Tillemont,
"
Histoire des Empereurs;" Eckhel, "Doctrina Nnmmorum."
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Gallus, (Caius Cornelius,) an eminent Roman poet
and courtier, was born at Forum Julii (Frejus) about
66 B.C. He served in the army under Octavius, who
received him into his favour and confidence and gave
him a high command in the war against Antony. After
the death of Antony, about 30 B.C., Augustus appointed
Gallus Governor of Egypt, which he ruled at first with
success. But afterwards, being accused of oppression
and peculation, he was condemned to perpetual banishment,
and killed himself in 25 or 26 B.C. His Elegies,
which were much admired, are all lost. Like his friend
Maecenas, he patronized literary men, especially Virgil,
who was his intimate friend, and who has gracefully
commemorated his name and merit in his sixth and
tenth eclogues.
See Dion Cassius, books 1., liii. ; Quintilian, books i., x.
;
Suetonius, "De illustribusGrammaticis;" Voi.ker,
" Commentatio
de C. C. Galli Vita et Scriptis," 1840-44; "Nouvelle
Biographie
G^neVale."
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Ge'ta, (Septimus Antoninus,) Emperor of Rome,
colleague and younger brother of Caracalla, and son of
Septimus Severus, was born in Milan about 190 a.d.
His disposition appears to have been as open and generous
as that of his brother was treacherous and cruel.
Caracalla, envious of the great popularity ot his brother,
and also being determined to reign alone, made several
attempts to assassinate him. He accomplished this in
212, by concealing some centurions in the apartments of
Julia, the mother of the emperors. Geta was holding a
conference with his mother when the assassins killed him
and wounded her while she endeavoured to shield him.
See Gibbon,
" Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Tillemont,
"
Histoire des Empereurs Romains;" Wm. Musgrave,
"Geta Britannicus, avec des Notes par Isaac Casaubon, Janus
Gruter et Claude Saumaise," London, 1716.
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Gordian, [Lat. Gordianus, (Marcus Antonius
Pius,)] grandson of the elder Gordian, was born about
225, and was proclaimed Caesar by the Roman people
when news arrived of the death of the two Gordians in
Africa. He was made colleague of the new emperors
Maximus and Balbinus, and after their death became
emperor, in July, 238 a.d. Gordian, accompanied by
his father-in-law, Misitheus, repelled an invasion of
Sapor, King of Persia, in 242. He afterwards attacked
the Persians, and defeated their army on the banks of
the Chaboras. Meanwhile, Philippus, an officer in the
Roman army, availing himself of his popularity, caused
himself to be proclaimed a colleague of the emperor,
and soon after had Gordian put to death, in 244 a.d.
See Tillemont,
" Histoire des Empereurs;" Montesquieu,
"Grandeur et Decadence des Romains;" Gisbert Cuper,
" Histnria
trium Gordianorum," 1697; Capitolinus, "Gordiani tres."
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Gracchus, (Tiberius Sempronius,) a popular and
eminent Roman statesman, born about 168 B.C. His
mother was the celebrated Cornelia, a daughter of the
greatest Scipio. He served at the capture and destruction
of Carthage under Scipio Africanus the Younger,
who had married a sister of Gracchus. In 137 B.C. he
was elected quaestor, and was employed in the Numantian
war, in which he greatly distinguished himself by
his courage and capacity. About 134 B.C. he was elected
tribune of the people, and proposed an important reform
in the disposition of the public lands. His first effort
was to restore or enforce (with some modifications) the
Licinian law, which prohibited any man from occupying
more than five hundred acres of public land, and which
had never been formally repealed, but was generally
neglected
and violated. " There never was," says Plutarch,
"a milder law made against so much injustice and oppression.
For they who deserved to have been punished
for their infringement on the rights of the community
were to have a consideration for giving up their groundless
claims. ... In this just and glorious cause Tiberius
exerted an eloquence which might have adorned a worse
subject, and which nothing could resist." He was violently
opposed by the aristocracy and the tribune M.
Octavius, whose veto retarded the passage of the bill.
At length Octavius was deposed, and the agrarian law
was adopted. Gracchus again offered himself as a candidate
for the office of tribune. During the election,
which occurred in June, when many of his friends were
engaged in harvesting, the partisans of the aristocracy,
led by Scipio Nasica, appealed to force, and killed
Gracchus, with about three hundred of his supporters,
in 133 B.C.
See Plutarch,
"
Life of Tiberius Gracchus ;" Livv,
"
History of
Rome;" Crf.ll,
"
Elogium et Character T. et C. Gracchorum,"
1727; Niebuhr, "Historyof Rome;" Heeren," Tiberius und Caiuj
Gracchus ;" F. D. Gerlach,
" Tiberius und Caius Gracchus ; historischer
Vortrag," 1843.
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Gor'di-an, [Fr. Gordien, goR'de-aN' ; Lat. Gordia'-
nus, (Mar'cus Anto'nius Africa'nus,)] a Roman emperor,
born about 160 A.D., of an illustrious family. He
was appointed proconsul of Africa in 237, and was declared
emperor by the insurgents who rebelled against Maximinus.
His son Gordian was associated with him in the
empire, and their election was confirmed by the Roman
senate. Soon after this, Capellianus, Governor of Mauritania,
assembled an army in favour of Maximinus, and
attacked Carthage. In the combat that ensued, the
younger Gordian was slain ; and his aged father, on
hearing of his fate, strangled himself, in 238 a.d. Gordian
was distinguished for his love of letters, and was
the author of several poems. He spent a great part of
his immense wealth in procuring games and amusements
for the people. His reign lasted but six weeks.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
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Gratian, gra'she-an, [Lat. Gratia'nus ; Fr. Gratikn,
gRi'sej^.N',) a Roman emperor, who in 375 A.D. succeeded
his father, Valentinian I., and became joint ruler
of the Western Empire with his brother, Valentinian II.
His uncle, Valens, who ruled the Eastern Empire, having
fallen in battle in 378, Gratian appointed Theodosius in
his place. In 383 a revolt broke out in Britain, and
a certain Maximus proclaimed himself emperor and
invaded Gaul. Gratian advanced to meet him, but,
being forsaken by the greater part of his army, was
seized and put to death at Lyons. He was distinguished
for his justice and clemency, and his zeal in promoting
Christianity.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," books
x"xvii., xxviii.,xxix.,and xxx. ; Ammianus Marcri.linus;
Socrates, Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Tiu.kmont,
" Histoire des Empereurs."
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Ha'diri an or A'drl-an, [Lat. Haokia'nus; Fr.
Adrien, S (lRe-aN' ; It. Adriano, a-dRe-a'no,] or, more
fully, Hadria'nus Fub'lius JE'liuB, a Roman emperor,
born at Rome in January, 76 A.D., was a son of *E!ius
Hadrianus
Afer, and a cousin of Trajan. His favourite study
was the Greek language and literature. He won the
favour of Trajan, and accompanied him in his campaign
against the Dacians. He was chosen tribune of the people
in 105 A.D., and praetor in 107. When Trajan was forced by
illness to retire from the army which he had conducted
against the Parthians, he gave the chief command to Hadrian.
On the death of Trajan, Hadrian was proclaimed
emperor (at Antioch) by the army in August, 117 a.d. ;
and their choice was confirmed by the senate. The
question whether Trajan had adopted Hadrian as his heir
appears to remain undetermined. The new emperor
hastened to make peace with the Parthians by abandoning
all the provinces which Trajan had conquered beyond
the Euphrates, and rendered himself popular by the remission
of taxes and other acts of liberality. The greater
portion of his reign was spent in journeys through the
provinces of his vast empire, in which he displayed durable
evidences of his liberality, political wisdom, and love
of the fine arts. He commenced these journeys in 119
A.p. He built a famous wall across the island of Britain
from Solway Frith to the German Ocean, to protect the
Roman province from the incursions of the Picts and
Scots. He founded cities in other provinces, completed
the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, and erected
many great architectural works, among which were a
magnificent villa at Tibur, and his mausoleum at Rome,
now called the Castle of Saint Angelo. In 131 A.D. he
promulgated the " Edictum Perpetuum," a fixed code of
laws drawn up by Sal vi us Julianus. This event forms
an important epoch in the history of Roman law. His
reign was peaceful, and tended to consolidate the empire
as well as to civilize the people. He patronized literary
men, artists, and philosophers, and composed a number
of works, in prose and verse, which are not extant. He
aspired to distinction as an architect and painter, and
indulged a petty vanity and jealousy towards artists,
which sometimes prompted him to acts of cruelty. A
short time before his death, he adopted as his successor
Arrius Antoninus, surnamed "the Pious," and composed
the following verses addressed to his own soul :
"Animula, vagula, blandula,
H ospes comesque corporis,
Quae nunc abibis in loca,
Pallidula, rigida, nudula,
Nee, ut soles, dabis jocos?"*
Died in July, 138 A.D. Many statues and medals of
Hadrian are extant.
See Spartianus, "Vita Hadriani ;" Niepuhr, "Lectures on
Roman History ;"Tili.emont, "Histoiredes Empereurs ;"
Gibbon,
"
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Read More
Ho-no'ri-us, (Fi.avius,) a Roman emperor, the second
son of Theodosius the Great, was born at Constantinople
in 384 A.n. At the death of his father, in 395, he
inherited the Western Empire, (his elder brother Arcadius
having obtained the Eastern,) under the guardianship
of Stilicho, a famous general, whose daughter he
married. His court was held at Milan, and afterwards
at Ravenna. About 402 Alaric the Goth invaded Italy,
and was defeated by Stilicho at Pollentia. In 408 Stilicho
was put to death by order of Honorius, who was a
man of weak and vicious character. From this event
may be dated the fall of the Roman power. Rome
was taken and pillaged by Alaric in 410, and the empire
went rapidly to ruin. He died, without issue, in 423,
and was succeeded by Valentinian III.
See Girbon,
"
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire;" Sozomkn,
"
Historia Ecclesiastica;" Jornandes, "De
Rebus Geticis ;" Tiixemont, "Histoire des Empereurs.
Read More
Horace, hor'ass, [Lat. Hora'tius; Fr. Horace,
o'rJUs'; Or. Horaz, bo-rits'; It. Orazio, o-rat'se-o,]or,
more fully, Quin'tus Hora'tius Flac'cus, an excellent
and popular Latin poet, born at Venusia, (now Venosa,)
in Italy, in December, 65 B.C. His father was a freednian,
who gained a competence as a coactor, (collector of
indirect taxes or of the proceeds of auctions,) and
purchased
a farm near Venusia, on the bank of the Aufidus,
(Ofanto.) At an early age he was sent to Koine, and
became a pupil of the noted teacher Orbilius Pupillus,
with whom he learned grammar and the Greek language About
his eighteenth year, he went to prosecute his
studies in the groves of the Academy at Athens,-then
the principal seat of learning and philosophy,-where he
remained until the death of Julius Cassar (in 44 B.C.)
involved the empire in a civil war. As Brutus passed
through Athens, Horace, with patriotic ardour, joined
his army, was made a military tribune, took command
of a legion, and witnessed the fatal defeat of the cause at
Philippi, where he threw away his shield. (Carmina, ii.
7.) 1 lis estate having been confiscated, he went to Rome,
where he supported himself a short time by acting as clerk
in the treasury. His early poems having excited the
interest of Virgil and Varius, they recommended him to
Maecenas, in whom he found a liberal patron and intimate
friend. Thenceforth his life was eminently prosperous,
and serenely passed in congenial studies and patrician
society. Preferring independence to the tempting prizes
of ambition, he refused the office of private secretary
to Augustus, who treated him with particular favour.
He had a true relish for rural pleasures and the charms
of nature, which he often enjoyed at his Sabine farm or
his villa in Tibur. Died in November, 8 B.C. He was
never married. He was of short stature, and had dark
eyes and hair. His character, as deduced from his writings,
is well balanced, and unites in a high degree good sense,
good nature, urbanity, and elegant taste. His poems,
consisting of odes, satires, and epistles, may all be
contained
in one small volume. His chief merits are a calm
philosophy, a graceful diction, an admirable sense of
propriety, and a keen insight into human nature, which
have attracted an admiration growing from age to age,
and have rendered him, next to Virgil, the most illustrious
poet of ancient Rome. " It is mainly," says
" Blackwood's
Magazine" for April, 1868, "to this large and
many-sided nature of the man himself that Horace owes
his unrivalled popularity,-a popularity which has indeed
both widened and deepened in its degree in proportion
to the increase of modern civilization." His "
Epistles"
are among the few poems which represent the most perfect
and original form of Latin verse. There is no very
good English translation of Horace's entire works : that
of Francis (4 vols., 1747) is perhaps the best. Lord
Lytton's
translation of the Odes (1869) is highly praised.
See Suetonius, "Vita Horatii ;" Masson, "Vita Horatii,"
1708;
Henky H. Milman, " Life of Q. Horatius Flaccus," 1854: Van
Ommkkn, "Horni als Mensch und Biirger von Rom," 1802; C.
Fkancke, " Fasti Horatianl," 1839; Wai.ckenaer, "Histone de
la
Vie et des Poesies d'Horace," 2 vols., 1840; J. Murray.
"Original
Views of the Passages in the Life and Writings of Horace,"
1851 ; J. (or F.) Jacob,
" Horaz und seine Freunde," 1852; Ersch
undGRUBER,
"
Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" see, also, the excellent
article on Horatius in Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and
Roman
Biography," by the late Dean H. H. Milman, (author of the
"Life
of Q. Horatius Flaccus;") "Horace and his Translators," in
the
" London Quarterly Review" for October, 185S :
" Horace and
Tasso," in the
"
Edinburgh Review" for October, 1850.
Read More
Irenaeus, ir-e-nee'us, [Gr. TZiprivalog ; Fr. Irenee, e'ra'-
na'; It. Ireneo, e-ra-na'o,] Saint, a Christian martyr,
born about 130 or 140 A.D., was a Greek by birth, and
was probably a native of Asia Minor, as he was a pupil
of the eminent Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna. About 177
he became Bishop of Lyons, (Lugdunum,) in France, in
place of Pothinus, who was the first that occupied that
see. He ministered to his churches with wisdom and
general acceptance. To counteract the errors of the
Gnostics and others, he wrote a treatise against Heresies.,
which is still extant, (in a Latin translation.) He also
wrote several Letters, and other works, which are lost,
except some fragments. It is generally supposed that
he suffered martyrdom under Septimus Severus ; but
the learned are not agreed whether it occurred in 202
or 208. He was well versed in ancient philosophy, as
well as in evangelical doctrine. His book on Heresies
is highly appreciated as a historical monument and a
vindication of the primitive faith. He was a believer in
the Millennium, and entertained opinions on that subject
which some consider extravagant.
See Saint Jerome,
" De Viris itlustribns ;" Eusebius,
" Historia
Ecclesiastica ;" Henry Dodwell, "Dissertationes in
Irenauim,"
16S9; Gkrvaise,
" Vie de S. Irenee, second* fiveque de Lyon," 1723;
J. M. Prat,
"
Histoire de Saint-Ire'n^e," 1843 : James Bbavkn,
"Account of the Life and Writings of Saint Irenjeus."
Read More
Isidore, Saint, an eminent Spanish scholar and
bishop, born at Carthagena about 570 A.D., was a brother
of Leander, Archbishop of Seville. He understood
Greek, Hebrew, and Latin, and was very influential in
the Spanish Church. About 600 he was appointed
Bishop of Seville. The Council of Toledo, held in 650,
denominated him "the glory of the Catholic Church,
and the most learned man of his age." Among his most
important works are, in Latin, "A Chronicle from the
Origin of the World to 626 A.D.," and "Twenty Books
of Etymologies," which, says Dr. Hoefer,
"
is one of the
most precious monuments for the history of human
knowledge." Died in 636 a.d.
See Saint Ildefonso, "De Viris illustrious ;" Tritheim, "De
Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis;" Roeslkr,
"
Dissertatio ; Isidori Historia
Gothorum, Vandalorum," etc., 1803.
Read More
Jo'vi-an, [Lat. Jovia'nus; Fr. Jovien, zho've-4N r
;
It. Gioviano, jo-ve-4'no,] or, more fully, Jo-vl-a'nus
Fla'vi'-us Clau'dl-us, Emperor of Rome, was born in
Pannonia, 331 A.D. He early distinguished himself as
a commander in the Roman army, and, though an avowed
Christian, received many marks of distinction from Julian
the Apostate, whom he accompanied on his unsuccessful
expedition into Persia. At the death of that sovereign,
in 363, Jovian was elected emperor by the army. The
Roman troops were at that time in imminent clanger,
both on account of the superior Persian forces by which
they were hemmed in, and the great scarcity of provisions.
Jovian, after bravely repelling several attacks of
the enemy, formed a treaty, by which he agreed to give
up the Roman conquests west of the Tigris. Returning,
he spent some time at Antioch, where he annulled
Julian's laws against the Christians and re-established
the orthodox religion. He died in 364, at Dadastana,
in Galatia, as he was proceeding to Constantinople.
See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Kmpire ;" Tillemont, "
Histoire
des Empereurs ;" Schenkel,
"
Historia Joviaui," 1617; La
Bletterie,
"
Histoire de PEmpereur Jovien," 2 vols., 1748.
Read More
Caesar, (Julius,) [Fr. Jules Cesar, zhiil sa'ziR'; It
Giulio Cesare, joo'leo cha'sa-ra ; Ger. Julius Casar,
(or Caksar,) yoo'le-us tsa'zar,] or, more fully, Ca'iua
Ju'lius Cae'sar.one of the greatest generals and greatest
men that ever lived, was born in July, 100 B.C. He be
longed to the Julian tribe or family, (Julia gens,) one of
the most ancient in Rome, since it boasted its descent
from Julus or lulus, the son of ^Eneas. Through the
influence of Marius, who had married Cassar's aunt Julia,
he was elected priest of Jupiter ( Flamen Dialis) while
yet a mere boy. In 83 B.C. he married Cornelia, the
daughter of ('inn.-.. This act gave great offence to
Sulla, who commanded him to divorce his wife ; and, on
his refusing to do so, he was proscribed. He escaped
from Rome, and concealed himself for a time in the
country of the Sabines. At length, at the intercession
of some of Sulla's friends, he was reluctantly pardoned
by the dictator, who remarked, it is said, that the young
Cassar would some day be the ruin of the aristocratic
party, adding,
" In that boy there are many Mariuses."
Soon after Cassar went to Nicomedes, King of Bithynia,
and subsequently served with distinction in the Roman
army in Cilicia. Having heard, while here, of the death
of Sulla, he returned at once to Rome. About 76 B.C.,
while on his way to Rhodes for the purpose of studying
oratory under Apollonius Molo, (who was also the instructor
of Cicero,) he was taken prisoner by the pirates
with whom the Mediterranean was at that time greatly
infested. He was detained by them more than a month,
until his friends could raise the sum demanded for his
ransom. According to Plutarch, he treated his captors
with great contempt, and, whenever he wished to sleep,
used to send and order them to keep silence. He even
threatened-in jest, as they supposed-to crucify them
when he got his liberty. The ransom having at length
been paid, he manned some Milesian vessels, pursued
and took the pirates prisoners in their turn, and crucified them according to his promise. Having remained for
some time in Rhodes, he returned to Rome, and became
a candidate for popular favour. His patrimonial estate
being insufficient to supply the means for that unbounded
liberality by which he sought to ingratiate
himself with the people, he borrowed for this purpose
vast sums from the usurers. It was cast upon him as
a reproach, by his enemies, that he was always in debt,
and that his poverty ceased only when he had turned his
arms against Rome and robbed the " public treasury. Then for the first time," says Lucan,
" Rome was poorer
than Caesar."*
Caesar was elected quaestor in 68 B.C. ; and in the same
year his wife Cornelia died. In 67 he married Pompeia,
a relative of Pompey the Great, and granddaughter of
Sulla the dictator. This was especially intended to conciliate
Pompey ; and by various other means he sought
to ingratiate himself with that great leader. He became
aedile in 65 B.C., and purchased the favour of the populace
by the exhibition of public games surpassing in
magnificence anything of the kind ever before seen in
Rome. In 64 B.C. he was elected pontifex maximus.
Catiline's conspiracy occurred in 63, and Caesar was by
many suspected of being accessory to it. When Cicero
called for the opinion of the senators as to the punishment
which should be inflicted on the conspirators, all
the others gave judgment in favour of their death, until
it came to Caesar's turn to speak. He contended that it
was contrary to justice and to the usage of the Roman
commonwealth to put men of their birth and dignity to
death without an open trial, except in a case of extreme
necessity. He recommended that they should be kept
in prison in any of the cities of Italy which Cicero might
fix upon, and that these cities should be bound by the
severest penalties to keep them safely. Caesar's argu
ments had great influence with the senate ; but Cato,
following in an earnest and powerful speech, in which he
accused Caesar of being connected with the conspiracy,
carried most of the senators with him : the conspirators
were condemned to death ; and Caesar himself narrowly
escaped. As he was leaving the senate-house, his life was
threatened by some of the Roman knights ; and, had it
not been for the fear of the common people, it is probable
that he might have been included in the accusation
with Lentulus, Cethegus, and the rest.
He became praetor in 62 B.C., and the next year was
sent as propraetor to Spain, where he gained no little
distinction both as a general and a civil magistrate, and
was saluted by his army imperator. He was elected consul,
with L. Calpurnius Bibulus as his colleague, in 60,
and in 59 B.C. entered upon the duties of his office. One
of his first measures was to propose an agrarian law, by
which a rich tract of public land was to be distributed
among the poorer citizens, especially those who had
several children. Although this measure was strongly
opposed by his colleague Bibulus, it was carried, chiefly
through the influence of Pompey and Crassus. In order
that he might strengthen his interest with Pompey still
more, he gave him his daughter Julia in marriage,
although she had previously been affianced to Servilius
Caepio. Soon after Caesar himself married Calpuniia,
the daughter of L. Piso, for whom he procured the consulship
the ensuing year. He formed a secret alliance
with Pompey and Crassus, known as the first triumvirate.
Supported by such influence, Caesar had no difficulty in
carrying through the senate whatever measures he
pleased. The government both of Transalpine and
Cisalpine Gaul, with that of Illyricum, was decreed to
him for five years. The following spring, ("58 B.C.,) when
L. Piso and A. Gabinius were consuls, Caesar left Rome
for Transalpine Gaul, and before winter had ended triumphantly
two formidable wars, the one with the Helvetii,
and the other with Ariovistus, a German prince
who had some time before crossed the Rhine and, being
supported by a powerful army, had established himself
in the eastern part of Gaul. The next year he subdued
the various Belgic tribes or nations dwelling between
the Rhine and the Seine. In 56 B.C., having divided his forces, assigning a part of them to his different generals
(legati) respectively, he overran nearly all the rest of
Gaul, besides quelling the insurrections of several nations
who had been subdued the year before. In 55 he
surprised and cut to pieces two powerful German tribes
who had attempted to establish themselves in Gaul. In
order more effectually to strike terror into the Germans,
he crossed the Rhine by a bridge which he had constructed
for that purpose, and, after ravaging the territories
of the Sigambri, he recrossed the river and destroyed
the bridge. The same year he invaded Britain, and
compelled the submission of several of the tribes. The
following year he made another expedition into Britain,
defeated Cassivellaunus, one of their princes, who had
been chosen generalissimo by the different tribes, and,
having demanded hostages and fixed the tribute whicli
Britain should pay to the Romans, he returned to Gaul.
The ensuing autumn a most formidable revolt occurred
among the Eburones, under their king Ambiorix, who
succeeded, by stratagem or treachery, in surprising and
cutting to pieces a considerable body of Caesar's troops
under the generals Sabinus and Cotta. Fortunately,
Caesar had not yet set out for Italy, as he was accustomed
to do on the approach of winter. Ambiorix,
whose army had become much increased in consequence
of his recent victory, was soon after defeated by Caesar
with great loss; but the latter deemed it most prudent
to remain in Gaul through the entire winter. During
the summer of 53 B.C. Caesar was chiefly occupied in repressing
an extensive conspiracy which had been formed
among the different Gallic nations, and in reducing to
subjection such as had broken out into an open revolt.
The following year a general insurrection took place
among the Gauls. It was headed by Vercingetorix, a
young nobleman of the Arverni, who proved himself to
be a general of no mean capacity ; so that Caesar's situation
was for a time extremely critical. There appeared
to be the greatest unanimity among the various Gallic
nations. Even the ^Edui, who, from the time when
Caesar first obtained the government of Gaul, had been
faithful allies to the Romans until now, made common
cause with the rest, and joined the revolt. They took
Noviodunum, a walled town which Caesar had made the
chief depository of his stores ; and he was obliged to
retreat to his lieutenant Labienus, beyond the Loire.
But, having received reinforcements, he besieged Vercingetorix
in Alesia, and at length compelled him to
surrender. In the next year (51 B.C.) Caesar completed
the pacification of Gaul. His daughter Julia, the wife of
Pompey, had died in 54 B.C. Crassus, the other member
of the triumvirate, had lost his life in the war against
the Parthians. A coldness had gradually sprung up
between him and Pompey, who appears to have become
jealous of the recent brilliant successes of his colleague.
From his first entrance into public life Caesar had attached
himself to the popular party, and had constantly
studied how he might reduce or overthrow the power of
the aristocracy. Pompey, on the other hand, a favourite
and connection of Sulla, had been one of the staunchest
adherents of the senatorial faction, and, after the
death of the dictator, was generally regarded as the
chief of the aristocratic party. And although, through
the arts and influence of Caesar, he had been induced
for a time to take the other side, on the breaking up
of their friendship he naturally fell back to his former
position. There had been for some time, on the part of
the aristocracy, a growing jealousy of Caesar's power and
influence in the state. Some of the more violent were
resolved to crush him, if possible, at all hazards. In the
year 50 B.C. it was proposed to the senate, by Claudius
Marcellus, that Caesar, having now finished the Gallic
war, should be required to lay down his command. But
the tribune Curio, whom Caesar had by large bribes
gained over to his interest, interposed his veto. Caesar
was, however, on different pretexts, deprived of two of
his legions. Yet, desirous-or seeming to be so-of
avoiding a rupture, if possible, he proposed to the senate,
through Curio, to resign his command on condition
that Pompey would do the same. The senate, however,
refused even to consider the proposition. Afterwards,
on the motion of Scipio, it was decreed that Caesar should disband his army against a certain clay, otherwise
he should be held to be an enemy of the republic. This
was a virtual declaration of war ; for few, if any, could
suppose that Caesar would give up his army without a
struggle. On being informed of the resolution of the
senate, he assembled his soldiers and harangued them
on the subject of his wrongs. When he found that they
eagerly espoused his cause, he determined to Strike at
once, while his enemies were yet unprepared. With only
5000 infantry and 300 horse-for his other forces were
still beyond the Alps-he marched towards the confines
of Italy, which, with its then limits, was separated on the
east from Cisalpine Gaul by the small river Rubicon.
When he arrived at the banks of this stream, as Plutarch
informs us, he hesitated for some time, revolving in his
mind the arguments for and against the momentous
step which he was about to take. At last, " exclaiming, The die is cast !" he crossed the river, and, advancing
with the utmost expedition, he occupied successively
Ariminum, Arretium, Pisaurum, Ancona, Auximum, besides
other places. Owing partly to his popularity and
partly to the fear which his name inspired, all the towns
of
Italy seemed ready to open their gates at his approach.
His triumphant progress filled Rome with consternation.
In the general panic, Pompey, the two consuls, and most
of the senators fled from the city in the direction of Capua.
Pompey continued his flight to Brundisium, whither he
was closely pursued by Caesar. He escaped, however,
to Greece. Caesar, being unable to follow, for want of
ships, returned to Rome, and not long after set out for
Spain, where Afranius and Petreius, Pompey's lieutenants,
were at the head of a formidable army. In his
first engagement with them Caesar was worsted ; but,
after encountering for a time great hardships from the
want of provisions, he at length triumphed over every
obstacle, and compelled Afranius and Petreius to sue for
peace, which he granted on condition that they should
disband their forces and not again take arms against
him during the war. Having overcome all opposition
in Spain,-the conquest of which occupied him only
about forty days,-and subsequently reduced Massilia,
(Marseilles,) he hastened to Rome. During his absence
in Spain he had been declared dictator by the prsetor
M. Lepidus. After eleven days, during which time
several important laws had been passed, he abdicated
the dictatorship, and immediately set out for Brundisium,
where he had ordered his forces to assemble. But he
found it impossible to obtain vessels sufficient for their
transportation : he was therefore under the necessity of
carrying over to Greece only a part of his troops at the
first passage. Meanwhile, his situation was critical in the
extreme ; for Pompey, on account of the multitude of his
ships, had command of the sea, and a strict watch was
kept upon the movements of Caesar's vessels, so that
the forces of the latter were for a considerable time
divided, one part having been landed in Epirus, while
the other was compelled to remain in Italy. At length
Bibulus, the commander of Pompey's fleet, died ; and,
his place not being at once supplied, each of the officers
acted according to his own judgment and independently
of the others. After a time, the vigilance of the blockade
having been somewhat relaxed, the remainder of
Caesar's forces were carried over, under the conduct of
his faithful friends Mark Antony and Fufius Calenus.
In his first encounter with Pompey, near Dyrrachium,
Caesar was repulsed with some loss, and compelled to
retreat. He withdrew to Thessaly, whither he was pursued
by Pompey. At last the two opposing armies met
on the plains of Pharsalia ; and although the forces of
Pompey (consisting of about 45,000 infantry and 7000
cavalry) were more than double those of his rival, who
had about 22,000 foot-soldiers and 1000 horse, they
sustained a disastrous defeat According to Caesar's
own statement, about 15,000 of Pompey's men fell in
the conflict, and more than 24,000 were taken prisoners.
Pompey escaped to Egypt, where he was treacherously
murdered. (See Pompey.) The result of the civil war
may be said to have been decided by the battle of Pharsalia.
But there still remained a formidable army of the
Pompeians in Africa, under the command of Scipio and
Cato. Caesar did not, however, proceed at once against these enemies. Having followed Pompey to Egypt, he
became involved in a dispute respecting the claims of
Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra to the throne of that
country. Captivated by the charms of Cleopatra, ht
supported her cause against her elder brother, who perished
during the war which ensued. Cleopatra was declared
Queen of Egypt ; but her younger brother, called
also Ptolemy, was associated with her on the throne.
Before returning to Rome, Caesar inarched against Pharnaces,
son of Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus,
and totally defeated him near Zela. It was concerning
this victory that he wrote to the senate the famous letter
comprised in three words, "l-'erti, vidi, vici," ("I came,
I saw, I conquered.") He arrived at Rome in September,
47 B.C., and before the end of that year set out for
Africa. The opposing armies met at Thapsus, near the
sea-coast, to the southeast of Carthage. The result was
the total defeat, and ail-but extermination, of the forces
under Scipio. The Caesarean soldiers, exasperated by
the obstinacy with which the war had been protracted,
cut to pieces all whom they overtook, killing without
mercy even those who offered themselves as prisoners,
in spite of the remonstrances and entreaties of Caesar.
The cause of the senatorial party having become utterly
desperate, Scipio, Juba, Cato, and several others of the
leaders, unwilling to fall into the power of the conqueror,
put an end to their lives with their own hands.
Caesar returned to Rome, the undisputed master of
the world. But he had scarcely completed the celebration
of his recent victories, when intelligence arrived
that Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sextus, had assembled
a powerful army in Spain. Caesar hastened with his
usual promptitude to meet the new danger. He engaged
his enemies near Munda, and, after a very severe
action, put them to a total rout. According to Plutarch,
when Caesar saw his men hard pressed and making but
a feeble resistance, he rushed into the thickest of the
fight, exclaiming,
" Are you not ashamed to deliver up
your general into the hands of these boys ?"-alluding
to me youth of Pompey's sons. After the battle he said
to his friends that he had often fought for victory ; but
then, for the first time, he had fought for his life. ' This
was the last of Caesar's wars.
Although he had thus risen to the summit of power
on the ruins of the republic, in the exercise of that power
he appears never to have lost sight of the true interests
of his country and of the world. One of the first subjects
that claimed his attention was the regulation of the
Roman calendar. For this purpose, though well versed
himself both in mathematics and astronomy, he availed
himself of the skill of the most eminent mathematicians
of that age. The improved mode of computing time
introduced by him has, with some slight modifications,
been adopted by all civilized nations, and his name has
become inseparably associated with the new calendar,
both in the name of the month July, and in the phrases
"Julian year," "Julian period," etc. He procured the
enactment of several important and salutary laws, and
was revolving in his mind vast projects of public improvements,
including the preparation of a complete
digest of the Roman laws, the clearing out and enlarging
of the harbour of Ostia, (at the mouth of the Tiber,)
the draining of the Pontine marshes, the cutting of a
canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, and the establishment
of public libraries, when death put an end to his
labours and undertakings.
After the total overthrow of the partisans of Pompey,
he had received from the senate the title of Imperator
(whence comes our word "emperor") for life; he was
also declared dictator, and Prafectus AJorum, (" prefect
of manners," or "
customs,") both offices being perpetual.
As pontifcx maximus, or high-priest, he had control of
the religion of the state. To all these honours he wished
to add the title of king, {rex,) and thus to hand down
his power and dignities to his successor. Having no legitimate
children, he adopted his grand-nephew Octavius,
whose mother Atia was the daughter of Julia the sister
of Caesar, as his successor and the inheritor of his name.
His devoted adherent Mark Antony, on the occasion
of the festival called Lupercalia, perhaps with a view
to sound the feelings of the people, publicly offered to Caesar a regal crown ; but he, perceiving that it displeased
the multitude, refused it, though, as it was thought, with
some reluctance. The name of king, from the time of
the Tarquins, had always been, and still was, peculiarly
odious to all classes of the Romans ; and this consideration
encouraged Caesar's bitter enemies, of whom there
vyere not a few concealed among the aristocracy, to believe
that the taking of his life would meet with many
approvers even among the people. There was at length
formed against him a conspiracy, in which more than
sixty persons were implicated. The principal instigator
and leader of the enterprise was Cassius, who had distinguished
himself as the lieutenant of Crassus in the
Parthian war. M. Brutus was also prominent among
the conspirators. He appears to have been actuated
by a sincere though mistaken patriotism; while Cassius,
there is leason to believe, was chiefly influenced by personal
animosity. It is said that Caesar had many warnings
of his approaching fate, and that the night before
his death his wife Calpurnia dreamed that he was murdered
in her arms. In the morning she entreated him
with te;js not to go to the senate-house, as he had intended.
When he had almost decided to stay at home,
Decimui Brutus, one of the conspirators, to whom, as
well as to M. Brutus, Caesar had shown many favours,
and in whom he had the greatest confidence, came in,
and at length prevailed on him to go with him to meet
the senate. It had been arranged, as it appears, that
while one of the conspirators, L. Tillius Cimber, was
presenting a petition to Caesar, some of the others
should crowd around, as if to urge the same request,
when an attack upon him should be made by all at
once. At first Caesar resolutely resisted; but, when he
perceived the number of his assailants, he wrapped himself
in his toga and resigned himself to his fate. According
to one account, Cxsar defended himself with
spirit until he saw the dagger of M. Brutus among the
rest, when he exclaimed,
" Et tu, Brute !" (" Thou too,
Brutus !") and yielded without any further
struggle.
Shakspeare, in his tragedy of "Julius Caesar," appears
to have followed scrupulously and minutely the popular
traditions respecting the death of Caesar. After his
death it was found that his body had been pierced with
twenty-three wounds. He was assassinated on the Ides
of March, 44 B.C., in the fifty-sixth year of his age.
Caesar was tall in stature, and of a noble and commanding
presence. He was naturally of a delicate constitution
; but by continual exercise and by a frequent
exposure to hardships, with the aid of an indomitable
will, he became so hardy that few if any could surpass
him in enduring the fatigues and privations of a military
life. It would seem, however, that his unremitting mental
exertions and anxieties began at last to tell upon his
health ; for Suetonius speaks of his suffering from ill
health, assigning it as a reason why he was so reckless
of the warnings given him by the soothsayers, as if his
life had not been worth the trouble necessary for its
preservation. He was subject to occasional attacks of
epilepsy ; but they were so rare that they do not appear
to have seriouslv interfered with his attention to his
multitudinous affairs.
Considered as a general, a statesman, and a ruler, we
must admit that few, if any,-even among the most remarkable
men that ever lived,-have equalled him, especially
if we take into account the versatility as well as the
greatness of his talents. " As a soldier," says Suetonius,
"it is hard to say whether he was more cautious or
mor; daring. He never marched his army where he was
liable to any ambush from the enemy without taking all
possible precaution by his scouts. Nor did he pass over
into Britain until he had made due inquiry respecting the
harbours and what convenience there was for landing
his troops. Yet when information was brought him of
the siege of a camp of his in Germany, he made his way
to his men in a Gallic dress through the enemy's guards.
He also went over from Brundisium to Dyrrachium in
winter in the midst of the hostile fleets." In the fertility
of his resources he appears to have been superior to
every other commander of whom history makes mention.
He rarely if ever repeated the same stratagem ; but he
seems to have had a new expedient or invention for every new occasion, and one which was always adequate to the
emergency.
Speaking of those extraordinary men who have compelled
"nations unaccustomed to control" to bow obedient
to their will, Macaulay remarks that "in this class
three men stand pre-eminent,-Caesar, Cromwell, and
Bonaparte. The highest place in this remarkable triumvirate
belongs undoubtedly to Caesar. He united
the talents of Bonaparte to those of Cromwell ; and he
possessed also what neither Cromwell nor Bonaparte
possessed,-learning, taste, wit, eloquence, the sentiments
and the manners of an accomplished gentleman."
(See his article on Hallam's " Constitutional History," in
the "Edinburgh Review," 1828.) In Caesar the intellect,
the passions, and the will appear to have maintained
a perfect equipoise. For, strong and fierce as
were his passions, he never allowed them to rule him ;
thus justifying the well-known line of Pope's "Temple
of Fame,"-
"Cjesar, the world's great master, and his own."
He never permitted personal pique or animosity to interfere
in any way with the grand purposes of his life.
Although he was, it must be confessed, very far from
being a virtuous man, even in the pagan acceptation of
the word, he possessed some very noble and rare moral
qualities. He appears to have shunned, as by
" an immortal
instinct," everything that was petty, narrow, or
vindictive. Generosity and magnanimity seem to have
been inseparable parts of his nature. Suetonius, who
certainly did not err on the side of partiality, says Caesar
was always obliging and kind to his friends, mentioning
as an example that when he was on a journey through a
wild country with C. Oppius, and the latter was suddenly
taken ill, Caesar gave up to him the only sleeping-apartment,
and lay himself on the ground in the open air.
The same writer also observes that he never carried a
quarrel so far but that he was always ready to lay it down
when a reasonable occasion offered. His clemency and
generosity were conspicuous in every part of his life, but
especially so towards the conquered party in the civil
war. He was not only a perfect master in the use of
arms, and a most skilful horseman, but he was accustomed,
when occasion required, to swim across rivers
rather than permit the slightest delay. In oratory he
was, in that age, second only to Cicero ; and it is thought
that had he devoted himself more fully to the study he
might have surpassed Cicero himself. He is said to have
been a perfect master of all the learning and science of
his time. Besides being a general, statesman, jurist,
orator, and historian, he was also a poet, a mathematician,
an astronomer, and an architect. As a historian he
justly holds a very high rank. His style is distinguished
for clearness, ease, and simplicity, and is not without elegance.
His historical writings consist of the first seven
books of the commentaries relating to the Gallic war
and the three books concerning the civil war. Besides
the above, he wrote various other works, of which only
fragments remain. A few of his letters have been preserved
among the letters of Cicero.
See Plutarch, "Lives;" Suetonius, "Lives of the Twelve
Caesars:" C«sak, "Commentaries;" Dion Cassius, "History of
Rome ;" Appian,
" Bellum Civile ;"Drumann, "Geschichte Roms;"
Julius Celsus, "De Vita et Rebus gestis C. J. Caesaris," 169; ; Richard
de Burv,
"
Histoire de la Vie de J. Cesar," 2 vols., 1758;
At pim\-sE DK Beauchamp, "Vie de J. Cesar," 1823: Napoleon
Bonaparte, "Precis des Guerres de J. Ce'sar, ecrit par M. Marchaud
sous la Dieted de l'Empereur," 1836; Enrico Bindi, "Sulla
Vita e sulle Opere di C. G. Cesare discorso," 1844 • P- VAN Limburg-
Brouwer, "Cesar en zijne Tijdgenooten," 4 vols., 1845-46; Jacob
Abbott, "Life of Julius Caesar," 1849; Napoleon III., "Histoire
de Jules C^sar," 2 vols., 1867-68; Lucan, "Pharsalia;" also Byron,
"Childe Harold," canto iv., 90th stanza.
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Ju've-nal, [Lat. Jiivena'us ; Fr. Juvenal, zhii'vl'.
nil'.j or, more fully, Dec'I-mus Ju'nl-U8 Ju-ve-na'-
Us, one of the most celebrated of the Latin satirical pods,
is believed to have been born in Aquimim, a Volscian
town, about A.r>. 40. But few authentic facts have been
preserved respecting his history: it is said, however, that
he was the son of a wealthy frecdman, and that he
devoted the early part of his life to the study of rhetoric
and declamation. He afterwards became a pleader in
the courts of law, where he appears to have been successful.
He was an intimate friend of the poet Martial,
who mentions him in two of his epigrams. None of
the productions of Juvenal were given to the public
until he had passed the age of sixty years. His poems, which
he then recited, gained him universal admiration.
One of his earliest satires had been written against an
actor named Paris, who was a great favourite with the
emperor Domitian. It was not published until the reign
of Hadrian, who, imagining that it reflected on one of
his own favourites, sent Juvenal into an honourable exile
by making him the prefect of a legion in Egypt, where
he is said to have died about ah. 125. Sixteen of his
satires have been preserved. Several translations of
them have been made into English, of which the most
prominent are those of Dryden and Gifford. In these
satires Juvenal severely lashes the prevailing vices cf
his time ; but it may well be doubted whether his vivid
pictures of the licentiousness of that age do not tend to
fan those very passions which thev seem intended to
restrain. He was distinguished for his force of intellect,
his flow of language, and his never-failing wit. "Juvenal
gives me," says Dryden, "as much pleasure as I can
bear. He fully satisfies expectation ; he treats his subject
home. . . . When he gives over, 'tis a sign that the
subject is exhausted, and that the wit of man can carry
it no further." His works, differing equally from the
austere moral dialogues of Persius and the genial raillery
of Horace, are rhetorical rather than poetical. They are
brilliant and sonorous declamations, and master-pieces
of denunciation.
"Magnificent versification," says Macaulay, "and ingenious
combinations rarely harmonize with the expression
of deep feeling. In Juvenal and Dryden alone we
have the sparkle and the heat together. Those great
satirists succeeded in communicating the fervour of their
feelings to materials the most incombustible, and kindled
the whole mass into a blaze at once dazzling and
destructive."
(" Essay on Dryden.") Among the best editions
of Juvenal is that of Ruperti, (Leipsic, 2 vols., 1801,) to
which are prefixed all the ancient documents for the
biography of the satirist.
See J. V. Francke,
" Examen criticum D. J. Juvenalis Vitae,"
1S20, and "
Programma de Vita D. J. Juvenalis Quesiio altera," 1827 ;
Voi.krk, "Juvenal, Lehens- und Charakterbild," 1S51 ; Bauer,
"
Kritische Bemerkungen iiber einige Nacluichten aus dem Leben
Juvenals," 1833 : Bahr, "Gescbichte der Rbmischen
Litteratur."
Read More
Laelius, lee'le-us, (Caius,) surnamed Nepos, an eminent
Roman general. He had a high command under
Scipio Africanus in the expedition against Spain in 210
B.C. In 205 he gained a victory over Syphax in Africa,
for which he received a crown of gold. He was elected
praetor in 197, and consul in 190. His notes furnished
Polybius with materials for his history of Scipio's campaigns
in Spain.
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Li-cin'i-us, (or le-sin'e-us,) (Flavius Valerius,)
(called by some writers Pub'lius Fla'vius Gale'rius
Valeria'nus Licinia'nus,) a Roman emperor, born in
Dacia about 263 A.D., was originally a peasant. He rose
to the rank of general in the army, and gained the favour
of Galerius, who in 307 made him a partner in the
empire, with the title of Augustus. In 313 he married
Constantia, sister of Constantine the Great, and, having
defeated Maximin, became master of all the Eastern
provinces. A war soon ensued between him and Constantine,
which ended in the complete defeat of Licinius
at Chalcedon, near Byzantium, in 323. He was put to
death by order of the victor in 324 a.d. He was notorious
for cruelty and other vices.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Read More
Liv i-a, |Fr. Livie, le've',}- or, more fully, Livl-a
Dru-sil'la, a Roman empress, born in 58 B.C., was
first married to Tiberius Nero. After becoming the mother of
Tiberius and Drusus Germanicus, she was
married in 38 B.C. to the emperor Augustus, over whom
she acquired an ascendency which she retained until his
death. She persuaded him to adopt her son Tiberius as
his successor. By his last will he appointed Livia and
Tiberius his heirs, and directed her to assume the name
of Julia Augusta. She was a woman of superior talents.
Died in 29 a.d.
See J. D. Koehler, "Dissertatio de Livia Augusta,*' 1715;
Tacitus,
"
Annales," i. and v. ; "Nouvelle Biographic Gene>ale."
Read More
Liv'y, [Lat. Liv'ius,] (Titus,) [It. Tito Livio, tee'to
lee've-o ; Fr. Tite Live, tit lev,] a celebrated Roman
historian, was born at Patavium (now Padua) in 59 B.C.
Ancient writers furnish us few particulars of his life,
except that he was patronized by Augustus and became
a person of consideration at court. He appears to have
passed the greater part of his time in Rome. Niebuhr
favours the opinion that he was in early life a teacher of
rhetoric. His great history of Rome, from the origin of
the city to the year 9 B.C., was' called by
him "
Annates,"
and was comprised in one hundred and forty-two books,
of which thirty-five have come down to us entire,-viz.,
the first, third, and fourth decades, and five books of the
fifth decade. We have also epitomes, by an unknown
hand, of one hundred and
forty
books. The first book
was probably published or written between 29 and 25
B.C. His dialogues on philosophy and politics, which,
according to some writers, procured him the favour of
Augustus, are not now extant.
The great popularity of his history must lie ascribed
to the excellence and beauty of his style and his wonderful
powers of description. The numerous orations by
which the history is diversified are models of eloquence.
"The painting of the narrative," says Macaulay, in his
essav entitled
"
History," in the "Edinburgh Review,"
"is beyond description vivid and graceful. The abundance
of interesting sentiments and splendid imagery in
the speeches is almost miraculous." Hut he was destitute
of many qualifications essential to a historian of the
first order. Incapable of broad philosophic views, and
indisposed to profound research, he was more studious
to exalt the national glory and produce a picturesque
effect than to compose a true history. He made little
use of public documents, and was not familiar with the
antiquities of his country. His work is also deficient
in the explanation of the original constitution of the
state, the contests between the orders, the progress
of civilization, and other domestic affairs. Livy was
married, and had two or more children. Died at Padua
in 17 A.D.
See N. Machiavei.u. " Discorso sopra la prima Decada Hi Tito
Livio," 1512. (translated into English by K. Dacrks 1636;)
D. W.
Mnu.Kk, •*' Dbpuiatio drciikuia de Tito Li.io." 1688; A. M
Mbke-
GMeu.i, "Vila di Titn Livio," iRm 1 G K. Tommasini,
" Vita Titi
Livii," 1630: J C. Hand, " De Tito Livio Oratore," 1773.
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Brutus, (Lucius Junius,) a distinguished Ron
patriot, son of Tarquinia, the sister of Tarquin the Pro
The king having put to death the father and elder 1
ther of Brutus, the latter feigned idiocy, gave up all 1
possessions to his tyrannical uncle, and patiently accept!
the reproachful surname of Brutus,(/>." stupid, brutish,
which was destined to become a titleof so much gloi
his family. Aruns and Titus, the sons of Tarquin, ha
ing been sent to Delphi to consult the oracle, took Bruti
with them to serve for their amusement. When th<
were making offerings to the god, Brutus offered a sin
staff, which, however, was hollow and contained a f
ring,-a significant emblem of the character of the give
After the outrage done to Lucretia by Sextus the sc
of Tarquin, (see Lucretia,) Brutus threw aside all <"
guise, put himself at the head of the people, expelled t
reigning family from Rome, and effected the abolition
royalty, (509 B.C.) Shortly after, Titus and Tiberius, the
his of Brutus, accused of conspiring for the restoration
of Tarquin, were brought before the consular tribunal
for judgment. Their guilt having been proved,
is, then consul, with unconquerable patriotism and
inflexible justice, condemned his own sons to death,
although
the people were willing that he should pardon
them. In the year 507 B.C., Tarquin, who had never
abandoned the purpose of regaining his kingdom, led an
army against Rome, and his son Aruns and Brutus met
in the field of battle and slew each other. The corpse
of Brutus was carried to Rome in triumph, a statue
of bronze was erected to his memory, and the Roman
matrons wore mourning a whole year for the avenger of
the wrongs of Lucretia.
See C. L. Crf.li,
"
Dissertatio de L. J. Bruto Reipublica; Ro-
Auctorc," 1721 ; P. C. ChompriS, "Vie de Brutus premier
1 de Rome, 1730.
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Ve'rus, (Lucius ./Elius), son of vElius Verus, who
had been adopted and made Caesar by the emperor
Hadrian. In 161 A.D. he became the colleague of Marcus
Aurelius as Emperor of Rome. He was a weak and
profligate prince. Died in 169 A.D. His original name
was L. Commodus.
Read More
Con'stan-tine, [Lat. Constanti'nus ; Gr. Kuvaruvtwoc
; Fr. Constantin, k6N'st6.N'taN' ; Ger. Constantin,
kon-stan-teen'; It. Constantino, kon-stan-tee'no;
Dutch, Konstantijn, kon-stan-tin',] (Flavius Valerius
Aurelius,) surnamed the Great, the first Christian
emperor of Rome, born in 272 A.D., was the son of
the emperor Constantius Chlorus and his wife Helena.
Before his accession, his talents, courage, and martial services
had rendered him a favourite of the army, and an
object of jealousy to Galerius, one of the two emperors
then reigning. He was at York when his father died
there, in July, 306, and was proclaimed emperor by the
legions under his command. Galerius accorded to him
only the title of Caesar, and conferred the rank of Augustus
on his own son, Severus. At Rome, Maxentius
and his father Maximim, in the absence of Galerius,
raised a successful revolt, (307,) after which six emperors
and Caesars at one time ruled the provinces of Rome.
About 307 Constantine married Fausta, daughter of
Maximian ; but a war soon ensued between these emperors,
and Maximian, having been defeated, was put to
death in 309. Galerius died in 311, after which Licinius
and Maximin remained masters of the provinces east of
Italv. In 312, Constantine, who reigned in Gaul, marched
against Maxentius, who was defeated and killed near
Rome in that year. About this time, according to tradition,
he was converted to Christianity by a miraculous
vision, in which he saw in the heavens the sign of a cross,
with this inscription, "Thou shalt conquer by *.his sign,"
(" In hoc signo vinces.")
Having obtained undisputed supremacy over the West,
including Italy and Africa, he began to favour more
openly the Christians, and displayed wisdom in the
promotion of order and prosperity among his subjects.
In 314 he fought in Thrace an indecisive battle against
Licinius, his only remaining rival, and then made a
peace, which lasted nine years. During this period he
was employed in political reforms, and adopted a more
humane code of laws, by which Christianity was recognized
as the religion of the state, but the pagan worship
was still tolerated.
In 323 he gained a complete victory over Licinius
near Adrianople, and another opposite Byzantium, after
which he was the sole emperor. He assembled at Nicaea
in 325 the first general council, in which Arianism was
condemned and a famous Catholic creed was adopted.
In the next year he was guilty of an act which has left
a deep stain on his memory, the execution of his eldest
son, Crispus, falsely accused of a crime by Fausta, who
was his step-mother. About 328 he transferred his court
to Byzantium, which he enlarged, and the name of which
he changed to Constantinople,-"City of Constantine."
The duration of the Eastern Empire so many centuries
after the fall of the Western seems to approve the wisdom
of his policy in this affair. A few years before hi* death
he favoured the Arians, and recalled some banished
bishops of that party. He died at Nicomedia 111337 A.D.,
having divided the empire between his three sons, Constantine,
Constantius, and Constans. His character is
variously estimated ; but it is admitted that he had many
of the qualities of a great statesman and general. He
was far from being a saint, and in the opinion of Niebuhr
was not even a Christian, though he permitted himself
to be baptized just before his death.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Euse-
BIUS, "Vita Constantini ;" Vogt, "Historia Constantini Magni,"
1720; Tii.i.k.mont, "Histoire des Empereurs ;" Joseph Fletcher,
"Life of Constantine the Great," 1S52 ; J. C. F. Manso,
" Leben
Constantin's des Grossen," 1817; Jakob Burckhardt, "Die Zeit
Constantin's des Grossen," 1853.
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Constantine (or Constantinus) III., (Flavius
Heraclius,) called No'vus, Emperor of the East, born
in 612 A.D., was the son of the emperor Heraclius and
Eudoxia. At the death of his father, in 641, he became a
partner in the empire with his half-brother Heracleonas.
After a reign of three months, he died, or was poisoned
by Martina, his step-mother. He left a son, Constans II.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
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Con-stan'tl-us (kon-stan'shg-iis) X, commonly called
Constantius -chlo'rus, [Fr. Constance Chloke,
koN'stoNs' kloR.j (Flavius Valerius,) a Roman emperor,
born about 250 A.D., was the son of Eutropius,
and father of Constantine the Great. In 292, Diocletian
and Maximian, in order to divide the labours of the
administration, chose Galerius and Constantius, each of
whom received the title of Caesar. Gaul, Spain, and
Britain were allotted to the latter, who was required to
repudiate Helena and marry Theodora, the daughter
of Maximian. He became emperor in 305, on the abdication
of Diocletian, and died at York in 306, leaving
the reputation of a just and humane ruler. His son
Constantine was his successor.
See Eutropius; Aurelius Victor, "Csesares."
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Constantius [Fr. Constance, k6N'stdNs'] H., (Flavius
Julius,) the third son of Constantine I., Emperor
of Rome, was born at Sirmium in 317 A.D. By his father's
will he inherited the Asiatic provinces and Egypt in 337.
It is said that he ordered or permitted the massacre of
his father's nephews, brother, etc. at the time of his
accession.
During nearly all his reign he was at war with
the Persians, by whom he was often defeated. In 350
the revolt of Magnentius resulted in the death of Constans,
Emperor of the West. Constantius turned his
arms against Magnentius, whom he defeated at Mursa, on
the Drave, in 351, and in Gaul in 353, after which he was
master of the whole empire. In 355 he appointed his
cousin Julian, Caesar and commander in Gaul, and in
357 visited Rome for the first time. He favoured the
Arians, and banished the orthodox bishops. Julian
having been proclaimed emperor by his army in Gaul,
Constantius was marching to attack him, when he died
near Tarsus in 361, and was succeeded by Julian. His
reputation is not high either for talents or for virtue.
See Eusebius,
"
Vita Constantii :" Tiixemont, "Histoire des
Empereurs ;" Gibbon,
" Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."
Read More
Bel-I-sa'rI-us, [Fr. Belisaire, b4'le'zaR'; Ger. Belisar,
ba'Ie-zaR',] a Byzantine general, whose talents were of
the highest order, was born at Germania, in Illyria, about
505 A.D. He serveO in the guarO of Justinian before his
accession to the throne, (527,) anO soon after that event
was appointeO general-in-chief of the army of the East
He defeated the Persians at Dara, in 530, and quelled a
dangerous sedition at Constantinople in 532 A.D. In 533
and 534 he gained decisive victories over the Vandals in
Africa, captureO their king, Gelimer, anO destroyed his
kingdom. For this service he was honoured with a triumph,
and chosen sole consul, in 535. Between 535 and
540 he was employed against the Ostrogoths, who had
obtained possession of Italy. He made himself master
of Rome, and had nearly reduced Italy, when he was recalled
in 540 A.D. He opposed with success on the
eastern frontier a Persian army under Cosroes (or Khosroo)
in 542, and at the end of this campaign was degraded
by the influence of the empress Theodora. He
was fineO anO threatened with death, but was pardoned
on conOition that he woulO be reconciled to his unfaithful
and abandoned wife Antonina, who was a favourite of
Theodora. In 544 he renewed the war against the Gothic
king Totila in Italy, with a small army, which proved to
be inadequate to the expulsion of the more numerous
enemy. He returned to the capital in 548, anO passed
about ten years in inaction. His last service was the
repulse of the Bulgarians, who invaded the empire in
559 A.D., after which the jealousy of Justinian or the
intrigues of courtiers deprived him of command.
In 563 he was falsely accused of a conspiracy against
the life of Justinian, for which his fortune was
sequestered.
According to Gibbon, his innocence was recognized
before his death, which occurred in 565 A.D. There
appears to be no foundation for the once current tradition
or fiction that he was deprived of sight and reduced
to support himself by begging. He seems to
have been a Christian in outward conformity at least.
As a general, he was distinguished for presence of mind
and rapidity of movement. He was loyal to the emperor,
humane to the vanquished, and patient towards
rivals who falsely accused him.
See " Life of Belisarius," by Lord Mahon, 1829 ; Gibbon,
" Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Christian Friedrich Zbller,
"
Belisarius," Tubingen, 1809; C. L. Roth,
" Ueber Belisars
Ungnade," 1846; "Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 1847.
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Bo-e'thl-us, [It. Boecio, bo-a'cho, or Boezio, bo-at'-
se-o; in French, Boece, bo'4ss',] (Anicius Manlius
INI s,) a celebrated Roman philosopher and statesman,
born about 475 A.D. He was liberally educated,
and well instructed in Greek philosophy. When about
thirty-three, he was elected consul. His administration
was beneficent and favourable to the oppressed. He
translated the works of Plato and other Greek writers
into Latin, wrote commentaries on Aristotle, and acquired
a great reputation as an author. He held several high
omces under Theodoric the Goth, but, having been accused
by some envious courtiers of conspiring against
the government, he was unjustly condemned by that
king and executed about 525 A.D. His principal work
is "On the Consolation of Philosophy," ("De Consolatione
Philosophise,") which was written in prison,
where he was confined just before his death. It is com-
Eosed
of alternate portions of verse and prose. "Few
ooks," says Hallam, "are more striking from the
circumstances
of their production. Last of the classic
writers, in style not impure, ... in elevation of sentiment
equal to any of the philosophers, and mingling a
Christian sanctity with their lessons, he speaks from his
prison in the swanlike tones ofdying eloquence. Quenched
in his blood, the lamp he had trimmed with a skilful
hand, gave no more light; the language of Tully and
Virgil soon ceased to be spoken." (" Introduction to the
Literature of Europe.") His great work was very popular
in the middle ages, and was translated into various
languages. It was translated into Anglo-Saxon by Alfred
the Great, and imitated by Chaucer. English versions
of it have been produced by W. Causton, Rev.
Philip Ridpath, R. Duncan, and others.
See Procopius, "History;" Barberini,
"
Exposizione della Vita
de Boezio," z783;DoMGERVAisE,"HistoiredeBoecet "i7i5; Heyne,
"Censiua ingenii Boethii," 1806; "Life of Boethius, prefixed
to
Ridpath's translation, 1785; Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of
the
Roman Empire," chap, xxxix. ; Ersch und Gruber,
"
Allgemeine
EncykJopaedie;" Fabricius,
"
bibliotheca Latina;" Siro Comi,
" Memoria storico-critica sopra S. Boecio."
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Ca-lig'u-la, (Caius C*sar,) a Roman emperor, bom
in 12 A.D., was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina,
who was a granddaughter of the emperor Augustus.
His childhood and youth were passed among the soldiers,
with whom he became a favourite. By deep dissimulation
he escaped from being a victim to the suspicion of
Tiberius, who was the uncle of Germanicus and had
adopted the latter as his heir. At the age of twenty-five
Caligula succeeded Tiberius, with a general expression
of popular favour. The first acts of his reign gave promise
of clemency and moderation, by liberating prisoners
of state, recalling exiles, etc. Before many months had
ejapsed, he became a monster of cruelty, and indulged
his vicious passions and appetites to the greatest excess.
1 le caused a temple to be erected to himself, and claimed
divine honours. It is said that he wished the Roman
people had but one head, that he might decapitate them
at a single blow. A conspiracy was formed against him
by Cassius Chaerea, who assassinated him in the year 41,
whereupon his uncle Claudius became his successor.
See Suetonius, "Lives of the Twelve Caesars;" Tacitus,
"Annales;"
Dion Cassiuc, "History of Rome."
Read More
Camillus, [Fr. Camille, kfrnei' or kS'me'ye,] (Marcus
Furius,) acelebrated Roman dictator, whose history has been embellished with many fabulous exploits. After
serving as military tribune, he was five times chosen dictator,
and gained victories over the Falisci, Capenates,
Volscians, and Fidenates. In his first dictatorship, which
began in 396, he took Veii, after a long siege. About
390 n.c. he was condemned for peculation, and was exiled
to Ardea. The Gauls under Brennus having pillaged
Rome, Camillus was recalled, and, according to the
popular account, gained two decisive victories over the
invaders. He was chosen dictator, for the fifth time, in
367. He is said to have dissuaded the citizens from
removing en masse from Rome to Veii after the former
city had been ruined by the Gauls. Died in 364 B.C.
Plutarch has written a life of Camillus.
See Livy,
"
History of Rome ;" Niebuhr,
"
History of Rome,'' vol.
i. ; Obkecht,
"
Dissertatio, M. F. Camillum repnesentans," 1693.
Read More
Car-a-cal'la, (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus,)
a Roman emperor, born at Lyons in 188 a. d.
He was the son of the emperor Septimius Severus, who,
dying in 212, left the empire to Caracalla and his brother
Geta. The latter was assassinated by order of Caracalla,
who sought to confirm his power by sacrificing many
friends of Geta. Papinian, the jurist, was one of the victims,
who, it is said, amounted to thousands. His reign
was a series of cruelties, extortions, and follies. He chose
for his chief ministers persons of the vilest character. He
led his army into Parthia about 216 A.D., ravaged a part
of the country, and retired before he had encountered
the Parthian army. A conspiracy having been formed
by Macrinus, Caracalla was killed by one of his soldiers
near Edessa, in Asia, in 217 a.d., and Macrinus reigned
in his stead.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Mkis
ter,
"
Dissertatio de Caracalla," 1702; Spartian, "Vita Caracallx."
Read More
Ca-rau'si-us, (Marcus Aurei.ius Valerius,) an
adventurer, born at Menapia, in Belgium, about 250 A. D.
Having been promoted to the command of a Roman
fleet, he made himself master of Great Britain and assumed
the title of emperor. After vain efforts to conquer
him, Diocletian recognized him by treaty. He was
assassinated in 293 A.D.
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Ca-ri'nus, [Fr. Carin, k3'raN',] (Marcus Aurelius,)
a Roman emperor, eldest son of the emperor
Carus, who committed to him the government of Italy,
Africa, and the West, when he set out on an expedition
against Persia in 283 A.D. Carus died, or was killed, in
284, soon after which Diocletian was chosen emperoi
by the army in the East. A battle was fought between
Carinus and his rival near Margum, in Mcesia, in which
the latter was successful, and Carinus, who was detested
for his cruelty, was killed by his own soldiers in 285.
See Vopircus, "Carinus;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire."
Read More
Ca'rus, (Marcus Aurelius,) a Roman emperor, born
at Narbo, (now Narbonne.) Under the emperor Probus
he held the high office of prefect of the praetorium. At
the death of Probus in 282 A.D., Carus was elected his
successor by the army. In 283 he marched against the
Persians, leaving his son Carinus to govern Italy. Having
taken Seleucia and Ctesiphon, he was about to pursue
his conquests, when he died suddenly, (283,) or, as some
report, was killed by lightning.
See Gibbon,
"
Decline and Fall of the " Roman Empire ;" Vopiscus, Carus.
Read More
Di'on Cas'sl-us (kash'e-us) or Dio Cassius, or, more
fully, Cas'sius Di'on Cocceia'nus, (kok-se-ya'nus,) an
eminent historian, born at Nicasa, in Bithynia, about 155
A.D., was the son of a Roman senator, and descended by
his mother from Dion Chrysostom. He lived in Rome,
was a senator in the reign of Commodus, and governor
of Smyrna and Pergamos under Macrimts. By the favour
of Alexander Seve'rus, he was elected consul with that
emperor in 229 a.d. He wrote in Greek several works,
the principal of which is his "
History of Rome" (" 'Pu,
/uuk)/ 'Icropia") from the arrival of /Eneas in Italy to the
year 229 A.D., in eighty books, of which the first thirty-
five
are lost except fragments, and the last twenty exist only
in the abridgment of Xiphilinus. As a historian he is
esteemed for elegance of style, accuracy in dates, and
diligence in search of the truth, for which his official
position afforded him facilities. His work is a rich
collection of documents on the later years of the republic
and the first ages of the empire. His knowledge
of Roman institutions was more exact and extensive
than that of previous historians.
See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graca;" Reimarus,
" De Vita el
Scriptis Cassii Dionis," 1752; Schlosser, "Dissertation on
Dim)
Cassius," prefixed to Lorknz's German version of Dion, 1826;
Nik*
buhr, "Lectures on Roman History."
Read More
Cato, [Gr. Koruv ; Fr. Caton* kS't6N'; It. Catone,
ka-to'na,] (Marcus Porcius,) often called Ca'to Censo'rius,
(or Cknsori'nus,) i.e. "Cato the Censor," also
sumamed THE Elder, an eminent Roman patriot and
statesman, was born of a plebeian family at Tusculum in
234 B.C. At the age of seventeen he served in the army
against Hannibal, and in 209 he took part in the siege of
Tarcntum under Fabius. He contributed to the victory
over Hasdrubal on the Metaurus in 207. In the intervals
of war he worked on his Sabine farm, and accustomed
himself to a hardy, simple mode of life, disciplined in
austere
virtues and in all branches of practical and useful
knowledge. By pleading causes for the poor, he had
become an oracle among his rustic neighbors, when Valerius
Flaccus, a liberal patrician, recognized his merit,
and persuaded him to seek in the Forum of Rome an
ampler sphere of usefulness. He soon gained eminence
as an orator, and became a candidate for office. He
was elected quaestor (paymaster) in 204, and prxtor in
198 B.C., when he obtained Sardinia as his province.
In 195 he was raised to the consulship, with his early
patron, V. Flaccus, for his colleague, and commanded
the army in Spain with ability and success, for which he
received a triumph on his return. Elected censor in 184,
he reformed many abuses, and enforced his principles
of economy and sobriety with a severity which procured
him many enemies. He was one of the chief advisers
of the third Punic war, and author of the phrase
(which he often repeated in the senate) Delenda est
Carthago,
("Carthage must be destroyed.") He wrote a
treatise on agriculture, (" De Re rustica,") which is
extant. His son, M. Porcius Cato, became an eminent
jurist. Died in 149 B.C. In Plutarch's parallels, Cato
the Censor is the counterpart of Aristides. Few names
occur in the Latin classics oftener than that of Cato,
who was venerated as a model of pristine Roman virtue.
See Plutarch,
" Lives ;" Livy,
"
History of Rome ;" Cornelius
Nepos, "Cato;" Cicero, "Cato Major, sen de Senectute ;"
Drumann, " Geschichte Roms ;" E. Schop.er, "De M. P. Catone
Censorino," 1825 ; Weber,
"
Programma de M. P. Catonis Vita et
Moribus," 1831.
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Ca-tul'lus, [Fr. C atuli.e, kt'tiil',] (Catus Valerius,)
an eminent Latin poet, born at or near Verona about
77 B.C., (some authorities say 87 B.C.) He went to Rome
at an early age, and by bis literary merit obtained
admission
into the society of Cicero, Caesar, Pollio, and
others. His indulgence in vicious and expensive pleasures
soon reduced him to poverty, which, however, did
not subdue his hilarity. His superior genius as a poet is
generally admitted by ancient and modern critics. He
wrote numerous poems, which are still extant, including
odes and epigrams of great beauty and pathos. He also
excelled in heroic verse, and was the first Roman that
cultivated lyric poetry with success. His longest poem
is "The Nuptials of Peleus and Thetis," in hexameter
verse. Some critics estimate the "Atys" as the greatest
of his works. "His '
Atys,'
"
says Professor William
Ramsay,
" is one of the most remarkable poems in the
whole range of Latin literature. Rolling impetuously
along in a flood of wild passion, bodied forth in the
grandest imagery and the noblest diction, it
breathes
in
every line the fiery vehemence cf the Greek ditnyramb.
. . . We admire by turns, in the lighter efforts/ of his
muse, his unaffected ease, playful grace, vigorous
simplicity,
pungent wit, and slashing invective." He imitated
Greek models, and seemed like a Greek poet
writing in Latin. He is supposed to have died about
45 B.C. ; though Scaliger maintains that he lived about
thirty years after that date.
See Sellar, "Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. xii. ;
FarRicius,
" Bibliotheca Latina ;"
" Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;"
'Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1842;
" Fraser's Magazine"
for March, 1849.
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Cel'sus, [Fr. Cklse, sels ; It. Celso, chel'so,] an
Epicurean philosopher, who lived in the second century,
in the reign of the Antonines, and was probably a
Roman. He was a friend of Lucian. He is supposed
to be the author of the attack on Christianity called
"
Ao;oc ufajOr/r" (a
" True Discourse,") which was ably
confuted by Qrigen, and which has not come down to
us. Some have regretted that the early Christians in
their zeal destroyed the work of Celsus, which might
now be used to refute some arguments of infidels. He
is said to have been the first pagan author that wrote
against the Christian religion, and to have used the
weapons of sophistry and irony with formidable power.
See Origen, "Adversus Celsum ;" Neander,
"
Geschichte der
Christliche Kirche."
Read More
Cic'e-ro, [Gr. Kwcepuv; It. Cicerone, che-cha-ro'ni ;
Fr. Ciceron, se'sa'rdN'; Ger. Cicero, tsits'J-ro; Sp.
Ciceron, the-thA-r6n',] (Marcus Tullius,) often called
Tully by English writers, an illustrious Roman orator,
philosopher, and statesman, was born at Arpinum, (now
Arpino,) about seventy miles east-southeast of Rome,
on the 3d of January, 106 B.C., (647 A.u.C) He was a
son of Marcus Tullius Cicero, an opulent citizen of the
equestrian order, who owned an estate near Arpinum and
devoted much time to literary pursuits. His mother's
name was Helvia. His early education was directed by
Archias the Greek poet, Q. yElius the grammarian, and
other teachers, at Rome. During his minority he composed
a number of poems, among which was " Pontius
Glaucus," which is lost. His disposition was genial and
amiable. He learned to speak Greek fluently, and was
profoundly versed in Greek literature and philosophy.
Having assumed the manly gown (toga virilis) in his
sixteenth year, (91 B.C.,) he applied himself to the study
of law under Mucius Scaevola the Augur, an eminent
jurist and statesman.
In the year 89 B.C. he served a campaign under Cneius
Pompeius Strabo in the Social war, in obedience to the
law which then required every citizen to perform military
service. During the six ensuing years after this campaign
he passed his life in studious retirement, and took
no part in the bloody civil war between Marius and
Sulla. He attended the lectures of the Greek philosopher
Philo, the chief of the New Academy, studied logic
with Diodotus the Stoic, and was instructed in rhetoric
by Apollonius Molo of Rhodes. " He had," says Plutarch,
" both the capacity and inclination to learn all the
arts, nor was there any branch of science that he despised
: yet he was most inclined to poetry. ... In
process of time he was looked upon as the best poet as
well as the greatest orator in Rome. His reputation for
oratory still remains; . . . but, as many ingenious poets
have appeared since his time, his poetry has lost its
credit and is now neglected." In his admirable oration
" Pro Archia," Cicero informs us that Archias the poet
exerted great influence over the formation of his taste
and the development and direction of his genius. Among
his early productions was a heroic poem entitled "Marius,"
which is not extant : also a treatise on rhetoric,
entitled " De Inventione Rhetorica."
Having laid a solid foundation for his fame by the
severe and systematic discipline of his rare talents, and
by assiduous efforts to perfect his elocution by the
practice
of declamation, he began, at the age of twenty-five,
his career as a pleader in the Forum. An argument
which he made in 81 B.C. for his client P. Quinctius, in a
civil suit, is still extant. The first important criminal
trial in which he was employed was that of Sextus Roscius
Amerinus, who was accused of parricide by an agent of
the dictator Sulla, the dread of whose power and cruelty
was so great that all the other advocates declined to appear
for the defence. Cicero defended him with success,
denounced the malice and iniquity of the prosecutor, and
gained great applause by his courage and eloquence.
This event occurred in the twenty-seventh year of his
age. His physical constitution in his youth was so delicate
that his medical friends advised him to abandon
the bar. "My body," says he, "was very weak and
emaciated, my neck long and small, which is a habit
thought liable to great risk of life, if engaged in any
fatigue or labour of the lungs." He therefore resolved
to improve his health by travel, and to finish his education
by visits to the famous seats of learning and art in
Greece and Asia. Having departed from Rome in 79
B.C., he spent about six months in Athens, where ne
pursued his favourite studies with Antiochus of Ascalon,
Zeno the Epicurean,, and Demetrius Syrus. He also
enjoyed in Athens the society of Pomponius Atticus,
with whom he formed a lasting and memorable friendship,
lie afterwards travelled extensively in Asia Minor.
"He came back again to Italy," says Middleton-, "after
an excursion of two years, extremely improved, and
changed, as it were, into a new man : the vehemence of
his voice and action was moderated, the redundancy of
his style and fancy corrected, his lungs strengthened,
and his whole constitution confirmed."
In 76 B.C. he was elected quaestor (paymaster) by
the unanimous suffrage of all the tribes. The quaestors
were sent annually into the several provinces, one with
every proconsul or governor, to whom he was next in
authority. The office of quaestor was the first step in the
gradation of public honours, and entitled him to an
admission
into the senate for life. He officiated as quaestor
in Sicily, and performed his duties with such integrity,
moderation, and humanity that he won, it is said, the
love and admiration of all the Sicilians. As he was
returning
to Rome (74 B.C.) somewhat elated with his success,
and entertaining the idea that the great capital was
resounding with his praises, he met one of his
acquaintances,
a person of eminence, and inquired what they said
and thought of his actions in Rome. The answer was,
"
Why, where have you been, then, Cicero, all this time ?"
He then perceived that the reports of his conduct and
services had been lost in Rome, as in an immense
sea, and had added little or nothing to his reputation.
About 76 B.C. he married a rich heiress, named Terentia.
The law prescribed that five years should elapse after his
election to the quaestorship (or that he must attain the
age of thirty-eight) before he could hold the office of
aedile, which was the next in the ascending scale. The
orations which he pronounced during this period have
not been preserved. His principal rival in forensic
eloquence
was Hortensius, whom he soon surpassed. According
to Plutarch,
"
it was not by slow and insensible
degrees that he gained the palm of eloquence : his fame
shot foi th at once, and he was distinguished above all
the orators of Rome." He excelled in sarcasm and
witty repartees, with which he often seasoned his forensic
arguments. All the resources of his genius, his art, his
learning and influence were freely devoted to the defence
of those whose lives or dignity or reputations were
judicially assailed. He received no pay for his services
as an advocate. He deviated from his general rule and
practice of pleading for the defendant, in the case of the
infamous Caius Verres, who in 70 B.C. was impeached
by the Sicilians for atrocious acts of cruelty and rapine,
but was supported by the most powerful families of
Rome, including the Metelli. At the urgent request of
the Sicilians, Cicero conducted the prosecution of Verres,
who employed Hortensius to defend him ; but the
evidence against the accused was so overwhelming that
his counsel declined to plead, or had nothing to say, the
defence suddenly collapsed, and Verres himself, anticipating
his sentence, went into exile. Cicero, therefore,
actually spoke only two of his seven celebrated orations
against Verres ; but the others were published, and remain
a noble and imperishable monument of his versatile
and almost universal genius.
Having acquired great popularity, he was elected to
the aedileship, in 70 B.C., by a majority of the voters of
every tribe. As aedile, he had the care of the sacred
edifices, and was required by law or usage to gratify the
people with public games and shows and costly pageants,
partly at his own expense. In the year 67 he
offered himself as a candidate for the office of praetor,
which was one grade higher than that of aedile, and next
in dignity to the consulship. Although he had several
eminent competitors, he was elected the first praetor
urbanus by the suffrages of all the centuries. The duty
of the praetors was to preside as judges in the highest
courts, and their jurisdictions were assigned to them by
lot, which decided that Cicero should judge in cases of
extortion and rapine of which governors of provinces
were accused. " As a president in the courts of justice,
he acted with great integrity and honour." (Plutarch's
"Life of Cicero.") While he held the office of prxtor
(66 B.C.) he made an important and famous political oration
for the Manilian Law, (" Pro Lege Manilia,") the
design of which was to appoint Pompey commanderin-
chief in the war against Mithridates the Great. This
was the first occasion on which Cicero ever mounted
the rostrum. The Manilian Law, although strenuously
opposed by the nobles, or optimates, and many powerful
senators, was adopted. In the same year he defended
A. Cluentius, (who was accused of poisoning his fatherin-
law,) in a plea which is still extant.
At the expiration of his praetorship, Cicero would not
accept the government of a foreign p'rovince, which, says
Middleton,
" was the usual reward of that magistracy,
and the chief fruit which the generality proposed from
it. . . . The glory which he pursued was to shine in the
eyes of the city as the guardian of its laws, and to teach
the magistrates how to execute, the citizens how to obey
them. But he was now preparing to sue for the consulship,
the great object of all his hopes." The most formidable
obstacle to his ambition was the jealousy of the
nobles or aristocrats, who regarded the highest office as
their birthright, and who would oppose the election of a
" new man," (novus homo,) as they called all men whose
ancestors were mere private citizens. He offered himself
as a candidate for the consulship in his forty-third
year, 64 B.C., with six competitors, among whom were
P. Sulpicius Galba, C. Antonius, and L. Sergius Catilina.
The last two formed a coalition against Cicero, and were
favoured by Caesar and Crassus. During the canvass
Cicero uttered a severe invective on the habits and
characters
of Catiline and Antonius, in his oration "In Toga
Candida." The election resulted in the choice of Cicero
andC. Antonius, the former of whom received the votes
of all the centuries, and was the only
" new man" that
had been chosen consul in forty years. Among the
events of this year was the birth of his only son. He
had also a daughter, Tullia, who was born several years
earlier and was the object of his warmest affection. She
was a very amiable and accomplished woman.
He entered upon the office on the 1st of January, 63
B.C., and found the republic in a very critical and perilous
condition, distracted by pestilent laws and seditious
harangues and undermined by pervading corruption and
traitorous conspiracies. The difficulty was increased by
the fact that his colleague Antonius was a man of bad
(though feeble) character and was opposed to the policy
of Cicero. The latter, however, secured the co-operation,
or at least the neutrality, of Antonius, by a bargain
that he should have the best and most lucrative of the
provinces which were to be assigned to the consuls at
the expiration of their term. He promoted the cause
of liberty and order by another capital stroke of policy
when he induced the senators and the equites (knights)
to form a political alliance and unite in a common party.
" He was," says Middleton, "the only man in the city
capable of effecting such a coalition, being now at the
head of the senate, yet the darling of the knights." By
an artful and powerful speech he persuaded the people
to reject an agrarian law proposed by Rullus, a tribune
of the people. According to Niebuhr, this was " one of
the most brilliant achievements of eloquence." He defended
Kabirius, (accused of the murder of L. Satuininus,
who had been dead about forty years,) in an oration which
is extant.
The most memorable part of his administration appears
in the ability, courage, and elastic energy with
which he detected and baffled the nefarious designs of
Catiline and his accomplices. Catiline was a candidate
for the consulship in the election of 63 B.C., and hired
assassins to kill Cicero in the Campus Martius when he
should come to preside at the election ; but, as the consul
came guarded by armed men, the plot failed, and
Catiline was not elected. This second repulse rendered
him furious. He conspired to seize the chief power by
the burning of the city and a general massacre of the
senators and the Hand* of order. His capacity and
resources for such an enterprise were very great, and
he was abetted by vast numbers of disaffected and desperate
men, some of whom were of high rank and great
influence. The leaders of this plot met on the 6th of
November, and arranged the immediate execution of
the same ; but their plans were revealed to Cicero by
Fulvia, the mistress of one of the conspirators, and when
two of then went to his house next morning to assassinate
the consul they found it well guarded. On the
8th
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Cin-cin-na'tus, (Lucius Quintus,) a celebrated
Roman patriot, patrician, and dictator, born about 520
B.C. Having reduced himself to poverty by paying a
fine for his son, he was cultivating with his own hands a
small farm, when he was chosen consul in 457 B.C. He
was a strenuous opponent of the plebeian party. At
the end of his official term he returned to his former
employment. The Romans, having been unfortunate
in war with the /Equi, chose Cincinnatus dictator about
the year 456 B.C. He gained a decisive victory, and
then abdicated the dictatorship, which he had held only
fifteen days. About the age of eighty he again reluctantly
acted as dictator, on the occasion of the treason
of Spurius Melius, who was promptly defeated and slain.
Niebuhr is skeptical as to the cause of his poverty above
assigned.
See Livv,
"
History of Rome;" Niebuhr, "History of Rome."
Read More
Clau'dl-us, [Kr. Claude, klod,] or, more fully, Tiberius
Claudius Drusus Nero, fourth Emperor of
Rome, born at Lyons in 10 i:.c, was the son of Drusus
Nero by Antonia Minor, (who was a daughter of Mark
Antony,) and was a nephew of the emperor Tiberius,
Being feeble in mind and body, he took no part in public
affairs during the reign of Tiberius. Caligula, who
was his nephew, gave him the office of consul in 37
A.i>. On the death of Caligula, in 41, Claudius was
proclaimed
emperor by the mutinous soldiers ; and the senate,
though they preferred a republic, acquiesced in the
choice of the army. His accession, as usual, was signalized
by acts of justice and clemency. He recalled
exiles, diminished taxes, and built an aqueduct in Rome.
The principal military event of his reign was his successful
invasion of Britain in person. His wife, the infamous
Messalina, acquired an ascendency over him, and caused
senators and other innocent persons to be put to death.
After she became so shameless as to marry Caius Silius,
she was executed, by the order or permission of Claudius.
He afterwards married his niece, Agrippina the
Younger, who by a former husband had a son, L. Domitius.
Having persuaded him to adopt this son, she poisoned
Claudius in 54 A.D., when her son, assuming
the name of Nero, became emperor.
See Suetonius, "Claudius;" Tacitus, "Annates;" Dion Cassius,
"
Hisuiry."
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Claudius, (Marcus Aurklius,) surnamed Goth'icus,
an emperor of Rome, was born in Illyricum in 214
a.d. After having a high command under Valerian, he
was proclaimed emperor by the army at the death of
Gallicnus, in 268. The senate confirmed this choice.
The same year he defeated the rebel Aureolus in battle.
In 269 he gained a decisive victory over the Goths or
Scythians near Nissa, in Servia, and assumed the name of
Gothicus. He died of an epidemic disease at Sirmium
in 270, leaving a good reputation for virtue and talents.
His brother, Quintilius, was proposed as his successor ;
but the army preferred Aurelian.
Seel'REBKU.ius Pollio,
" Claudius." in the" Historia Augusta;"
Tii.i.HMnNT, "'Histoire des Emjjereurs."
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Com'mo-dus, [Fr. Commode, ko'mod',] (Lucius
/Ei.ius Aurelius,) a Roman emperor, born in 161 A.D.,
was the son 0/ Marcus Aurelius and Faustina. He succeeded
his father in 180, and found the empire prosperous.
Though he had been carefully educated, he soon
exhibited a character which inspires unmixed detestation.
He resigned the direction of the government to his
favourites Perennis and others, and indulged his cruel
temper and evil passions without restraint. He ordered
his wife Crispina to be put to death, and took a concubine
named Marcia. His subjects were required to offer
homage to him as Hercules. Many senators and others
were doomed to death by his cruelty. His officers Laetus
and F.clectus having conspired with Marcia against
him, he was poisoned and strangled in 192 A.D., and Pertinax
then became emperor.
See Tillfmont, "Histoire des Empereurs :" Dion Cassiu.%
"
History of Rome :" Lampridius, "Commodus."
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Portugal to the United States. Died in Paris in 1846.
Con'stana [Fr. Constant, k&N'st6.N'] I., (Fi.avius
Julius,) the third son of the emperor Constantine the
Great and Fausta, was born about 320 A.D. At the death
of his father, in 337, he inherited the sovereignty of Italy,
Africa, and Western Illyricum. His brother Constantine,
having invaded his dominions, was defeated and
killed in battle in 340, when the victor became master
of the whole Western Empire. He was indolent, weak,
and depraved. He favoured Athanasius, who had been
proscribed by the Arians. Magnentius having revolted
in Gaul, Constans fled towards Spain, but was overtaken
near the Pyrenees, and killed, in 350 A.D.
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le
Beau, "Histoire du Bas- Empire."
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A-grip'pa, (Mar'cus Vipsa'nius,) a distinguished Roman commander and statesman, born 63 B.C. His
family was obscure, but a friendship was early formed
between him and Octavius, (afterwards Augustus Caesar,)
and his fortunes became inseparably associated with
those of the future emperor. To the skill and wisdom
of Agrippa, Augustus owed much of his continued success
; especially his victory at Actium, which gave him
the empire of the world. After the death of Marcellus,
in 23 B.C., Agrippa married his widow, Julia, the daughter
of the emperor, by whom he had three sons, two of
whom were adopted by Augustus, (see Caius C/ESar,)
and two daughters. He died 12 B.C., in the fifty-first
year of his age. Agrippa and Maecenas were the chief
ministers or advisers of Augustus, and the former was
for some time regarded as his destined successor.
See G C. Gebauer, "Dissertatio de M. V. Agrippa," 1717; P.
Fhamiskn, "Marc. Vipsanius Agrippa: historische Untersuchung
iiber dessen Leben und Wirken," 1836 ; Livy,
"
" Epitome ;" Tacitus, Annales"
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Agrippina II., or Agrippina Augusta, a daughter
of the preceding, and'mother of the emperor Nero
by her first husband, Domitius. She was a woman of
abandoned principles and remorseless cruelty. She
married her father's brother, the emperor Claudius, and
afterwards poisoned him. After a life of almost uninterrupted
crime, she was put to death (a.d. 60) by the
order of her son Nero.
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Al-lec'tus, an officer of Carausius, King of Britain.
Having murdered Carausius, in 293, he usurped the
throne. He was defeated and killed by the Roman army
o£ Constantjud Chlorus about 296 a.d.
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Ambrose, Saint, sent am'broz, [Lat. Sanc'tus Ambro'sius
; Fr. Saint-Ambroise, saN'tflN'bRwaz',] one of
the Latin Fathers, was born in Gaul, at Treves, it is
supposed, about 340 A.D. His father, a Roman noble,
was then praetorian prefect of Gaul. Ambrose was Governor
of Liguria (a province of which Milan was the
capital) in 374, when Auxentius, the Arian archbishop
of Milan, died. In the attempt to elect a successor, the
contest between the Catholics and the Arians was very
fierce, and the presence of the governor was necessary
to appease the tumult. He addressed them with such
eloquence and power that the assembled people declared,
with one voice, "Ambrose shall be bishop." He accepted
the office with great reluctance, but afterwards fulfilled
its duties with unequalled ability, zeal, and
disinterestedness,
He sided with the Catholics, and used all his efforts
and influence for the suppression of Arianism. In
390 the emperor Theodosius, incensed at the insolent
disobedience of some of the people of Thessalonica, ordered
an indiscriminate massacre of all the inhabitants.
Ambrose was greatly shocked at this crime ; and when,
shortly after, the emperor was about to enter the church
at Milan, the archbishop sternly forbade him. Theodosius
submitted, and, besides undergoing various other
humiliations,
was at last obliged to perform public penance.
Ambrose died in 397. He left, besides other works, a
treatise " De Officiis," on the duties of Christian
ministers,
which was highly esteemed, and expositions of Scripture. He
was the author of a method of singing
known as the "Ambrosian Chant."
"His Letters," says Villemain, "evince a man who,
amidst the turbulence and instability of the empire,
never had a foible nor stain on his character, whose
magnanimity
was adequate to all trials, and who in a more
auspicious period would have placed himself by his
writings in the rank of the first orators and the most
noble geniuses."
See Paulwus, "Vita Ambrosii ;" Godefroi Hermant, "Vie
de Saint-Ambroise," 1678; J. P. Silbert,
" Leben des heiligen Am
brosius," 1841 ; Bakonius, "Annales;" "Saint-Ambroise; sa
Vie el
extraits de ses Merits," Lille, 1852 ;
" Nouvelie Biographie Genera.e ;"
"Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" Villemain, "Saint-Ambroise,"
Paris,
8vo, 1852.
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An'cus Martius or Marcius, (mar'she-us,) the
fourth king of Rome, a grandson of Numa Pompilius,
succeeded Tullus Hostilius about 634 B.C. He is considered
the lawgiver or founder of the plebeian order,
which seems to have received in his reign a distinct political
existence. He waged war with success against
the Latins, founded Ostia, and built the Pons Sublicius,
(Bridge of Piles.) He died about 610, and was succeeded
by Tatquinius Priscus.
See Niebuhr, "Roman History."
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An-to-ni'nus Pi'us, or, more fully, Ti'tua Au-re'-
11-us Ful'vus Boi-o'nI-us Ar'rI-us An-to-ni'nus,
[Fr. Antonin, ON'to'niN',] an excellent Roman emperor,
a son of Aurelius Fulvus, was born at Lamtvium
in 86 A.D. He became consul in 120 a.d., after which
he governed the province of Asia, as proconsul, with
wisdom and equity. He married Annia Galeria Faustina,
and was adopted by Hadrian in 138, on condition
that he should adopt Marcus Annius Verus. (See Aurelius,
(Marcus,) and Lucius Verus.) Antoninus succeeded
Hadrian in July, 138, and began under happy auspices his
peaceful and prosperous reign. He appears
to have treated the Christians with moderation,
if not clemency. It has been stated that he issued an
edict for the protection of Christians; but some writers
ascribe this edict to his successor. According to
Capitolinus,
from whom we derive nearly all our knowledge of
Antoninus, he was temperate, humane, amiable, learned,
and eloquent. The name of Pater Patriae (" Father of
his Country") was conferred on him by the senate. He
died in 161 A.D., and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius.
His memory was so greatly venerated that five of his
successors assumed the name of Antoninus.
I. CapitounvS, "Vita Antonini;" Gautier de Sibert,
"Vie d"Antonio.
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Clau'dius Cse'cus, (see'kus,) (Appius,) a Roman
patrician, who was censor from 312 to 308 B.C. During
this period he constructed the Appian Way from Rome
to Capua. He was afterwards consul, and interrex, (or
regent,) and became blind, as his surname indicates.'
He wrote a poem, and a legal work in prose.
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A-ri'us or A-rei'us, popularly called A'rl-us, [Gr.
"Aohoc,] the founder of Arianism, and author of the
greatest schism that ever divided the Christian Church
before the Reformation, was born at Cyrene, in Africa,
shortly after the middle of the third century. He was
ordained a deacon at Alexandria by the patriarch Peter,
and promoted to the highest rank among the clergy by
the patriarch Alexander.
The controversy which arose between Alexander and
Arius about 318 A.D. caused Constantine to summon
the first general council, which met at Nicaea (or Nice) in
325 A.D., and condemned with great unanimity the doctrines
of Arius, who denied that the Son is coeternal
and coessential with the Father. Arius, who had attended
this council, was exiled to Illyricum by Constantine,
but this sentence was revoked two or three years
later. Arianism spread rapidly in Syria and Asia Minor,
and was approved by the Synods of Tyre and Jerusalem
in 335 a.d.
Soon after this date he returned to Alexandria; but
his presence excited there so great a disturbance that
Constantine recalled him to Constantinople, where the
Arians were numerous and powerful. According to
some writers, he avowed his submission to the creed
adopted by the Council of Nice, and was about to be
restored to communion, when he died suddenly near
336 a.d. Authorities differ respecting the place of his
death and many events of his life. Arianism was patronized
as the religion of the state by the emperor Constantius,
and by Valens. The contest between the
Arians and Athanasians (see Athanasius) raged for
more than two centuries and carnal weapons were resorted
to by each party to enforce its arguments. The
Goths, Vandals, and Suevi of the fifth and sixth centuries
were nearly all Arians.
The sect became divided into two portions, called
" Hetero-ousians" (who were strict or ultra-Arians) and
Semi-Arians or "
Homoiousians," who admitted the
" similar essence" of the Son with the Father.
The followers of Arius were often called Eusebians,
from Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia.
See Neandf.r," History of the Christian " Church;"
Maimbourg,
Histoire de 1'Arianisme , Stark,
"
Essay on Arianism," fin German,)
1783; G. M. Travasa, "Storia critica della Vita di Ario,"
174S; Eusebius,
"
Vita Constantini ;" Sozombn,
"
Historia Ecclesiastical"
Epiphanius,
" Panarium :" Theodoret, "
Historia Ecclesiastical"
Reuterdahl, "Memorabilia Arii ejuaque Hx-reseos," 1813.
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Au'gus-tiue, [Lat Aure'lius Augusti'nus ; Fr.
Augustin, o'gu» tax'; It. Augustino, 6w-goos-tee'no,]
Saint, the most illustrious Latin Father of the Church,
was born at' Tagasta, in Numidia, on the 13th of November,
354 a.d. He was instructed in religion by his
mother Monnica (or Monica,) who was a devout Christian.
He also studied Greek, rhetoric, and philosophy
at Madaura and Carthage. About the age of nineteen
he was captivated with the heresy of the Manichaeans, to
which he adhered for nine years. Having taught grammar
and rhetoric at Tagasta, Carthage, and Rome, he
was appointed professor of rhetoric and philosophy at
Milan in 384. Amidst a career of immorality into
which strong youthful passions had impelled him, he
was seriously impressed by the sermons of Saint Ambrose.
He experienced a decided conversion in 386,
after deep conflicts, which he has described in his "Conns,"
an autobiography. Soon after this event he
returned to Africa.
He was ordained a priest about 391 by Valerius,
Bishop of Hippo, whom he succeeded in 396. He distinguished
himself as the adversary of the Donatists at
the Council of Carthage in 401 a.d., and had a high
reputation as an eloquent preacher. About 418 he produced
two works against the Pelagians,
" On the Grace
of Christ," ("De Gratia Christi,") and' "On Original
Sin," ("De Peccato Originali.") His capital work, entitled
"On the City of God," ("De Civitate Dei,") was
intended to subvert the foundations of paganism and
establish those of Christianity, and to refute the opinion
that the capture of Rome by Alaric, and other calamities
of the empire, were caused by the prevalence of the
new religion. It was finished about 426. He wrote
many other works, among which are those " On Faith
and Works," ("De Fide et Operibus,") and "On the
Soul and its Origin," (" De Anima et ejus Origine.")
He died at Hippo, during the siege of that city by the
Vandals, on the 28th of August, 430 A.D. His habits
simple and temperate, rather than ascetic. The
best edition of his works is that published by the
Benedictines
at Paris, (ti'vols., 1679-1700.) "Of all the
Fathers of the Latin Church," says Villemain, "Saint
Augustine manifested the most imagination in theology,
the most eloquence, and even sensibility, in scholasticism.
... lie writes as well on music as on free will; he
explains the intellectual phenomena of memory as well
as he reasons on the decline of the Roman Empire.
His subtile and vigorous mind has often consumed on
mystical problems an amount of sagacity which would
have sufficed for the most sublime conceptions."
See "
Confessions of Saint Augustine ;" Possidius,
" Vie de Saintin;"
George Moringo, "Vie de Saint-Augustin," 1533;
\ ie de Saint-Augustin," 1657; Tillemont, "Me'moi'res
piques." (vol. xiii..) 1702; Rivtus, "Vita Sancti Augus-
1646 ; Poutoulat, "Vie de Saint-Augustin," 2d edition, 1852;
makn. "
Augustines Leben," 1844; Buti er, "Lives of the
Iiaur,
"
Christliche Romische Theologie:" Villemain,
"Tableau de 1'Eloquence chre'tienne au quatricme Steele,"
1849;
•'Nouvelle Biographie Ge*nerale."
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Au-re'11-an or Au-re-H-a'nus, [Fr. Aurelien,
6'ra'le'aN',] (Claudius Domitius,) a Roman emperor,
who was born of obscure parents about 212 A.D., at Sirraium,
in Pannonia, or, according to some, in Lower
Dacia, or in Moesia. He rose by his talents and courage
from the rank of private to the highest position in
the army of Valerian, and was appointed consul in 25S
a.d. On the death of Claudius in 270, Aurelian was
proclaimed emperor by the army. About the same time
the north of
Italy was invaded by the Alemanni, who
were defeated at Fanum, in Umbria. The principal event
of his reign was an expedition against Zenobia, Queen
of Palmyra, who reigned over Syria, Egypt, etc., and
whose army he defeated near Emesa. Palmyra and the
queen were captured by him in 273 a.d. (See Zenobia.)
He punished a revolt of the Palmyrenes, which occurred
soon after, with a general massacre, and acted with extreme
severity on other occasions. He was very successful
in his military enterprises, and was called the restorer
of the empire, but was more competent to command an
army than to govern a nation. He was assassinated by
his own officers in 275 A.D., and was succeeded by
Tacitus.
See Vopiscus, "Vita Aureliani;" Trebellius Pollio,
"Odenatus,"
and "Zenobia;" Tillemont, "Histoire des Erapereurs;" Gibbon,
"Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. xi.
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Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus[notes 1] (c. 22
December 244[3] – 3 December 311),[4] commonly known as
Diocletian, was a Roman Emperor from 284 to 305.
Born to an Illyrian family of low status in the Roman
province of Dalmatia, Diocletian rose through the ranks of
the military to become cavalry commander to the emperor
Carus. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on
campaign in Persia, Diocletian was acclaimed emperor. The
title was also claimed by Carus' other surviving son,
Carinus, but Diocletian defeated him in the Battle of the
Margus. With his accession to power, Diocletian ended the
Crisis of the Third Century. He appointed fellow-officer
Maximian Augustus, his senior co-emperor, in 285. He
delegated further on 1 March 293, appointing Galerius and
Constantius as Caesars, junior co-emperors. Under this
"Tetrarchy", or "rule of four", each emperor would rule over
a quarter-division of the empire. Diocletian secured the
empire's borders and purged it of all threats to his power.
He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several
campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and
usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298. Galerius, aided by
Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Sassanid Persia,
the empire's traditional enemy. In 299 he sacked their
capital Ctesiphon - Diocletian led the subsequent
negotiations and achieved a lasting and favorable peace.
Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire's civil and
military services and reorganised the empire's provincial
divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic
government in the history of the empire. He established new
administrative centers in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Antioch,
and Trier, closer to the empire's frontiers than the
traditional capital at Rome had been. Building on third-
century trends towards absolutism, he styled himself an
autocrat, elevating himself above the empire's masses with
imposing forms of court ceremonial and architecture.
Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and
construction projects increased the state's expenditures and
necessitated a comprehensive tax reform. From at least 297
on, imperial taxation was standardized, made more equitable,
and levied at generally higher rates...
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Lucius Domitius Domitianus was a Roman usurper against
Diocletian, who seized power for a short time in Aegyptus.
Domitianus revolted against Diocletian in, but died in
December of the same year, when Diocletian went to Aegyptus to
quell with the revolt. Numismatic and papyrological evidence
support Domitianus' claim for the purple. It is possible that
the rebellion was sparked by a new tax edict, but this
uncertain.
It is possible that Domitianus' corrector, Aurelius Achilleus,
who was responsible for the defence of Alexandria, succeeded
Domitianus' claim for the purple; in fact, only in March 298
Diocletian re-conquered the city.
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Achilleus (fl. 3rd century AD) assumed the title of emperor
under Diocletian and reigned over Egypt for some time.[1] He
was possibly the Corrector of Domitius Domitianus. He seems to
have succeeded the revolt started by Domitianus, after the
latter died.[citation needed]
Achilleus was at length taken by Diocletian after a siege of
eight months in Alexandria, and put to death in 296 AD.[2][3]
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Flavius Eugenius (died 6 September 394) was a usurper in the Western Roman Empire (392–394) against Emperor Theodosius I.
Though himself a Christian, he was the last Emperor to support Roman polytheism.[1]
Life -
A former teacher of grammar and rhetoric, as well as magister scrinorum, Eugenius was an acquaintance of the Frank
magister militum and of the de facto ruler of the Western Roman Empire, Arbogast.
Rise to power -
Following the death of Valentinian II, Arbogast, who had probably been the cause of Valentinian II's murder or suicide,
elevated Eugenius to the purple (22 August 392). The choice of Eugenius, over proclaiming himself, offered to Arbogast two
strong advantages: first, Eugenius, a Roman, was more suitable than Arbogast, a Frank, as an emperor; furthermore, the
Roman Senate would have been more likely to have supported Eugenius than Arbogast.
Civil, religious, and military policies -
After being installed as Emperor, Eugenius changed the imperial administrators. When Theodosius had left the western half
of the empire to Valentinian II, he had put his own men in the highest civil offices, to keep a strong grasp on the whole
empire. Eugenius replaced these administrators with others loyal to himself, coming from the senatorial class. Virius
Nicomachus Flavianus the Elder became Praetorian Prefect of Italy, his son Nicomachus Flavianus the Younger received the
title of Prefect of Rome, while the new praefectus annonae was Numerius Proiectus.
Eugenius was nominally a Christian, and therefore was reluctant to accept a program of imperial support to Polytheism. His
men, however, convinced Eugenius to use public money to fund 'Pagan' projects, such as the rededication of the Temple of
Venus and Rome and the restoration of the Altar of Victory within the Curia (removed by Emperor Gratian). This religious
policy created tension with Theodosius and the powerful and influential Bishop Ambrose, who left his see in Milan when the
imperial court of Eugenius arrived.
Eugenius was also successful in the military field, notably in the renovation of old alliances with Alamanni and Franks.
Arbogast, who was Frank and had also Alamanni and Frank soldiers in his ranks, marched to the Rhine frontier, where he
impressed and pacified the Germanic tribes by parading his army in front of them.
Fall -
When he was elected emperor, Eugenius sent ambassadors to Theodosius's court, asking for recognition of his election.
Theodosius received them, but started to gather troops to defeat Eugenius. Theodosius also promoted his eight-year-old son
Honorius to the rank of "Augustus" of the West in January 393.
Theodosius then moved from Constantinople with his army, and met Eugenius and Arbogast in the Battle of the Frigidus (on
the modern Italy-Slovenia border) on 6 September 394. The bloody battle lasted two days, and was marked by unusual
astronomical and meteorological events, but in the end Theodosius won. Arbogast immediately committed suicide after the
defeat, while Eugenius was held for execution as a criminal, his head afterward being displayed in Theodosius' camp.
Evaluation -
The reign of Eugenius marked the end of an era and the beginning of a new one. A year later Theodosius died, dividing his
empire between his two sons. This had happened many times before in the previous two centuries, but this time it was to be
final - the Roman Empire never reunited even under Leo I the Thracian, and soon after his reign, the western half fell.
Eugenius also represented the last opportunity for the Pagans, with the senatorial class, to oppose the Christianization
of the Empire. The Battle of the Frigidus was part of a trend towards using increasing percentages of barbarian troops,
especially in the west, where it led to the weakening of the empire itself.
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A usurper in the reign of Theodosius the Great, of Gallic extraction, A.D. 392. He was defeated, taken prisoner, and put to death, after
having held power for two years (Zosim. iv. 54 foll.).
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Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus (c. 250 – c. July 310),[8] commonly known as Maximian, was Roman Emperor from 285 to 305. He was
Caesar[1][2] from 285 to 286, then Augustus from 286[3] to 305.[4] He shared the latter title with his co-emperor and superior,
Diocletian, whose political brain complemented Maximian's military brawn. Maximian established his residence at Trier but spent most
of his time on campaign. In the late summer of 285, he suppressed rebels in Gaul known as the Bagaudae. From 285 to 288, he fought
against Germanic tribes along the Rhine frontier. Together with Diocletian, he launched a scorched earth campaign deep into
Alamannic territory in 288, temporarily relieving the Rhine provinces from the threat of Germanic invasion.
The man he appointed to police the Channel shores, Carausius, rebelled in 286, causing the secession of Britain and northwestern
Gaul. Maximian failed to oust Carausius, and his invasion fleet was destroyed by storms in 289 or 290. Maximan's subordinate,
Constantius, campaigned against Carausius' successor, Allectus, while Maximian held the Rhine frontier. The rebel leader was ousted
in 296, and Maximian moved south to combat piracy near Hispania and Berber incursions in Mauretania. When these campaigns concluded
in 298, he departed for Italy, where he lived in comfort until 305. At Diocletian's behest, Maximian abdicated on May 1, 305, gave
the Augustan office to Constantius, and retired to southern Italy...
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A Roman emperor, who ruled A.D. 286-305, originally a
Pannonian soldier. He was made by Diocletian his colleague in
the Empire, but was compelled to abdicate along with the
latter. (See Diocletianus.) When his son Maxentius assumed the
imperial title in the following year (306 A.D.), he resided
some time at Rome; but being expelled from the city by
Maxentius, he took refuge in Gaul with Constantine, who had
married his daughter Fausta. Here he was compelled by
Constantine, against whom he is said to have conspired, to put
an end to his own life in 310.
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Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Valerius Carausius (died 293) was a military commander of the Roman Empire in the
3rd century. He was a Menapian from Belgic Gaul, who usurped power in 286, declaring himself emperor in
Britain and northern Gaul. He did this only 13 years after the Gallic Empire of the Batavian Postumus was
ended in 273. He held power for seven years, before being assassinated by his finance minister Allectus
(see Carausian Revolt). Carausius was a man of humble origin, a Menapian who distinguished himself during
Maximian's campaign against the Bagaudae rebels in northern Gaul in 286. This success, and his former
occupation as a pilot, led to his appointment to command the Classis Britannica, a fleet based in the
English Channel, with the responsibility of eliminating Frankish and Saxon pirates who had been raiding
the coasts of Armorica and Belgica. However, he was suspected of keeping captured treasure for himself,
and even of allowing the pirates to carry out raids and enrich themselves before taking action against
them, and Maximian ordered his execution. In late 286 or early 287 Carausius learned of this sentence and
responded by declaring himself Emperor in Britain and northern Gaul.[1] His forces comprised not only his
fleet, augmented by new ships he had built, and the three legions stationed in Britain, but a legion he
had seized in Gaul, a number of foreign auxiliary units, a levy of Gaulish merchant ships, and barbarian
mercenaries attracted by the prospect of booty...
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A native of Gaul, born among the Menapii. His naval abilities
attracted the notice of Maximian, who gave him the command of
a squadron against the pirates. He proved, however, unfaithful
to his trust, and too much bent upon enriching himself.
Maximian thereupon gave orders to put him to death; but
Carausius, apprised of this in season, retired with his fleet
to Britain. Here he succeeded in gaining over, or else
intimidating, the only Roman legion that remained in the
island, and finally proclaimed himself emperor. He forced the
emperors Maximian and Diocletian to acknowledge his authority,
which he maintained for the space of seven years (286-293). He
was assassinated by Allectus.
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Allectus (died 296) was a Roman usurper-emperor in Britain and northern Gaul from 293 to 296.[1]
History -
Allectus was treasurer to Carausius, a Menapian officer in the Roman navy who had seized power in Britain and northern Gaul in 286.
In 293 Carausius was isolated when the western Caesar, Constantius Chlorus, retook some of his Gallic territories, particularly the
crucial port of Bononia (modern Boulogne), and defeated his Frankish allies in Batavia. Allectus assassinated Carausius and assumed
command himself.
His reign has left little record, although his coin issues display a similar distribution to those of Carausius. They are found in
north western Gaul, indicating that the recapture of Bononia did not spell the end of the rebel empire on that side of the English
Channel.[2]
Constantius launched an invasion to depose him in September 296. His forces sailed in several divisions. Constantius led one
division from Bononia, but seems to have been delayed by bad weather. Another division, under the praetorian prefect Asclepiodotus,
took advantage of fog to avoid Allectus's ships stationed at the Isle of Wight, and landed near Southampton Water, where they burnt
their ships. Allectus's forces were forced to retreat from the coast, but were cut off by another of Constantius's divisions and
defeated. Allectus himself was killed in the battle, having removed all insignia in the hope that his body would not be identified.
Archaeology suggests that Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester) was the site of his defeat.[3] A group of Roman troops, who had been
separated from the main body by the fog during the channel crossing, caught up with the remnants of Allectus's men, mostly Franks,
at Londinium (London), and massacred them. Constantius himself, it seems, did not reach Britain until it was all over, and his
panegyrist claims he was welcomed by the Britons as a liberator.[4]
Carausius had deliberately used his coinage for propaganda purposes, and some of his slogans, such as a claim to have restored
'liberty', were designed to appeal to British sentiment. Constantius answered such claims in a famous medal struck on the morrow of
his victory, in which he described himself as redditor lucis aeternae, 'restorer of the eternal light (viz. of Rome).'
Legend -
Geoffrey of Monmouth included Allectus in his legendary History of the Kings of Britain (ca. 1136). Here, Allectus is an officer
sent with three legions by the Romans to depose Carausius, a native British king. He does so, but his rule proves oppressive, and he
is in turn deposed by Asclepiodotus, here the duke of Cornwall. The last of Allectus's troops are besieged in London, and surrender
on the condition they are granted safe passage out of Britain. Asclepiodotus agrees, but the surrendering soldiers are massacred,
and their heads thrown into the river Galobroc, by his allies the Venedoti.[5]
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Flavius Valerius Constantius[2] (c. 31 March 250 – 25 July 306), commonly known as Constantius I or
Constantius Chlorus[3], was Roman Emperor from 293 to 306. He was the father of Constantine the Great and
founder of the Constantinian dynasty.
Life
The Historia Augusta says Constantius was the son of Eutropius, a noble from northern Dardania in modern
Serbia, and Claudia, a niece of the emperors Claudius II and Quintillus.[4] Modern historians suspect this
maternal connection to be a genealogical fabrication created by his son Constantine I. His father, however,
might have been the brother of Eutropia, wife of Maximian.
Constantius was a member of the Protectores Augusti Nostri under emperor Aurelian and fought in the east
against the secessionist Palmyrene Empire. Shortly after he attained the rank of tribunus within the army, and
during the reign of Carus he was raised to the position of praeses, governor, of the province of Dalmatia.[5]
In 293 the emperor Diocletian created the Tetrarchy, dividing the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern
portions. Each would be ruled by an Augustus, supported by a Caesar. Diocletian became Augustus of the Eastern
empire, with Galerius as his Caesar. Constantius was appointed Caesar to the Western Augustus, Maximian, and
married Theodora, Maximian's stepdaughter. They had six children. Constantius divorced his first wife (or
concubine), Helena, by whom he already had a son, Constantine. Helena was probably from Nicomedia in Asia
Minor.[6] He was given command of Gaul, Britain and possibly Hispania.
In 293, Constantius defeated the forces of Carausius, who had declared himself emperor in Britain and northern
Gaul in 286, near Bononia. Carausius was killed by his rationalis Allectus, who took command of Britain until
296, when Constantius sent Asclepiodotus, a prefect of the Praetorian Guard, to invade the island. Allectus
was defeated and killed, and Roman rule in Britain restored.[7]
Also in 296, Constantius fought a battle against the Alamanni at the city of Lingonae (Langres) in Gaul. He
was shut up in the city, but was relieved by his army after six hours, and defeated the enemy.[8] He defeated
them again at Vindonissa (Windisch, Switzerland),[9] thereby strengthening the defenses of the Rhine frontier.
Diocletian and Maximian stepped down as co-emperors in 305, possibly due to Diocletian's poor health, and the
Caesars, Constantius and Galerius, became co-emperors. Constantius ruled the western empire, Galerius the
eastern. Severus and Maximinus Daia were appointed Caesars. Constantine, who had hoped to be a Caesar, joined
his father's campaigns in Gaul and Britain.[10] Constantius died in Britain, at Eboracum (York), in 306, and
Constantine was declared emperor by the army.[11]
Legend -
Christian legends -
As the father of Constantine, a number of Christian legends have grown up around Constantius. Eusebius's Life
of Constantine claims that Constantius was himself a Christian, although he pretended to be a pagan, and while
Caesar under Diocletian, took no part in the emperor's persecutions.[12] His first wife, Helena, found the
True Cross.
British legends -
Constantius's activities in Britain were remembered in medieval British legend. According to Geoffrey of
Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain (1136), Constantius was sent to Britain by the Senate after
Asclepiodotus, here a British king, was overthrown by Coel of Colchester. Coel submitted to Constantius and
agreed to pay tribute to Rome, but died only eight days later. Constantius married Coel's daughter Helena and
became king of Britain. He and Helena had a son, Constantine, who succeeded to the throne of Britain when his
father died at York eleven years later.[13] The identification of Helena as British had previously been made
by Henry of Huntingdon,[14] but has no historical validity: Constantius had divorced Helena before he went to
Britain.
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Chlorus, son of Eutropius, and father of Constantine the
Great, received at Paris the title of Caesar, which he
obtained by his victories in Britain and Germany. He became
the colleague of Galerius on the abdication of Diocletian;
and, after bearing the character of a humane and benevolent
prince, he died at York, and had his son for his successor,
A.D. 306.
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Flavius Valerius Severus (or rarely Severus II) (died February 307) was a Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 307.
Officer in the Roman army
Severus was of humble birth, born in the Illyrian provinces around the middle of the third century AD. He rose to
become a senior officer in the Roman army, and as an old friend of Galerius, that emperor ordered that Severus be
appointed Caesar of the Western Roman Empire, a post that he succeeded to on 1 May 305. He thus served as deputy-
emperor to Constantius I (Constantius Chlorus), Augustus of the western half of empire.
[edit]Augustus, 306–307
On the death of Constantius I in the summer of 306, Severus was promoted to Augustus by Galerius himself, in
opposition to the acclamation of Constantine I (Constantius' son) by his own soldiers. When Maxentius, the son of
the retired emperor Maximian, revolted at Rome, Galerius sent Severus to suppress the rebellion. Severus moved from
his capital, Mediolanum, towards Rome, at the head of an army previously commanded by Maximian. Fearing the arrival
of Severus, Maxentius offered Maximian the co-rule of the empire. Maximian accepted, and when Severus arrived under
the walls of Rome and besieged it, his men deserted him and passed to Maximian, their old commander. Severus fled
to Ravenna, an impregnable position: Maximian offered to spare his life and treat him humanely if the latter
surrendered peaceably, which he did in March or April 307. Despite Maximian's assurance, Severus was nonetheless
displayed as a captive and later imprisoned at Tres Tabernae. When Galerius himself invaded Italy to suppress
Maxentius and Maximian, the former ordered Severus's death: he was executed (or forced to commit suicide) on 16
February 307.
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A Roman emperor (A.D. 306-307). He was proclaimed Caesar by
Galerius in 306, and was soon afterwards sent against
Maxentius, who had assumed the imperial title at Rome. The
expedition, however, was unsuccessful; and Severus, having
surrendered at Ravenna, was taken as a prisoner to Rome, and
compelled to put an end to his life. See Maxentius.
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Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c. 278 – 28 October 312)
was Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 312. He was the son of
former emperor Maximian, and the son-in-law of Galerius, also
an emperor.
Life
Birth and early life -
Maxentius' exact date of birth is unknown; it was probably
around 278. He was the son of the emperor Maximian and his
wife Eutropia.
As his father became emperor in 285, he was regarded as crown
prince who would eventually follow his father on the throne.
He seems not to have served in any important military or
administrative position during Diocletian's and his father's
reign, though. Early (the exact date is unknown) he married
Valeria Maximilla, the daughter of Galerius. He had two sons,
Valerius Romulus (ca. 295 – 309) and an unknown one...
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A Roman emperor, who ruled A.D. 306-312. He was passed over in
the division of the Empire which followed the abdication of
his father Maximianus and Diocletian in A.D. 305; but he
seized Rome, where he was proclaimed emperor in 306. He
reigned till 312, when he was defeated by Constantine at Saxa
Rubra, near Rome. He tried to escape over the Milvian Bridge
into Rome, but perished in the river. Maxentius is represented
by all historians as a monster of rapacity, cruelty, and lust.
See Constantinus.
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Lucius Domitius Alexander (d. ca. 311), probably born in
Phrygia, was vicarius of Africa when Emperor Maxentius
ordered him to send his son as hostage to Rome. Alexander
refused and proclaimed himself emperor in 308.[1]
The most detailed if somewhat confusing description of the
insurrection is given by Zosimos (II, 12 and 14). He reports
that Maxentius sent his portrait to Africa to gain
recognition as emperor there. The troops resisted because of
their loyalty to Galerius. Maxentius ordered Domitius
Alexander, the governor of the province, to send his son to
Rome to secure his loyalty. Alexander refused and was
crowned emperor by his army. The incident was probably
caused by the conflict between Maxentius and his father
Maximian early in 308, and Zosimos confused Galerius with
Maximian in his account.[2]
Apart from the province of Africa, Domitius Alexander also
controlled Sardinia. At the time of his accession, he was
already at an advanced age. There is evidence in an
inscription (CIL viii, 22183) that Alexander and Constantine
I allied themselves in opposition to Maxentius. Salama
suggests that, at the latest, the pact was entered into by
autumn of 310.[3]
Maxentius sent his praetorian prefect Rufius Volusianus and
a certain Zenas to quell the rebellion, and Alexander was
taken prisoner and then executed by strangulation.[1]
Apparently, his troops did not offer much resistance.
Maxentius retaliated with confiscations of the property of
alleged supporters of Alexander. The year of the end of
Alexander's reign is subject to debate; dates ranging from
309 to 311 have been proposed.
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Valerius Licinianus Licinius (c. 263 – 325), commonly known as Licinius, was Roman Emperor from 308 to 324.
Born to a Dacian[3][4] (Thracian) peasant family in Moesia Superior, Licinius accompanied his close childhood
friend, the future emperor Galerius, on the Persian expedition in 297. After the death of Flavius Valerius
Severus, Galerius elevated Licinius to the rank of Augustus in the West on November 11, 308. He received as his
immediate command the provinces of Illyricum, Thrace and Pannonia.
On the death of Galerius, in May 311, Licinius shared the eastern empire with Maximinus Daia, the Hellespont and
the Bosporus being the dividing line.
In March 313 he married Flavia Julia Constantia, half-sister of Constantine, at Mediolanum (now Milan); they had
a son, Licinius the Younger, in 315. Their marriage was the occasion for the jointly-issued "Edict of Milan" that
restored confiscated properties to Christian congregations and allowed Christianity to be professed in the
empire.
In the following month, on April 30, Licinius inflicted a decisive defeat on Maximinus at the Battle of
Tzirallum, after Maximinus had tried attacking him. Then, Licinius established himself master of the East, while
his brother-in-law, Constantine, was supreme in the West.
In 314, a civil war erupted between Licinius and Constantine, in which Constantine prevailed at the Battle of
Cibalae in Pannonia (October 8, 314) and again two years later, when Licinius named Valerius Valens co-emperor,
in the plain of Mardia (also known as Campus Ardiensis) in Thrace. The emperors were reconciled after these two
battles and Licinius had his co-emperor Valens killed.
Licinius' fleet of 350 ships was defeated by Constantine I's fleet in 323. In 324, Constantine, tempted by the
"advanced age and unpopular vices" of his colleague, again declared war against him, and, having defeated his
army of 170,000 men at the Battle of Adrianople (July 3, 324), succeeded in shutting him up within the walls of
Byzantium. The defeat of the superior fleet of Licinius in the Battle of the Hellespont by Crispus, Constantine’s
eldest son and Caesar, compelled his withdrawal to Bithynia, where a last stand was made; the Battle of
Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (September 18), resulted in Licinius' final submission. While Licinius' co-emperor
Sextus Martinianus was killed, Licinius himself was spared due to the pleas of his wife, Constantine's sister,
and interned at Thessalonica. The next year, Constantine had him killed, accusing him of conspiring to raise
troops among the barbarians.
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A Roman emperor, ruling A.D. 307-324. He was a Dacian peasant
by birth, and was raised to the rank of Augustus by the
emperor Galerius. He afterwards had the dominion of the East.
He carried on war first with Maximinus II., whom he defeated
A.D. 314, and subsequently with Constantine, by whom he was in
his turn defeated, 315. A second war broke out between
Licinius and Constantine in 323, in which Licinius was not
only defeated, but deprived of his throne. In the following
year he was put to death by Constantine, 324. See
Constantinus.
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Sextus Marcius Martinianus (usually rendered in English as Martinian; died 325) was Roman Emperor from
July to September 18, 324. He had been appointed co-emperor by Licinius.
Elevation -
In 324 the second civil war between Licinius and Constantine I was at its height, and Licinius was
losing. Because of this war he decided to replace Constantine (in name only) as western Augustus. As
his replacement he named Martinian co-emperor, as he had previously appointed Valens[1] during his
earlier war with Constantine. Prior to his elevation, which took place some time after the Battle of
Adrianople (July 3, 324), Martinian was serving as magister officiorum at Licinius' court.
Military activities -
Following his defeat at Adrianople Licinius sent Martinian, with an army including Visigothic
auxiliaries,[2] to Lampsacus (on the Asiatic shore of the Hellespont or Dardanelles) to prevent
Constantine from crossing from Thrace into Mysia and Bithynia in Asia Minor. A naval battle in the
Hellespont resulted in the destruction of Licinius' navy by Constantine's eldest son Crispus.
Following this defeat Licinius withdrew his forces from Byzantium, which was being besieged by
Constantine, to Chalcedon on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphoros. Constantine then crossed over to Asia
Minor, using a flotilla of light transports in order to evade the forces of Martinian.[3] Licinius
recalled Martinian from Lampsacus to reinforce his main army.[4][5] On September 18 Licinius was
defeated for the last time at the Battle of Chrysopolis.
Fate -
Due to the intervention of Flavia Julia Constantia, Constantine's sister and also Licinius' wife, both
Licinius and Martinian were initially spared, Licinius being imprisoned in Thessalonica, Martinian in
Cappadocia. However, Constantine seems to have soon regretted his leniency as both men were
subsequently executed, probably in the spring of 325.[6]
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Calocaerus (died 334) was a Roman usurper against Emperor
Constantine I.
Calocaerus was Magister pecoris camelorum ("Lord of the sheeps
and camels") in Cyprus. In 333-334 he revolted, proclaiming
himself Emperor. Constantine sent Flavius Dalmatius to quell
the rebellion, and Calocaerus was defeated, and afterwards
brought to Tarsus in Cilicia, where he was tried and executed.
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Flavius Claudius Constantinus (316 – 340), commonly known as Constantine II, was Roman Emperor from 337 to 340. The eldest
son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, he was born at Arles and raised as a Christian.
On March 1 317, Constantine was made Caesar, and at the age of seven in 323, took part in his father's campaign against the
Sarmatians. At the age of ten he became commander of Gaul, after the death of his half-brother Crispus. An inscription
dating to 330 records the title of Alamannicus, so it is probable that his generals won a victory over the Alamanni. His
military career continued when Constantine I chose his son field commander during the 332 campaign against the Goths.
Following the death of his father in 337, Constantine II became emperor jointly with his brothers Constantius II and
Constans. After the division of the empire, made by the three brothers in September of the same year in Pannonia, he ruled
over Gaul, Britannia and Hispania.
He was involved in the struggle between the different Christian streams. The Western portion of the empire leaned towards
Catholicism and against Arianism, and Constantine freed Athanasius and allowed him to return to Alexandria. This action also
put some burden on Constantius II, who was a supporter of Arianism.
At first, he was the guardian of his younger brother Constans, whose portion was Italia, Africa and Illyricum. As Constans
came of age, Constantine would not relinquish the guardianship and in 340 he marched against Constans in Italy, but was
defeated at Aquileia and he was killed in an ambush in Cervignano del Friuli. Constans took control of his deceased
brother's realm.
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Flavius Julius Constans (320–350), commonly known as Constans, was Roman Emperor from 337 to 350. Constans was the
third and youngest son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, his father's second wife.
On 25 December 333 Constantine elevated Constans to Caesar.
In 337 he succeeded his father, jointly with his older brothers Constantine II and Constantius II, receiving
Italy, Pannonia and Africa as his portion. Constantine II, who ruled over Gaul, Spain and Britain, attempted to
take advantage of his youth and inexperience by invading Italy in 340, but Constans defeated Constantine at
Aquileia, where the older brother died. The invasion was the effect of brotherly tensions between the two
emperors. Constantine II was, at first, Constans's guardian. As Constans grew older, Constantine II never
relinquished that position.
In 341-2, Constans led a successful campaign against the Franks and in the early months of 343 visited Britain.
The source for this visit, Julius Firmicus Maternus, does not give a reason for this but the quick movement and
the danger involved in crossing the channel in the dangerous winter months, suggests it was in response to a
military emergency of some kind, possibly to repel the Picts and Scots.
Regarding religion, Constans was tolerant of Judaism but promulgated an edict banning pagan sacrifices in 341. He
suppressed Donatism in Africa and supported Nicene orthodoxy against Arianism, which was championed by his brother
Constantius. Constans called the Council of Sardica, which unsuccessfully tried to settle the conflict.
In 350, the general Magnentius declared himself emperor with the support of the troops on the Rhine frontier - and
later the western provinces of the empire. Constans lacked any support beyond his immediate household, and was
forced to flee for his life. Magnentius' supporters cornered him in a fortification in Helena, southwestern Gaul,
where he was killed by Magnentius' assassins.
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The youngest of the three sons of Constantine the Great and
Fausta. After his father's death he received (A.D. 337) as his
share of the Empire, Illyricum, Italy, and Africa. His
territory was invaded by his brother Constantine, who was
defeated and slain in the invasion (340 A.D.). Constans became
supreme over the whole Western Empire, but the weakness and
profligacy of his character made him despised and disliked so
that in 350 he was slain by the troops of the usurper
Magnentius (q.v.).
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Flavius Julius Constantius (August 7, 317 – November 3, 361), commonly known as Constantius II, was
Roman Emperor from 337 to 361. The second son of Constantine I and Fausta, he ascended to the throne
with his brothers Constantine II and Constans upon their father's death. In 340, Constantius' brothers
fought over the western provinces of the empire. Constans defeated his brother and ruled the west for a
decade until the usurper Magnentius rebelled in 350. Constans was promptly assassinated, leaving
Constantius as the only surviving son of Constantine. After defeating Magnentius at the Battle of Mursa
Major and Mons Seleucus, his subsequent suicide left Constantius sole ruler of the empire. His military
campaigns against Germanic tribes were successful: he defeated the Alamanni in 354, and campaigned
across the Danube against the Quadi and Sarmatians in 357. In the east however, he fought the Sassanids
for two decades with mixed success. Constantius elevated his cousin Julian to co-emperor in 355, but by
spring 361 the two emperors were at war. However, Constantius died before the two could face each other
in battle, naming Julian his successor...
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Flavius Magnus Magnentius (303–August 11, 353) was a usurper of the Roman Empire (January 18, 350 –
August 11, 353).
Early life and career -
Born in Samarobriva (Amiens), Gaul, Magnentius was the commander of the Herculians and Iovians, the
imperial guard units[1]. When the army grew dissatisfied with the behaviour of Roman Emperor Constans,
it elevated Magnentius at Autun on January 18, 350. Constans was abandoned by all except a handful of
retainers, and he was slain shortly afterwards by a troop of light cavalry near the Pyrenees.
Usurper -
Magnentius quickly attracted the loyalty of the provinces in Britannia, Gaul, and Hispania, in part
because he proved to be far more tolerant towards both Christians and Pagans. His control on Italia and
Africa was applied through the election of his men to the most important offices. However, the short-
lived revolt of Nepotianus, a member of the Constantinian dynasty, showed Magnentius that his status of
Emperor was to be consolidated against the members of that dynasty.
The self-proclaimed emperor tried to strengthen his grasp on the territories previously controlled by
Constans, moving towards the Danube. Vetranio, commander of the Pannonian army, had been elected
Augustus by his troops in Mursa on 1 March. This revolt had a loyalist mark, since Vetranio was
supported by Constantina, and Constantius II himself recognized Vetranio, sending him the imperial
diadem.
Demise -
The remaining emperor of the family of Constantine I, Constantius II broke off his war in Syria with
Persia, and marched west. Despite Magnentius' efforts to gain Vetranio to his cause, the old general
reached Constantius with his army, and resigned the crown.
After electing Magnus Decentius (probably his brother) to Caesar and gathering as many troops as
possible, the armies of Magnentius and Constantius met in the Battle of Mursa Major in 351; Magnentius
led his troops into battle, while Constantius spent the day of battle praying in a nearby church.
Despite Magnentius' heroism, his troops were defeated and forced to retreat back to Gaul.
As a result of Magnentius' defeat, Italy ejected his garrisons and rejoined the loyalist cause.
Magnentius made a final stand in 353 in the Battle of Mons Seleucus, after which he committed suicide
by falling on his sword.
Following the suppression of Magnentius' rebellion, Constantius commanded an investigation be made to
find his followers. The most notorious agent in this search was the primicerius notariorum Paulus
Catena.
Some sources state that Magnentius' father was a Briton and his mother a Frank.[2]
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A German by birth who conspired against the life of the
emperor Constans, whom he caused to be murdered in his bed.
Subsequently, being pursued by the vengeance of Constantius,
and defeated by him at the battle of Mursa (a. d. 351), he
took his own life by falling on his sword. His reign lasted
from A.D. 350 to 353. His full name was Flavius Popilius
Magnentius. See Victor, Caes. 41 and 42.
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Iulius Nepotianus (died June 30, 350)[1], commonly known in
English as Nepotian, was a member of the Constantinian
dynasty who reigned as a short-lived usurper of the Roman
Empire. He ruled the city of Rome for twenty-eight days,
before being killed by his rival usurper Magnentius' general
Marcellinus.[1]
Background -
Nepotianus was the son of Eutropia, half-sister of Emperor
Constantine I,[2] and of Virius Nepotianus. On his mother's
side, he was the grandson of Emperor Constantius Chlorus and
Flavia Maximiana Theodora.
Events -
After the revolt of Magnentius, Nepotianus proclaimed
himself "emperor" and entered Rome with a band of
gladiators[2] on 3 June 350.[1] After attempting to resist
Nepotianus with an undisciplined force of Roman citizens,
the defeated Praefectus urbi Titianus (or Anicius, or
Anicetus), a supporter of Magnentius, fled the city.
Magnentius quickly dealt with this revolt[2] by sending his
trusted magister officiorum Marcellinus to Rome. According
to Eutropius, Nepotianus was killed in the resulting
struggle (on 30 June), his head put on a lance and borne
around the city.[2] In the following days, his mother
Eutropia was also killed, during the persecution of the
supporters of Nepotianus, most of whom were senators.
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A son of Eutropia, the half-sister of the emperor Constantine.
He proclaimed himself emperor (A.D. 350) after the death of
his cousin Constans, marched to Rome with a body of gladiators
and other disreputable followers, defeated Anicetus, the
praetorian prefect, and pillaged the city. He enjoyed his
usurped power only twenty-eight days, at the end of which
period he was defeated and slain by Marcellinus, one of the
lieutenants of Magnentius.
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Vetranio (d. c. 360), born in the province of Moesia in a part
of the region located in modern Serbia, is sometimes but
apparently incorrectly referred to as Vetriano. He was an
experienced soldier and officer when he was asked by
Constantina, the sister of Roman Emperor Constantius II, to
proclaim himself Caesar (March 1, 350). Her brother Constans
had been killed by Magnentius earlier that year and she
probably thought Vetranio could protect her family and herself
against the usurper. Vetranio accepted and coins were minted
in his name, showing the title of Augustus (full emperor),
rather than Caesar. Constantius first seemed to accept the new
Emperor and sent him money to raise an army, as well as his
regalia.
Constantius, who was on a campaign against the Persians when
Magnentius came to power, returned to the west and met with
Vetranio. Vetranio subsequently abdicated on December 25, 350.
He was allowed to live the remainder of his years as a private
citizen on a state pension.
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A Roman who commanded the legions in Illyria and Pannonia in
A.D. 350, when Constans was treacherously destroyed, and was
proclaimed emperor by his troops; but at the end of ten months
resigned in favour of Constantius (Amm. Marcell. xv. 1; xxi.
8).
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Flavius Jovianus (331 – 17 February 364), commonly known as Jovian, was Roman Emperor from 363 to 364.
Upon the death of emperor Julian during his Sassanid campaign, Jovian was hastily declared emperor by his
soldiers. Jovian sought peace with the Persians on humiliating terms, and reestablished Christianity as
the favored religion of the Empire.
Rise to power -
Jovian was born at Singidunum (today Belgrade, Serbia) in 331, son of (Flavius?) Varronianus, the
commander of Constantius II's imperial bodyguards (comes domesticorum). He also joined the guards, and by
363 had risen to the same command that his father had once held. In this capacity, Jovian accompanied the
Roman Emperor Julian on the Mesopotamian campaign of the same year against Shapur II, the Sassanid king.
After a small but decisive engagement the Roman army was forced to retreat from the numerically superior
Persian force. Julian was mortally wounded during the retreat and died on 26 June 363. The next day, after
the aged Saturninius Secundus Salutius, praetorian prefect of the Orient, declined the purple, the choice
of the army fell upon Jovian. His election caused considerable surprise, and it is suggested by Ammianus
Marcellinus that he was wrongly identified with another Jovianus, chief notary (primicerius notariorum),
whose name also had been put forward, or that during the acclamations the soldiers mistook the name
Jovianus for Julianus, and imagined that the latter had recovered from his illness.
Restoration of Christianity -
Jovian, a Christian, reestablished Christianity as the favoured religion of the Roman Empire ending the
brief revival of paganism under his predecessor Julian. Upon arriving at Antioch, he revoked the edicts of
Julian against the Christians.[1] The Labarum of Constantine the Great again became the standard of the
army.[2] He issued an edict of toleration, to the effect that, while the exercise of magical rites would
be punished, his subjects should enjoy full liberty of conscience[3].
However, in 363 he issued an edict ordering the Library of Antioch to be burnt down[4], and another on 11
September subjecting the worship of ancestral gods to the death penalty, which, on 23 December, he also
applied to participation in any pagan ceremony (even private ones)[5]. Jovian entertained a great regard
for Athanasius, whom he reinstated on the archiepiscopal throne,[1] desiring him to draw up a statement of
the orthodox faith. In Syriac literature Jovian became the hero of a Christian romance. From Jovian's
reign until the 15th century Christianity remained the dominant religion of both the Western and Eastern
Roman Empires, until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453.
Rule -
Jovian continued the retreat begun by Julian and, continually harassed by the Persians, succeeded in
reaching the banks of the Tigris where Jovian, deep inside Sassanid territory, was forced to sue for a
peace treaty on humiliatingly unfavourable terms. In exchange for his safety, he agreed to withdraw from
the five Roman provinces conquered by Galerius in 298, east of the Tigris, that Diocletian had annexed and
allow the Persians to occupy the fortresses of Nisibis, Castra Maurorum and Singara. The Romans also
surrendered their interests in the Kingdom of Armenia to the Persians and the Christian king of Armenia,
Arshak II, was to stay neutral in future conflicts between the two empires and was forced to cede part of
his kingdom to Shapur. The treaty was widely seen as a disgrace and Jovian rapidly lost popularity.
After arriving at Antioch, Jovian decided to rush to Constantinople to consolidate his political position
there.
He died on 17 February 364 after a reign of only eight months. During his return to Constantinople, Jovian
was found dead in bed in his tent at Dadastana, halfway between Ancyra and Nicaea. His death has been
attributed to either a surfeit of mushrooms or the poisonous carbon monoxide fumes of a charcoal warming
fire.
Jovian was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople.
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Ioviānus, Flavius Claudius
A Roman emperor, born A.D. 331, the son of Veronianus, of an
illustrious family of Moesia, who had filled important
offices under Constantine. Iovianus served in the army of
Julian , in his unlucky expedition against the Persians; and
when that emperor was killed, A.D. 363, the soldiers
proclaimed him successor. His first task was to save the
army, which was surrounded by the Persians, and in great
distress for provisions. After repelling repeated attacks of
the enemy, he willingly listened to proposals for peace, and
accepted conditions offensive to Roman pride. Iovianus gave
up the city of Nisibis to the Persians, the inhabitants
withdrawing to Amida. On his arrival at Antioch, Iovianus,
who was of the Christian faith, revoked the edicts of Julian
against the Christians. He also supported the orthodox or
Nicene creed against the Arians, and showed his favour to
the bishops who had previously suffered from the Arians, and
especially to Athanasius, who visited him at Having been
acknowledged over the whole Empire, Iovianus set off during
the winter to Constantinople. At Ancyra he assumed the
consular dignity; but, a few days after, being at a place
called Dadastana, in Galatia, he was found dead in his bed,
having been suffocated, as some say, by the vapour of
charcoal burning in his room; according to others, by the
steam of the plaster with which it had been newly laid;
while others, again, suspected him of having been poisoned
or killed by some of his guards. He died February 16, A.D.
364, after a reign of only seven months. The army proclaimed
Valentinianus as his successor (Amm. Marcell. xxv. 5 foll.).
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Bal-bi'nus, [Fr. Balbin, balbaN] (Decimus Caelius,) a Roman senator who, in conjunction with Maximus, was proclaimed emperor in opposition to Maximinus. The praetorian guards, dissatisfied with the new emperors elected by the senate, seized them in their palace, and, having put them to death, proclaimed Gordianus emperor, 238 A. D. See Julius Capitolinus, "Vita Balbini;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
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AEmilius (Paulus or Paullus) I, a Roman consu,
and able general, who fell bravely at the battle of Cannae,
216 B.C.
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AEtius, a Roman general, born near the end of the
fourth century. For many years he successfully defended
Gaul against the encroachments of the barbarians.
In 451, when Attila the Hun had besieged and
was on the point of taking Orleans, the approach of the
combined armies of Aetius and Theodoric obliged him
to raise the siege ; and, these generals having followed
the Huns in their retreat to the plains of Chalons, a
great but indecisive battle was fought, in which 300,000
men are said to have been slain. Soon after, Attila
retreated beyond the Rhine, But the emperor Valentinian,
having become jealous of the fame and influence
of Aetius, slew him with his own hand in 454. The
emperor, it is said, asked a Roman if he had done well
in killing Aetius. He replied,
"
I do not know ; but
I think you have cut off your right hand with your left."
See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Jor-
KANDes,
" De Rebus Geticis."
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Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Caesar Germanĭcus, more
commonly known by his historical name of Claudius, succeeded
to the Roman Empire on the death of Caligula. He was the
second son of Drusus and Antonia, and consequently grand-
nephew to Augustus. When the assassination of Caligula was
made known, the first impulse of the court party and of the
foreign guards was to massacre all who had participated in
the murder. Several persons of distinction, who imprudently
exposed themselves, became, in consequence, the victims of
their fury. This violence subsided, however, upon their
discovering Claudius, who had concealed himself in an
obscure corner of the palace, and who, being dragged from
his hiding-place, threw himself at their feet in the utmost
terror and besought them to spare his life. The soldiers in
the palace immediately saluted him emperor, and Claudius, in
return, set the first example of paying the army for the
imperial dignity by a largess from the public treasury. It
is difficult to assign any other motive for the choice which
the army made of Claudius than that which they themselves
professed, "his relationship to the whole family of the
Caesars." Claudius, who was now fifty years old, had never
done anything to gain popularity, or to display those
qualities which secure the attachment of the soldiery. He
had been a rickety child, and the development of his
faculties was retarded by his bodily infirmities; and
although he outgrew his complaints, and became distinguished
as a polite scholar and an eloquent writer, his spirits
never recovered from the effects of disease and of severe
treatment, and he retained much of the timidity and
indolence of his childhood. During the reign of Tiberius he
gave himself up to gross sensuality, and consoled himself
under this degradation by the security which it brought with
it. Under Caligula also he found
The Emperor Claudius. (Bust in the Vatican.)
his safety consist in maintaining his reputation for
incapacity, and he suffered himself to become the butt of
court parasites and the subject of their practical jokes.
The excitement of novelty, on his first accession to the
throne, produced efforts of sagacity and prudence of which
none who had previously known him believed him capable; and
during the whole of his reign, too, we find judicious and
useful enactments occasionally made, which would seem to
show that he was not in reality so foolish and incompetent
as historians have generally represented him. It is most
probable, therefore, that the fatuity which characterizes
some parts of his conduct was the result, not of natural
imbecility, but of the early and unlimited indulgence of
sensuality.
Coin of Claudius.
Claudius embellished Rome with many magnificent works; he
made Mauritania a Roman province; his armies fought
successfully against the Germans; and he himself triumphed
magnificently in victories over the Britons, and obtained,
together with his infant son, the surname of Britannicus.
But in other respects he was wholly governed by worthless
favourites, and especially by his empress, the profligate
and abandoned Messalina (q.v.), whose cruelty and rapacity
were as unbounded as her licentiousness. At her instigation
it was but too common for the emperor to put to death, on
false charges of conspiracy, some of the wealthiest of the
nobles, and to confiscate their estates, with the money
arising from which she openly pampered her numerous
paramours. When the career of this guilty woman was
terminated, Claudius was governed for a time by his
freedman, Narcissus, and Pallas, another manumitted slave,
until he took to wife his own niece, Agrippina, daughter of
Germanicus, a woman of strong natural abilities, but of
insatiable avarice, extreme ambition, and remorseless
cruelty. Her influence over the feeble emperor was
boundless. She prevailed on him at last to set aside his own
son Britannicus, and to adopt her son, Domitius Ahenobarbus,
by her former husband, giving him the name by which he is
best known, Nero, and constituting him heir to the imperial
throne. Claudius having afterwards shown a disposition to
change the succession and restore it to Britannicus, fell a
victim to the ambition of Agrippina, who caused him to be
poisoned. A dish of mushrooms was prepared for the purpose,
a kind of food of which the emperor was known to be
especially fond, and the effects of the poison were hastened
by the pretended remedies administered by Xenophon, the
physician of the palace. It was given out that Claudius had
suffered from indigestion, which his habitual gluttony
rendered so frequent that it excited no surprise; and his
death was concealed till Domitius Nero had secured the
guards, and had quietly taken possession of the imperial
authority. Claudius died in the sixty-fourth year of his age
and the fourteenth of his reign, A.D. 54. His biography is
to be found in the Lives of Suetonius. See BaringGould, The
Tragedy of the Caesars, vol. i. (London, 1892).
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Servius Sulpicius Galba (24 December 3 BC – 15 January 69), commonly known as Galba, was Roman Emperor for
seven months from 68 to 69. Galba was the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, and made a bid for the throne
during the rebellion of Julius Vindex. He was the first emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors.
Origins and rise to power -
He was born as Servius Sulpicius Galba near Terracina, "on the left as you go towards Fundi" in the words of
Suetonius.
Through his paternal grandfather ("more eminent for his learning than for his rank - for he did not advance
beyond the grade of praetor" and who "published a voluminous and painstaking history", according to
Suetonius), who predicted his rise to power (Suetonius, 4 ), he was descended from Servius Sulpicius Galba.
Galba's father attained the consulship, and although he was short, hunchbacked and only an indifferent
speaker, was an industrious pleader at the bar...
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Servius Sulpicius, born in the reign of Augustus, of a patrician family. He served with distinction in Germany, and was afterwards proconsul,
first in Africa, and subsequently in Hispania Tarraconensis, in which office he gained a reputation for justice and moderation. He was still
in Spain when Iulius Vindex, the proconsul of Upper Gaul, rose against Nero. Galba joined Vindex, and Otho, governor of Lusitania, followed
his example. The assembled multitudes saluted Galba as emperor and Augustus; but he declared that he was acting only as the lieutenant of the
Senate and people of Rome, in order to put an end to the disgraceful tyranny of Nero. The Praetorian Guards soon after, having revolted
against Nero, proclaimed Galba, and the Senate acknowledged him as emperor. Galba hastened from Spain to Rome, where he began by calling to
account those favourites of Nero who had enriched themselves by proscriptions and confiscations and by the extraordinary prodigality of that
emperor; but it was found that most of them had already dissipated their ill-gotten wealth. Galba, or, rather, the intimates who governed
him, then proceeded against the purchasers of their property, and confiscations became again the order of the day. The new emperor, at the
same time, exercised great parsimony in his administration, and endeavoured to enforce strict discipline among the soldiers, who had been
used to the prodigality and license of the previous reign. Being past seventy years of age, Galba, on this and other accounts, soon became
the object of popular dislike and ridicule, and revolts against him broke out in various quarters, several of which were put down and
punished severely. Galba thought of strengthening himself by adopting Piso Licinianus, a young patrician of considerable personal merit, as
Caesar and his successor; upon which Otho, who had expected to be the object of his choice, formed a conspiracy among the Guards, who
proclaimed him emperor. Galba, unable to walk, caused himself to be carried in a litter, hoping to suppress the mutiny; but, at the
appearance of Otho's armed partisans, his followers left him, and even the litter-bearers threw the old man down and ran away. Some of the
legionaries came up and put Galba to death, after a reign of only seven months, counting from the time of Nero's death, A.D. 68. Galba was
seventy-two years old when he was taken off. He was succeeded by Otho (Galba; Hist. i. 4 foll.; Dio Cass. lxiii. 29, lxiv. 1 foll.).
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Aulus Vitellius (7/12/15/24 September 15 – 22 December 69),
later Aulus Vitellius Germanicus, commonly known as Vitellius,
was Roman Emperor for eight months, from 16 April to 22
December 69. Vitellius was acclaimed emperor following the
quick succession of the previous emperors Galba and Otho, in a
year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
Vitellius was the first to add the honorific cognomen
Germanicus to his name instead of Caesar upon his accession;
the latter name had fallen into disrepute in many quarters
because of the actions of Nero.
His claim to the throne was soon challenged by legions
stationed in the eastern provinces, who proclaimed their
commander Vespasian emperor instead. War ensued, leading to a
crushing defeat for Vitellius at the Second Battle of
Bedriacum in northern Italy. Once he realised his support was
wavering, Vitellius prepared to abdicate in favour of
Vespasian, but was executed in Rome by Vespasian's soldiers on
December 22 of 69...
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Aulus, Roman emperor from January 2 to December 22, A.D. 69. He was the son of No. 1. He was consul during the first six
months of 48, and his brother Lucius during the following six. He had some knowledge of letters and some eloquence. His vices
made him a favourite of Tiberius, Gaius Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, who loaded him with favours. It caused great surprise,
however, when Galba chose such a man to command the legions in Lower Germany, for he had little military talent. Both Upper
and Lower Germany had been attached to Virginius Rufus, and disliked the rule of Galba; the two legions at Moguntiacum
(Mayence) had not taken the oath of allegiance to him. Accordingly, they had already been disposed to find a nominee of their
own, and when the news of Galba's death arrived, the legions of both Germanies combined to acknowledge Vitellius as Imperator,
and he was proclaimed at Colonia Agrippinensis (Cologne) on the 2d of January, 69. His generals Fabius Valens and Caecina
marched into Italy, defeated Otho's troops at the decisive battle of Betriacum, or Bedriacum, and thus secured for Vitellius
the undisputed command of Italy. The soldiers of Otho, after his death, took the oath of fidelity to Vitellius. (See Otho.)
Vitellius reached Rome in July. He disturbed no one in the enjoyment of what had been given by Nero, Galba, and Otho, nor did
he confiscate any person's property; and though some of Otho's adherents were put to death, he let the next of kin take their
possessions. Yet though he showed moderation in this part of his conduct, he showed none in his expenditure. He was a glutton
and an epicure, and his chief amusement was the table, on which he spent enormous sums of money. Meantime Vespasian, who had
at first taken the oath of allegiance to Vitellius, was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria on the 1st of July. Vespasian was
speedily recognized by all the East; and the legions of Illyricum under Antonius Primus entered the north of Italy and
declared for Vespasian. Vitellius despatched Caecina with a powerful force to oppose Primus; but Caecina was not faithful to
his master. Primus defeated the Vitellians in two battles, and afterwards took and pillaged the city of Cremona. Primus then
marched upon Rome, and forced his way into the city, after much fighting. Vitellius was seized in the palace, led through the
streets with every circumstance of ignominy, and dragged to the Gemoniae Scalae, where he was killed with repeated blows. His
head was carried about Rome, and his body was thrown into the Tiber; but it was afterwards buried by his wife, Galeria
Fundana. A few days before the death of Vitellius, the Capitol had been burned in the assault made by his soldiers upon this
building, where Flavius Sabinus, the brother of the emperor Vespasian, had taken refuge ( Hist. ii. Hist., iii.; Vitell.; Dio
Cass. lxv.).
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Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian (17
November 9 – 23 June 79),[1][2] was Roman Emperor from 69 to
79. Vespasian was the founder of the Flavian dynasty which
ruled the empire for a quarter century. Vespasian was
descended from a family of equestrians which rose into the
senatorial rank under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian
dynasty. Although he attained the standard succession of
public offices, holding the consulship in 51, Vespasian
became more reputed as a successful military commander,
participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43[3], and
subjugating Judaea during the Jewish rebellion of 66.[4]
While Vespasian was preparing to besiege the city of
Jerusalem during the latter campaign, emperor Nero committed
suicide, plunging the empire into a year of civil war known
as the Year of the Four Emperors. After the emperors Galba
and Otho perished in quick succession, Vitellius became
emperor in April 69. In response, the armies in Egypt and
Judaea declared Vespasian emperor on July 1.[5] In his bid
for imperial power, Vespasian joined forces with Mucianus,
the governor of Syria, and Primus, a general in Pannonia.
Primus and Mucianus led the Flavian forces against
Vitellius, while Vespasian gained control of Egypt. On 20
December, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day
Vespasian was declared emperor by the Roman Senate.
Little factual information survives about Vespasian's
government during the ten years he was emperor. His reign is
best known for financial reforms following the demise of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty, the successful campaign against
Judaea, and several ambitious construction projects such as
the Colosseum. Upon his death in 79, he was succeeded by his
eldest son Titus...
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A Roman emperor from A.D. 70 to A.D. 79. He was born in the Sabine country on the 17th of November, A.D. 9. His
father was a man of mean condition, of Reaté, in the country of the Sabini. His mother, Vespasia Polla, was the
daughter of a praefectus castrorum, and the sister of a Roman senator. She was left a widow with two sons,
Flavius Sabinus and Vespasian. Vespasian served as military tribune in Thrace, and was quaestor in Crete and
Cyrené. He was afterwards aedile and praetor. About this time he married Flavia Domitilla, the daughter of a
Roman eques, by whom he had two sons, both of whom succeeded him. In the reign of Claudius he was sent into
Germany as legatus legionis, and in 43 he held the same command in Britain, and reduced Vectis (Isle of Wight).
He was consul in 51, and proconsul of Africa under Nero. He was at this time very poor, and was accused of
getting money by dishonourable means; but he had a great military reputation, and was liked by the soldiers.
Nero afterwards sent him to the East (A.D. 66), to conduct the war against the Jews. His conduct of the Jewish
War had raised his reputation, when the war broke out between Otho and Vitellius after the death of Galba. He
was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria on the 1st of July, 69, and soon after all through the East. He reached
Rome in the following year (A.D. 70), leaving his son Titus to continue the war against the Jews. Titus took
Jerusalem after a siege of five months; and a formidable insurrection of the Batavi, headed by Civilis, was put
down about the same period. Vespasian, on his arrival at Rome, worked with great industry to restore order in
the city and in the Empire. He disbanded some of the mutinous soldiers of Vitellius, and maintained discipline
among his own. He co-operated in a friendly manner with the Senate in the public administration. The simplicity
and frugality of his mode of life formed a striking contrast with the profusion and luxury of some of his
predecessors, and his example is said to have done more to reform the morals of Rome than all the laws which had
ever been enacted. He lived more like a private person than a man who possessed supreme power: he was affable
and easy of access to all persons. The personal anecdotes of such a man are some of the most instructive records
of his reign. He was never ashamed of the meanness of his origin, and ridiculed all attempts to make out for him
a distinguished genealogy. When Vologeses, the Parthian king, addressed to him a letter commencing in these
terms, "Arsaces, king of kings, to Flavius Vespasianus," the answer began, "Flavius Vespasianus to Arsaces, king
of kings."
If it be true, as it is recorded, that he was not annoyed at satire or ridicule, he exhibited an elevation of
character almost unparalleled in one who filled so exalted a station. He knew the evil character of his son
Domitian, and as long as he lived he kept him under proper restraint. The stories that are told of his avarice
and of his modes of raising money, if true, detract from the dignity of his character; and it seems that he had
a taste for petty saving and coarse humour. Yet it is admitted that he was liberal in all his expenditure for
purposes of public utility. In 71 Titus returned to Rome, and both father and son triumphed together on account
of the conquest of the Jews. The reign of Vespasian was marked by the conquest of North Wales and the island of
Anglesey by Agricola, who was sent into Britain in 78. Vespasian also busied himself in securing the German
frontier: he fortified the Agri Decumates and strengthened the defences of the Limes Germanicus. (See Germania.)
In Italy he reorganized the Praetorian Guard, forming one of nine cohorts composed of Italians only. His
financial management was marked by great economy; but he was the author of some remarkable public works at Rome,
the building of the magnificent Temple of Peace, and the rebuilding of the Temple of Iupiter Capitolinus. In the
summer of 79, Vespasian, whose health was failing, went to spend some time at his paternal house in the
mountains of the Sabini, but derived no benefit from treatment. He still attended to business, just as if he had
been in perfect health, and, on feeling the approach of death, he said that an emperor should die standing; and
in fact he did die in this attitude, on the 24th of June, 79, being sixty-nine years of age. His last words were
characteristic of his somewhat cynical humour, "Methinks I am becoming a god" (Ut puto, deus fio) (Suet. Vesp.
23; Dio Cass. cxvi.). See the account of Vespasian in Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire (1865).
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Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 – 18 September 96),
commonly known as Domitian, was Roman Emperor from 81 to 96.
Domitian was the third and last emperor of the Flavian
dynasty.
Domitian's youth and early career were largely spent in the
shadow of his brother Titus, who gained military renown
during the First Jewish-Roman War. This situation continued
under the rule of his father Vespasian, who became emperor
in 69 following the civil war known as the Year of the Four
Emperors. While Titus effectually reigned as co-emperor with
his father, Domitian was left with honours but no
responsibilities. Vespasian died in 79 and was succeeded by
Titus, whose own reign came to an unexpected end when he was
struck by a fatal illness in 81. The following day Domitian
was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard, commencing a
reign which lasted fifteen years - longer than any man who
had governed Rome since Tiberius.[1]
As emperor, Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing
the Roman coinage, expanded the border defenses of the
empire, and initiated a massive building program to restore
the damaged city of Rome. Significant wars were fought in
Britain, where his general Agricola attempted to conquer
Scotland, and in Dacia, where Domitian was unable to procure
a decisive victory against king Decebalus. Domitian's
government exhibited totalitarian characteristics; he saw
himself as the new Augustus, an enlightened despot destined
to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of brilliance.
Religious, military, and cultural propaganda fostered a cult
of personality, and by nominating himself perpetual censor,
he sought to control public and private morals. As a
consequence, Domitian was popular with the people and army
but considered a tyrant by members of the Roman Senate...
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The second son of Vespasian, born at Rome A.D. 51. Vespasian, well aware of his natural disposition,
reposed no confidence in him during his whole reign. Domitian, however, accompanied his father and his
brother Titus in their triumph at the close of the Jewish War. Upon the death of Vespasian he endeavoured
to foment troubles in the Empire and share the succession with Titus. The latter, however, forgave him,
treated him with great kindness, and made him his colleague in the consulship, always declaring to him that
he intended him for his successor. Domitian is accused of hastening the death of Titus by poison-a charge,
however, not warranted by the circumstances of Titus's death. The beginning of his reign was marked by
moderation and a display of justice bordering upon severity. His affected great zeal for the reformation of
public morals, and punished with death several persons guilty of adultery as well as some vestals who had
broken their vows. He completed several splendid buildings begun by Titus-among others an odeum, or theatre
for musical performances. The most important event of his reign was the conquest of Britain by Agricola,
but Domitian grew jealous of that great commander's reputation and recalled him to Rome. His suspicious
temper and his pusillanimity made him afraid of every man who was distinguished either by birth and
connections or by merit and popularity, and he mercilessly sacrificed many to his fears, while his avarice
led him to put to death a number of wealthy persons for the sake of their property. The usual pretext for
these murders was the charge of conspiracy or treason, and thus a numerous race of informers was created
and maintained by this system of spoliation. His cruelty was united to a deep dissimulation, and in this
particular he resembled Tiberius rather than Caligula or Nero. He either put to death or drove away from
Rome the philosophers and men of letters; Epictetus was one of the exiled. He found, however, some
flatterers among the poets, such as Martial, Silius Italicus, and Statius. The latter dedicated to him his
Thebaïs and Achilleïs and commemorated the events of his reign in his Silvae. But, in reality, the reign of
Domitian was other than favourable to the Roman arms, except in Britain. In Moesia and Dacia, in Germany
and Pannonia, his armies were defeated and whole provinces lost (Agric.41). Domitian himself went twice
into Moesia to oppose the Dacians, but, after several defeats, concluded a disgraceful peace with their
king Decebalus, whom he acknowledged as sovereign, and to whom he agreed to pay tribute, which was
afterwards discontinued by Trajan. Yet Domitian made a pompous report of his victories to the Senate and
assumed the honours of a triumph. In the same manner he triumphed over the Cotti and the Sarmatians, which
made Pliny the Younger say that the triumphs of Domitian were always evidence of some advantages gained by
the enemies of Rome. In A.D. 95, Domitian assumed the consulship for the seventeenth time, together with
Flavius Clemens, who had married Domitilla, a relative of the emperor. In that year a persecution of the
Christians is recorded in the history of the Church, but it seems that it was not directed particularly
against them, but against the Jews, with whom the Christians were often confounded by the Romans. Flavius
Clemens and his wife were among the victims. In the following year, A.D. 96, a conspiracy was formed
against Domitian among the officers of his guards and several of his intimate friends, and his wife, the
infamous Domitilla, herself is said to have participated in it. The immediate cause of it was his
increasing suspicion, which threatened the life of every one around him, and which is said to have been
stimulated by the predictions of astrologers and soothsayers, whom he was very ready to consult. He was
killed in his apartments by several of the conspirators, after struggling with them for some time, in his
forty-fifth year and in the fifteenth of his reign. On the news of his death the Senate assembled and
elected M. Cocceius Nerva emperor.
The character of Domitian is represented by all ancient historians in the darkest colours, as being a
compound of timidity and cruelty, of dissimulation and arrogance, of self-indulgence and stern severity
towards others. He gave himself up to every excess and plunged into the most degrading vices. Conceiving at
last the idea of arrogating divine honours to himself, he assumed the titles of Lord and God and claimed to
be a son of Minerva. Soon after he had succeeded to the government he indulged in that love of solitude
which pride and fear combined to render in a very short time the most confirmed of all his habits. In the
beginning of his reign, says his biographer, he accustomed himself to spend several hours every day in the
strictest privacy, employed frequently in nothing else than in catching flies and piercing them with a
sharp instrument. Hence the well-known remark made by Vibius Crispus, who, when asked whether there was any
one with the emperor, replied, "No, not even a fly." Domitian took a delight in inspiring others with
terror, and Dio Cassius tells of a singular banquet, to which he invited the principal members of the
Senate and equestrian order, where everything wore the appearance of an intended execution. He once even
convened the Senate to determine in what way a large turbot should be cooked, whether whole or divided
(Juv. iv.). The Senate, after his death, issued a decree that his name should be struck out of the Roman
annals and obliterated from every public monument. His career is sketched in detail by Imhoff (1857).
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Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus (18 September 53 – 9 August
117), commonly known as Trajan, was Roman Emperor from 98 to
117. Born into a non-patrician family in the province of
Hispania Baetica,[1] Trajan rose to prominence during the
reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a general in the Roman
army along the German frontier, Trajan successfully put down
the revolt of Antonius Saturninus in 89. In September 96,
Domitian was succeeded by Marcus Cocceius Nerva, an old and
childless senator who proved to be unpopular with the army.
After a brief and tumultuous year in power, a revolt by
members of the Praetorian Guard compelled him to adopt the
more popular Trajan as his heir and successor. Nerva died on
27 January 98, and was succeeded by his adopted son without
incident.
As a civilian administrator, Trajan is best known for his
extensive public building program which reshaped the city of
Rome and left multiple enduring landmarks such as Trajan's
Forum, Trajan's Market and Trajan's Column. Early in his
reign he annexed the Nabataean kingdom, creating the
province of Arabia Petraea. His conquest of Dacia enriched
the empire greatly - the new province possessed many
valuable gold mines. His war against the Parthian Empire
ended with the sack of the capital Ctesiphon and the
annexation of Armenia and Mesopotamia. His campaigns
expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial
extent. In late 117 while sailing back to Rome, Trajan fell
ill and died of a stroke in the city of Selinus. He was
deified by the Senate and his ashes were laid to rest under
Trajan's Column. He was succeeded by his adopted son
Hadrian.
As an emperor, Trajan's reputation has endured - he is one
of the few rulers whose reputation has survived nineteen
centuries. Every new emperor after him was honoured by the
Senate with the prayer felicior Augusto, melior Traiano,
meaning "may he be luckier than Augustus and better than
Trajan". Among medieval Christian theologians, Trajan was
considered a virtuous pagan, while the 18th century
historian Edward Gibbon popularized the notion of the Five
Good Emperors, of which Trajan was the second...
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A Roman emperor (A.D. 98-117), born at Italica, near Seville, in Spain, September 18th, A.D. 52 or 53. He was trained to arms,
and, after ten years' service as military tribune, rose through the lower offices to the rank of praetor in 85, served with
distinction in the East and in Germany, to which country he was sent from Spain by Domitian on the occasion of the revolt of
Antonius Saturninus, legatus, with the Spanish legion Adiutrix under his command. He was consul in 91, and at the close of 97 he
was adopted by the emperor Nerva , who gave him the rank of Caesar and the names of Nerva and Germanicus, and shortly after the
title of Imperator, and the tribunicia potestas. His style and title after his elevation to the imperial dignity were Imperātor
Caesar Traiānus Augustus. He was the first Roman emperor who was born out of Italy. Nerva died in January, 98, and was succeeded
by Trajan, who was then at Colonia (Cologne). His accession was hailed with joy, and he did not disappoint the expectations of the
people. He was a great soldier both in the field and in military organization; and he was scarely less great as an administrator.
His finances were prosperous, partly from his good economy, though partly also from the good fortune of certain Dacian mining
operations. Personally, he was strong and healthy, of a majestic appearance, laborious, and inured to fatigue. Though not a man of
letters, he had good sense, a knowledge of the world, and a sound judgment. His mode of living was very simple, and in campaigns
he shared all the sufferings and privations of the soldiers, by whom he was both loved and feared. He was a friend to justice, and
had a sincere desire for the happiness of the people. His career led to a proverbial expression which after this time was
formulated in a wish to each new emperor that in his reign he might be even "more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan"
(Augusto felicior, melior Traiano).
Trajan did not return to Rome for some months, being employed in settling the frontiers on the Rhine and the Danube. Especially,
he completed the fortifications of the Rhine and of the Agri Decumates (q.v.), founded a new military station, Colonia Traiana,
near Vetera, and constructed new roads by the Rhine and by the Danube, the latter work in preparation for the Dacian War. In 99 he
proceeded to Rome, which he entered on foot, accompanied by his wife, Pompeia Plotina. In March, A.D. 101, Trajan left Rome for
his campaign against the Daci. Decebalus, king of the Daci, had compelled Domitian to purchase peace by an annual payment of
money; and Trajan determined on hostilities, which should settle matters so as to secure the peace of the frontier. This war
employed Trajan between two and three years, but it ended with the defeat of Decebalus, who sued for peace at the feet of the
Roman emperor. Trajan assumed the name of Dacius, and entered Rome in triumph (103 A.D.). In the following year (104 A.D.) Trajan
commenced his second Dacian war against Decebalus, who had accepted the Roman terms merely to gain time, and now showed his
intentions by building forts, collecting war material, and welcoming Roman deserters.
Decebalus was completely defeated, and put an end to his life (106 A.D.). In the course of this war Trajan built (105 A.D.) a
permanent bridge across the Danube at the modern Turn Severin. The piers were of stone and of an enormous size, but the arches
were of wood. (See Pons.) After the death of Decebalus, Dacia was reduced to the form of a Roman province, strong forts were built
in various places, and Roman colonies were planted. (See Dacia.) The Column of Trajan at Rome was erected to commemorate his
Dacian victories. In its sculptured illustrations of the campaign it has an historical value which has been well compared to that
of the Bayeux Tapestry. (See Columna.) On his return Trajan had a triumph, and he exhibited games to the people for 123 days. It
is said that 11,000 animals were slaughtered during these amusements, and that 10,000 gladiators fought in the arena.
About this time Arabia Petraea was subjected to the Empire by A. Cornelius Palma, the governor of Syria, and an Indian embassy
came to Rome. (See Arabia.) The dominions of Agrippa II., who died A.D. 100, were also added to the province of Syria. In 114
Trajan left Rome to make war on the Armenians and the Parthians, the cause of the war being that the Parthian king, Chosroes, had
deposed from the throne of Armenia Axidares, the Roman nominee. Trajan spent the winter of 114 at Antioch, and in the following
year he invaded the Parthian dominions. The most striking and brilliant success attended his arms. In the course of two campaigns
(115-116), he conquered the greater part of the Parthian Empire, and took the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. In 116 he descended
the Tigris and entered the Erythraean Sea (Persian Gulf). While he was thus engaged the Parthians rose against the Romans, but
were again subdued by the generals of Trajan, Erucius Clarus, who reduced Babylonia and burned Seleucia, and Lucius Quietus, who
reduced Mesopotamia. On his return to Ctesiphon, Trajan determined to give the Parthians a king, and placed the diadem on the head
of Parthamaspates, son of Chosroes. In 117 Trajan fell ill, and as his complaint grew worse he set out for Italy. He lived to
reach Selinus in Cilicia, afterwards called Traianopolis, where he died in August, 117, after a reign of nineteen years, six
months, and fifteen days (C. I. L. vi. 1884). His ashes were taken to Rome in a golden urn, carried in triumphal procession, and
deposited under the column which bears his name. He left no children, and he was succeeded by Hadrian. (See Hadrianus.) Trajan
constructed several great roads in the provinces and in Italy: among them was the road across the Pomptine Marshes, which he
constructed with magnificent bridges over the streams. At Ostia he built a large new basin. At Rome he constructed the aqueduct
called by his name, built a theatre in the Campus Martius, and, above all, made the Forum Traianum, with its basilicas and
libraries, and his column in the centre. See the account of Trajan by Dierauer in vol. i. of Büdinger's Untersuchungen (1868),
that by De la Berge (1877), and in Schiller's Geschichte der röm. Kaiserzeit (Gotha, 1883).
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Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (31 August 161 – 31
December 192) was Roman Emperor from 180 to 192. He also
ruled as co-emperor with his father Marcus Aurelius from 177
until his father's death in 180. His name changed throughout
his reign; see Changes of name for earlier and later forms.
His accession as emperor was the first time a son had
succeeded his father since Titus succeeded Vespasian in 79.
Commodus was the first emperor "born to the purple"; i.e.,
born during his father's reign.
Early life and rise to power (161–180)
Early life -
Commodus was born as Lucius Aurelius Commodus in Lanuvium,
near Rome, the son of the reigning emperor, Marcus Aurelius
and first cousin Faustina the Younger. He had an elder twin
brother, Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, who died in 165.
On 12 October 166, Commodus was made Caesar together with
his younger brother, Marcus Annius Verus; the latter died in
169, having failed to recover from an operation, which left
Commodus as Marcus Aurelius's sole surviving son. He was
looked after by his father's physician, Galen, in order to
keep him healthy and alive. Galen treated many of Commodus's
common illnesses...
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Commŏdus, L. Aurelius Antonīnus
The son and successor of M. Aurelius Antoninus, who ascended the imperial throne A.D. 180. The reign of
this prince is a scene of guilt and misery, which the historian is glad to dismiss with brevity. He
appears, indeed, to have inherited all the vices of his mother, Faustina; and his father, in selecting
him for his successor, allowed the feelings of the parent to triumph over the wisdom of the magistrate.
He had accompanied his father on the expedition against the Marcomanni and the Quadi, but no sooner was
Aurelius dead than his son became anxious to proceed to Rome, and soon concluded a hasty and disgraceful
peace with the barbarians whom his father had been on the point of completely subjugating when he was
cut off by disease. Notwithstanding the care which Aurelius had bestowed on his education, Commodus was
ignorant to an extreme degree, having neither abilities nor inclination for profiting by the paternal
example and instruction. On his return to Rome he speedily showed the bias of his natural disposition,
giving himself up to unrestrained indulgence in the grossest vices. That he might do so without
impediment, he intrusted all power to Perennis, praefect of the Praetorian Guard, a man of stern and
cruel temper, who was at last slain by the soldiers for his severity.
A conspiracy against the life of Commodus having failed, it was followed by a long succession of
judicial murders to gratify the vengeance of the cowardly and vindictive tyrant. He was next threatened
by a new danger: disaffection had spread over the legions; and an attempt of Maternus, a private
soldier, who headed a band of deserters and projected the assassination of Commodus during the
celebration of the festival of Cybelé, was so ably conceived that it must have been successful but for
the treachery of an accomplice. But neither duty nor danger could draw Commodus from the sports of
gladiators or the pleasures of debauchery. Cleander, a Phrygian slave, soon succeeded to the place and
influence of Perennis, and for three years the Empire groaned beneath his cruelty and rapacity. At
length a new insurrection burst forth, which nothing could allay, the praetorian cavalry being defeated
in the streets by the populace, until the unworthy favourite was, by the emperor's command, delivered to
the insurgents. In the meantime, Commodus was indulging his base tastes and appetites, not only by gross
sensuality, but by attempting to rival the gladiators. Being a very skilful archer and of great personal
strength, he delighted in killing wild beasts in the amphitheatre, and thus pretending to rival the
prowess of Hercules. In the gladiatorial contests, he publicly engaged so often that he was the
conqueror in 735 combats. Though luxurious in his dress, frequently resorting to the baths eight times
in the day, scattering gold dust in his hair, and, from the fear of admitting the approach of a razor in
the hand of another, singeing off his beard, he was especially proud of exhibitions of personal
strength, and frequently, in the garb of a priest, butchered victims with his own hands. Among the
flatteries of the obsequious Senate none pleased him more than the vote which styled him the "Hercules
of Rome," not even that which decreed to him the titles of Pius and Felix, or which offered to abolish
the name of the Eternal City and substitute for it the title Colonia Commodiana. After thirteen years of
unmitigated oppression, his favourite, Marcia, ultimately became the instrument by which the Roman world
was delivered from its odious master. She discovered, from some private notes of Commodus, that herself,
Laetus the praetorian praefect, and Eclectus the chamberlain, were on the list devoted to death. A
conspiracy was immediately formed, Marcia administered poison to the emperor, and, lest the measure
should not prove effectual, the deed was completed by suffocation, in A.D. 192. The life of Commodus has
come down to us, written by Lampridius, in the Historia Augusta.
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Marcus Didius Severus Julianus (30 January 133 or 2 February
137 – 1 June 193) was Roman Emperor for three months during
the year 193. He ascended the throne after buying it from
the Praetorian Guard, who had assassinated his predecessor
Pertinax. This led to the Roman Civil War of 193–197.
Julianus was ousted and sentenced to death by his successor,
Septimius Severus.
Early life -
Julianus was born to Quintus Petronius Didius Severus and
Aemilia Clara.[1] Julianus's father came from a prominent
family in Mediolanum (Milan) and his mother was an African
woman, of Roman descent. Clara came from a family of
consular rank. His brothers were Didius Proculus and Didius
Nummius Albinus.[1] His date of birth is given as January
30, 133 by Cassius Dio[2] and February 2, 137 by the
Historia Augusta.[3] Didius Julianus was raised by Domitia
Lucilla, mother of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius.[4] With
Domitia's help, he was appointed at a very early age to the
vigintivirate, the first step towards public distinction.[5]
He married a Roman woman called Manlia Scantilla and about
153, Scantilla bore him a daughter and only child Didia
Clara...
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Gaius Pescennius Niger (c. 135~140–194) was a Roman usurper from 193 to 194 during the Year of the Five
Emperors. Niger was born of an old Italian equestrian family.[1]
As a usurper -
Niger was a governor of Syria who was proclaimed emperor by the eastern legions after the murder of Pertinax
and the auctioning off of the imperial title to Didius Julianus. Among the provinces that fell under his
direct control was Aegyptus, and he also enjoyed support from the government of Asia. Although these lands
contained great wealth, another rebel general, Septimius Severus, succeeding in taking Rome first, and he
then marched east to confront Niger. Niger was defeated at Cyzicus and Nicea (193) and then, definitively, at
Issus (194); forced to retreat to Antioch, Niger was killed while attempting to flee to Parthia. The name
"Niger" means "black", which incidentally, contrasts him with one of his rivals for the throne in 194 AD,
Clodius Albinus, whose name means "white".
As the city of Byzantium had supported Pescennius Niger, it was besieged and sacked by Septimus Severus,
before he rebuilt parts of it.
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Decimus Clodius Septimius Albinus (ca. 150 – February 19, 197) was a Roman usurper proclaimed emperor by the legions
in Britain and Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) upon the murder of Pertinax in
193.[1]
Life -
Albinus was born into an aristocratic family at Hadrumetum in Africa. According to his father, he received the name
of Albinus because of the extraordinary whiteness of his body.[2] Showing great disposition for a military life, he
entered the army at an early age and served with great distinction, especially during the rebellion of Avidius
Cassius against the emperor Marcus Aurelius in 175. His merits were acknowledged by the emperor in two letters in
which he calls Albinus an African, who resembled his countrymen but little, and who was praiseworthy for his
military experience and the gravity of his character.[2] The emperor likewise declared that without Albinus the
legions (in Bithynia) would have gone over to Avidius Cassius, and that he intended to have him chosen consul...
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Marcus Opellius Macrinus (ca. 165 – June 218), commonly known as Macrinus, was Roman Emperor from 217 to 218.
Macrinus was of Berber descent and the first emperor to become so without membership in the senatorial
class.[1]
Background and career
Born in Caesarea (modern Cherchell, Algeria) in the Roman province of Mauretania to an equestrian family,
Macrinus received an education which allowed him to ascend to the Roman political class. Over the years he
earned a reputation as a skilled lawyer. Under the emperor Septimius Severus he became an important
bureaucrat. Severus' successor Caracalla appointed him prefect of the Praetorian guard. While Macrinus likely
enjoyed the trust of Caracalla, this may have changed when, according to tradition, he was prophesied to
depose and succeed the emperor. Rumors spread regarding Macrinus' alleged desire to take the throne for
himself. Given Caracalla's tendency towards murdering political opponents, Macrinus probably feared for his
own safety should the emperor become aware of this prophecy. According to Dio, Caracalla had already taken
the step of re-assigning members of Macrinus' staff...
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A Roman emperor from April, A.D. 217, to June 218. Born of
humble parentage at the Mauretanian Caesarea, he became
praetorian praefect under Caracalla, whom he accompanied
against the Parthians, and whose death he procured, in order
that he might become his successor. As emperor he won
considerable popularity by the remission of certain oppressive
taxes, but suffering at Nisibis a defeat at the hands of the
Parthians, and losing the love of his soldiers by his severe
discipline, he was attacked by the forces who had proclaimed
Elagabalus as emperor and defeated by them. Escaping in
disguise, he was taken prisoner in Chalcedon and put to death.
His life has come down to us written by Capitolinus.
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Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (1 October 208 – 18 March
235), commonly known as Alexander Severus, was Roman Emperor
from 222 to 235. He was the last emperor of the Severan
dynasty. Alexander Severus succeeded his cousin Elagabalus
upon the latter's assassination in 222, and was ultimately
assassinated himself, marking the epoch event for the Crisis
of the Third Century - nearly fifty years of civil wars,
foreign invasion, and collapse of the monetary economy.
Alexander Severus was the heir apparent to his cousin, the
eighteen-year-old Emperor who had been murdered along with
his mother by his own guards-and as a mark of contempt, had
their remains cast into the Tiber river. He and his cousin
were both grandsons of the influential and powerful Julia
Maesa, who had arranged for Elagabalus' acclamation as
emperor by the famed Third Gallic Legion.
A rumor of Alexander's death circulated, triggering the
assassination of Elagabalus.
As emperor, Alexander's peace time reign was prosperous. In
military conflict against the rising Sassanid Empire, there
are mixed accounts, though the Sassanid threat was checked.
However, when campaigning against Germanic tribes of
Germania, Alexander Severus apparently alienated his legions
by trying diplomacy and bribery, and they assassinated
him...
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, usually called Alexander Sevērus. A Roman emperor (A.D. 222-235), the son of Gessius Marcianus and Iulia Mamaea, and first cousin of
Elagabalus. He was born at Arcé, in Phœnicia, in the temple of Alexander the Great, to which his parents had repaired for the celebration
of a festival, on the 1st of October, A.D. 205. His original name appears to have been Alexianus Bassiānus, the latter appellation having
been derived from his maternal grandfather. Upon the elevation of Elagabalus, he accompanied his mother and the court to Rome, a report
having been spread abroad that he also, as well as the emperor, was the son of Caracalla. In 221 he was adopted by Elagabalus and created
Caesar. The names Alexianus and Bassianus were laid aside, and those of M. Aurelius Alexander substituted; M. Aurelius in virtue of his
adoption;
Alexander in consequence, as was asserted, of a direct revelation on the part of the Syrian god. On the death of Elagabalus, on the 11th
of March, A.D. 222, Alexander ascended the throne, adding Severus to his other designations, in order to mark more explicitly the descent
which he claimed from the father of Caracalla. After reigning in peace some years, during which he reformed many abuses in the State, he
was involved in a war with Artaxerxes, king of Persia, who had lately founded the new Empire of the Sassanidae on the ruins of the
Parthian monarchy. Alexander gained a great victory over Artaxerxes in 232; but he was unable to prosecute his advantage in consequence
of intelligence having reached him of a great movement among the German tribes. He celebrated a triumph at Rome in 233, and in the
following year (234 A.D.) set out for Gaul, which the Germans were devastating; but before he had made any progress in the campaign, he
was waylaid by a small band of mutinous soldiers, instigated, it is said, by Maximinus, and slain, along with his mother, in the early
part of 235, in the thirtieth year of his age and the fourteenth of his reign. Alexander Severus was distinguished by justice, wisdom,
and clemency in all public transactions, and by the simplicity and purity of his private life. His life is written by Lampridius. See
Porrath, Der Kaiser Alexander Severus (1876).
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Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus (c. 192 – April 12, 238), commonly known as Gordian II, was Roman
Emperor for one month with his father Gordian I in 238, the Year of the Six Emperors.
Gordian's mother may be the granddaughter of Greek Sophist, consul and tutor Herodes Atticus. His younger sister was Antonia
Gordiana, who was the mother of Emperor Gordian III. The official history of the Roman emperors provides the only account of
Gordian's early career. Since his memory was cherished after his death, the information is questionable and remains unproven.
According to this source, Gordian served as quaestor in Elagabalus' reign and as praetor and consul suffect with Alexander
Severus as emperor. In 237, Gordian went to the Africa Roman province under his father's command as a governor.
Gordian II on a coin, celebrating his military prowess
Early in 235, emperor Alexander Severus and his mother Julia Avita Mamaea were assassinated by mutinous troops in Germania
Inferior. The leader of the rebellion, Maximinus Thrax, became emperor, despite his popular background and the disapproval of
the Roman Senate. Pushed by the local politicians, Gordian's father began a revolt against Maximinus in 238 and became
Augustus on March 22. Due to Gordian I's advanced age, the younger Gordian was attached to the imperial throne and acclaimed
Augustus too. Father and son saw their pretensions ratified both by the senate and most of the other provinces, due to
Maximinus' unpopularity.
Opposition would come from the neighbouring province of Numidia. Capelianus, governor of Numidia and a loyal supporter of
Maximinus Thrax, renewed his alliance to the former emperor and invaded Africa province with the only legion stationing in
the region, III Augusta, and other veteran units. Gordian II, at the head of a militia army of untrained soldiers, lost the
Battle of Carthage and was killed, and Gordian I took his own life. This first rebellion against Maximinus Thrax was
unsuccessful but, by the end of 238, Gordian II's nephew would be recognised emperor by the whole Roman world as Gordian III.
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M. Antonius Africanus, son of Gordianus, was instructed by
Serenus Samonicus, who left him his library, which consisted
of 62,000 volumes. He was well informed, and wrote several
works, but was rather too fond of pleasure, which latter
circumstance seems to have recommended him to the favour of
the emperor Elagabalus. Alexander Severus advanced him
subsequently to the consulship. He afterwards passed into
Africa as lieutenant to his father, and, when the latter was
elevated to the throne, shared that dignity with him. But,
after a reign of not quite two months, he fell in battle, at
the age of forty-six, against Capellianus, a partisan of
Maximinus. (See Gordianus, 1.)
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Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus (c. 165 – 29 July 238) was Roman Emperor with Pupienus for three months in
238, the Year of the Six Emperors.
Origins and career --
Not much is known about Balbinus before his elevation to emperor. It has been conjectured that he descended
from Publius Coelius Balbinus Vibullius Pius, the consul ordinarius of 136 or 137, and wife Aquilia. If this
were true, he was also related to the family of Q. Pompeius Falco, which supplied many politicians of consular
rank throughout the 3rd century, and to the 1st-century politician, engineer and author Julius Frontinus, as
well as a descendant of a first cousin of Trajan. He was a patrician from birth, and was the son (either by
birth or adoption) of ... Caelius Calvinus, who was legate of Cappadocia in 184. According to Herodian he had
governed provinces, but the list of seven provinces given in the Historia Augusta, as well as the statement
that Balbinus had been both Proconsul of Asia and of Africa, are likely to be mere invention. He had certainly
been twice consul; his first consulate is not certainly known but is believed to have been about 203 or in July
211; he was consul for the second time in 213 as colleague of Caracalla, which suggests he enjoyed that
emperor's favour.
Reign --
According to Edward Gibbon (drawing upon the narratives of Herodian and the Historia Augusta):
Balbinus was an admired orator, a poet of distinguished fame, and a wise magistrate, who had exercised with
innocence and applause the civil jurisdiction in almost all the interior provinces of the empire. His birth was
noble, his fortune affluent, his manners liberal and affable. In him, the love of pleasure was corrected by a
sense of dignity, nor had the habits of ease deprived him of a capacity for business. (...) The two colleagues
[Pupienus and Balbinus] had both been consul (Balbinus had twice enjoyed that honourable office), both had been
named among the twenty lieutenants of the senate; and, since the one was sixty and the other seventy-four years
old, they had both attained the full maturity of age and experience.[1]
When the Gordians were proclaimed Emperors in Africa, the Senate appointed a committee of twenty men, including
Balbinus, to co-ordinate operations against Maximinus Thrax. On the news of the Gordians' defeat, the Senate
met in closed session in the Temple of Jupiter and voted Pupienus and Balbinus as co-emperors, though they were
soon forced to co-opt the child Gordian III as a colleague. Balbinus was probably in his early seventies: his
qualifications for rule are unknown, except presumably that he was a senior senator, rich and well-connected.
While Pupienus marched to Ravenna, where he oversaw the campaign against Maximinus, Balbinus remained in Rome,
but failed to keep public order. The sources suggest that after Pupienus's victorious return following
Maximinus' death, Balbinus suspected Pupienus of wanting to supplant him, and they were soon living in
different parts of the Imperial palace, where they were later assassinated by disaffected elements of the
Praetorian Guard.
Sarcophagus --
The 'sarcophagus of Balbinus' has earned this Emperor a niche in the history of Roman Imperial art. When
presumably holding the title of Emperor, Balbinus had a marble sarcophagus made for himself and his wife (whose
name is unknown). Discovered in fragments near the Via Appia and restored, this is the only example of a Roman
Imperial sarcophagus of this type to have survived. On the lid are reclining figures of Balbinus and his wife,
the figure of the Emperor also being a fine portrait of him.
Although in accounts of their joint reign Balbinus is emphasized as the civilian as against Pupienus the
military man, on the side of the sarcophagus he is portrayed in full military dress.
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A Roman who was proclaimed emperor by the Senate with
Pupienus, on the death of the Gordians, A.D. 237. He was
murdered by the soldiery after a year's reign.
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Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus (born c. 164/178 – 29 July 238) was Roman Emperor with Balbinus for three months in 238, the
Year of the Six Emperors. The sources for this period are scant, and thus knowledge of the emperor limited. In most
contemporary texts Pupienus is referred to, incorrectly, as 'Maximus' rather than by his family name of Pupienus.
Origins, career and family -
The Historia Augusta, whose testimony is not to be trusted unreservedly, paints Pupienus as an example of ascension in the
Roman hierarchical system due to military success. It claims he was the son of a blacksmith, who started his career as a
Centurio primus pilus and became a Tribunus Militum, and then Praetor. In truth, he was the son of Marcus Pupienus Maximus, a
Senator, and wife Clodia Pulchra.[citation needed] Probably his father wasn't yet a Senator when he started his career. It
further claims he was adopted by one Pescennia Marcellina (otherwise unknown), and served as Proconsul of Bithynia et Pontus,
then of Achaea, and then Gallia Narbonensis before serving as a special Legatus in Illyricum and subsequently governing one of
the German provinces. It is likely most of this is fiction: only the last post – probably the troublesome Germania Inferior –
is independently attested (by Herodian). It was presumably then that Pupienus gained the personal bodyguard of Germans which
is mentioned by Herodian as remaining with him when he became Emperor.
What is certain is that Pupienus, though he may not have been born a Patrician, was a leading member of the senatorial class
during the latter half of the Severan dynasty. He may have come from the Etruscan city of Volterra, where inscriptions
relating to his daughter, who carried the highly aristocratic name Pupiena Sextia Paulina Cethegilla, wife of Marcus Ulpius
Eubiotus Leurus, show that Pupienus (and his father, needed not have been the blacksmith claimed by the Historia Augusta)
married into the ancient Roman noble family of the Sextii, with his second cousin Sextia Cethegilla, born c. 170, daughter of
Titus Sextius Africanus and wife Cornelia. He was twice Consul – the date of his first consulship is unknown, but was probably
about 213, maybe as a Suffectus in July 205 or Ordinarius in 217. His second consulship was in 234 and in that year or c. 230
he was Praefectus Urbi of Rome and gained a reputation for severity, to the extent that he became unpopular with the Roman
mob. In addition to his daughter, Pupienus had two sons, Tiberius Clodius Pupienus Pulcher Maximus, who was a Consul Suffectus
about 224 or 226 or July 235, and Marcus Pupienus Africanus Maximus, Consul Ordinarius in 236 as colleague of the Emperor
Maximinus Thrax. The second consulship, the city prefecture, and the son as consul of the year with the reigning Emperor, are
all signs that the family was influential and in high favour. Evidently they owned property in Tibur outside Rome, where
Pupienus Pulcher Maximus was a Patron of the town.
Reign -
According to Edward Gibbon (drawing on the narratives of Herodian and the Historia Augusta):
The mind of Maximus [Pupienus] was formed in a rougher mould [than that of Balbinus]. By his valour and abilities he had
raised himself from the meanest origin to the first employments of the state and army. His victories over the Sarmatians and
the Germans, the austerity of his life, and the rigid impartiality of his justice whilst he was prefect of the city, commanded
the esteem of a people whose affections were engaged in favour of the more amiable Balbinus. The two colleagues had both been
consul (Balbinus had twice enjoyed that honourable office), both had been named among the twenty lieutenants of the senate;
and, since the one was sixty and the other seventy-four years old, they had both attained the full maturity of age and
experience.[1]
When the Gordians were proclaimed Emperors in Africa, the Senate appointed a committee of twenty men, including the old
Senator Pupienus, to co-ordinate operations against Maximinus. On the news of the Gordians' defeat, the Senate met in closed
session in the Temple of Jupiter and voted Pupienus and Balbinus as co-emperors, though they were soon forced to co-opt
Gordian III as a colleague. Pupienus marched to Ravenna, where he oversaw the campaign against Maximinus; after the latter was
assassinated by his soldiers just outside Aquileia he despatched both Maximinus's troops and his own back to their provinces
and returned to Rome with just the Praetorian Guard and his German bodyguard. Balbinus had failed to keep public order in the
capital. The sources suggest that Balbinus suspected Pupienus of wanting to supplant him, and they were soon living in
different parts of the Imperial palace, where they were later assassinated by disaffected elements in the Praetorians, who
resented serving under Senate-appointed emperors.
Scipio connection -
Through his mother's family, Pupienus has a link to the great Roman General Publius Cornlius Scipio Africanus. As a descendant
of Fulvia, through her marriage to popularis Publius Clodius Pulcher, the great granddaughter of Africanus; he could claim to
be first Imperator of Rome to be a direct descendant of the Second Punic War Hero. On a side note, his grandson who was also a
consul was a direct descendant of Augustus on his mother's side.
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A Roman who was elected emperor with Balbinus, in A.D. 238,
when the Senate received intelligence of the death of the two
Gordians in Africa; but the new emperors were slain by the
soldiers at Rome in the same year. See Balbinus.
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Marcus Antonius Gordianus Pius (20 January 225 – 11 February 244), commonly known as Gordian III, was Roman Emperor from 238 to 244.
Gordian was the son of Antonia Gordiana and an unnamed Roman Senator who died before 238. Antonia Gordiana was the daughter of emperor
Gordian I and younger sister of emperor Gordian II. Very little is known on his early life before his acclamation. Gordian had assumed
the name of his maternal grandfather in 238.
Rise to power -
Following the murder of emperor Alexander Severus in Moguntiacum (modern Mainz), the capital of the Roman province Germania Inferior,
Maximinus Thrax was acclaimed emperor, despite strong opposition of the Roman senate and the majority of the population. In response to
what was considered in Rome as a rebellion, Gordian's grandfather and uncle, Gordian I and II, were proclaimed joint emperors in the
Africa Province. Their revolt was suppressed within a month by Cappellianus, governor of Numidia and a loyal supporter of Maximinus
Thrax. The elder Gordians died, but public opinion cherished their memory as peace loving and literate men, victims of Maximinus'
oppression.
Meanwhile, Maximinus was on the verge of marching on Rome and the Senate elected Pupienus and Balbinus as joint emperors. These
senators were not popular men and the population of Rome was still shocked by the elder Gordian's fate, so that the Senate decided to
take the teenager Gordian, rename him Marcus Antonius Gordianus as his grandfather, and raise him to the rank of Caesar and imperial
heir. Pupienus and Balbinus defeated Maximinus, mainly due to the defection of several legions, namely the II Parthica who assassinated
Maximinus. But their joint reign was doomed from the start with popular riots, military discontent and even an enormous fire that
consumed Rome in June 238. On July 29, Pupienus and Balbinus were killed by the Praetorian guard and Gordian proclaimed sole emperor.
Rule -
Due to Gordian's age, the imperial government was surrendered to the aristocratic families, who controlled the affairs of Rome through
the senate. In 240, Sabinianus revolted in the African province, but the situation was dealt quickly. In 241, Gordian was married to
Furia Sabinia Tranquillina, daughter of the newly appointed praetorian prefect, Timesitheus. As chief of the Praetorian guard and
father in law of the emperor, Timesitheus quickly became the de facto ruler of the Roman empire.
In the 3rd century, the Roman frontiers weakened against the Germanic tribes across the Rhine and Danube, and the Sassanid kingdom
across the Euphrates increased its own attacks. When the Persians under Shapur I invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the
doors of the Temple of Janus for the last time in Roman history, and sent a large army to the East. The Sassanids were driven back over
the Euphrates and defeated in the Battle of Resaena (243). The campaign was a success and Gordian, who had joined the army, was
planning an invasion of the enemy's territory, when his father-in-law died in unclear circumstances. Without Timesitheus, the campaign,
and the emperor's security, were at risk.
Marcus Julius Philippus, also known as Philip the Arab, stepped in at this moment as the new Praetorian Prefect and the campaign
proceeded. In the beginning of 244, the Persians counter-attacked. Persian sources claim that a battle was fought (Battle of Misiche)
near modern Fallujah (Iraq) and resulted in a major Roman defeat and the death of Gordian III[1]. Roman sources do not mention this
battle and suggest that Gordian died far away, upstream of the Euphrates. Although ancient sources often described Philip, who
succeeded Gordian as emperor, as having murdered Gordian at Zaitha (Qalat es Salihiyah), the cause of Gordian's death is unknown.
Gordian's youth and good nature, along with the deaths of his grandfather and uncle and his own tragic fate at the hands of another
usurper, granted him the everlasting esteem of the Romans. Despite the opposition of the new emperor, Gordian was deified by the Senate
after his death, in order to appease the population and avoid riots.
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Marcus Antonīnus Pius, grandson, on the mother's side, of
the elder Gordianus, and nephew of Gordianus the younger,
was twelve years of age when he was proclaimed Caesar by
general acclamation of the people of Rome, after the news
had arrived of the death of the two Gordiani in Africa. The
Senate named him colleague of the two new emperors Maximus
and Balbinus, but in the following year (A.D. 238) a mutiny
of the Praetorians took place at Rome, Balbinus and Maximus
were murdered, and the boy Gordianus was proclaimed emperor.
His disposition was kind and amiable, but at the beginning
of his reign he trusted to the insinuations of a certain
Maurus and other freedmen of the palace, who abused his
confidence, and committed many acts of injustice. In the
second year of his reign a revolt broke out in Africa, where
a certain Sabinianus was proclaimed emperor, but the
insurrection was soon put down by the governor of
Mauritania. In the following year Gordianus, being consul
with Claudius Pompeianus, married Furia Sabina Tranquillina,
daughter of Misitheus, a man of the greatest personal merit.
Misitheus disclosed to Gordianus the disgraceful conduct of
Maurus and his friends, who were immediately deprived of
their offices and driven away from court. From that moment
Gordianus placed implicit trust in his father-in-law, on
whom the Senate conferred the title of "Guardian of the
Republic." In the next year, news came to Rome that the
Persians under Sapor had invaded Mesopotamia, had occupied
Nisibis and Carrhae, entered Syria, and, according to
Capitolinus, had taken Gordianus opened the temple of Ianus,
according to an ancient custom which had been long disused,
and, setting out from Rome at the head of a fine army,
marched through Illyricum and Moesia, where he defeated the
Goths and Sarmatians, and drove them beyond the Danube.
Gordianus presently crossed the Hellespont, and proceeded
into Syria, delivered Antioch, defeated the Persians in
several battles, retook Nisibis and Carrhae, and drove Sapor
back to his own dominions. The Senate voted him a triumph.
In the year after, A.D. 244, Gordianus advanced into Persian
territory, and defeated Sapor on the banks of the Chaboras;
but while he was preparing to pursue him, Philippus, an
officer in the Guards, who had contrived to spread
discontent among the soldiers by attributing their
privations to the inexperience of a boyish emperor, was
proclaimed by the army his colleague in the Empire.
Gordianus consented, but soon after was murdered by
Philippus. Gordianus was about twenty years old when he
died. His body, according to Eutropius, was carried to Rome,
and he was numbered among the gods (Herodian, vii. 10 foll.;
viii. 6 foll.; Eutrop. ix. 2).
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Gaius Cornelius Gallus (ca. 70 BC–26 BC), Roman poet, orator and politician, was born of humble parents at Forum Livii
(Forlì)[citation needed] in Italy.
At an early age he moved to Rome, where he was taught by the same master as Virgil and Varius Rufus. Virgil, who dedicated one
of his eclogues (X) to him, was in great measure indebted to the influence of Gallus for the restoration of his estate. In
political life Gallus espoused the cause of Octavian, and as a reward for his services was made prefect of Egypt (Suetonius,
Augustus, 66 ). In 29 BC, Cornelius Gallus led a campaign to subdue a revolt in Thebes. He erected a monument in Philae to
glorify his accomplishments. Gallus' conduct brought him into disgrace with the emperor, and a new prefect was appointed. After
his recall, Gallus put an end to his life (Cassius Dio, liii 23 ).
Gallus enjoyed a high reputation among his contemporaries as a man of intellect, and Ovid (Tristia, IV) considered him the
first of the elegiac poets of Rome. He wrote four books of elegies chiefly on his mistress Lycoris (a poetical name for
Cytheris, a notorious actress), in which he took for his model Euphorion of Chalcis; he also translated some of this author's
works into Latin. He is often thought of as a key figure in the establishment of the genre of Latin love-elegy, and an
inspiration for Propertius, Tibullus, and Ovid. Almost nothing by him has survived; until recently, one pentameter ("uno
tellures diuidit amne duas") was all that had been handed down. Then, in 1978 a papyrus was found at Qasr Ibrim, in Egyptian
Nubia, containing nine lines by Gallus, arguably the oldest surviving MS of Latin poetry.[1] The fragments of four poems
attributed to him, first published by Aldus Manutius in 1590 and printed in Alexander Riese's Anthologia Latina (1869), are
generally regarded as a forgery; and Pomponius Gauricus's ascription to him of the elegiac verses of Maximianus is no longer
accepted.
[edit]The surviving poetry of Gallus
Scholars used to believe, in the absence of any surviving poetry by Gallus and on the basis of his high reputation among his
contemporaries, that his poetical gifts were little short of those of Virgil. A nineteenth-century British classicist famously
asked, 'What would we not barter of all the epics of empire for ten lines of Gallus?' The discoveries at Qasr Ibrim have now
given us nine lines of Gallus. Coincidentally, one of them mentions Lycoris, ('saddened, Lycoris, by your wanton behaviour'),
confirming their authorship. Possibly atypical, these surviving lines are of disappointing quality. They are written in a Latin
more Lucretian and Catullan than Virgilian, and a certain roughness in the composition recalls Quintilian's judgement that
Gallus's style was durior (rather harsh). Their sentiments are conventional, and show little trace of originality.
Four lines which probably once stood at the beginning of a poem pay homage to Julius Caesar shortly before his assassination,
on the eve of his projected campaign against the Parthians:
Fata mihi, Caesar, tum erunt mea dulcia, quom tu / maxima Romanae pars eris historiae / postque tuum reditum multorum templa
deorum / fixa legam spolieis deivitiora tueis.
'I will count myself blessed by fortune, Caesar, when you become the greatest part of Roman history; and when, after your
return, I admire the temples of many gods adorned and enriched with your spoils.'
This obsequious compliment is scarcely to be taken seriously. The Augustan poets tended to distance themselves from the world
of high politics, and often drew a humorous contrast between the martial ambition of their rulers and their own ignoble love
affairs. The next, missing, stanza probably subverted the sense. 'As it is, while you're off winning renown by conquering
Parthia, I'm stuck here in Rome, with nothing to do but make love to Lycoris.'
A second, incomplete, block of four lines appears to be addressed to Lycoris. So long as she likes his verses, Gallus seems to
be saying (the verb in the third line was probably placeatur, to please), he will ignore the hostile comments they are likely
to attract from famously conservative critics such as Cato:
. . . tandem fecerunt carmina Musae /quae possim domina deicere digna mea. / . . . atur idem tibi, non ego, Visce / . . . Kato,
iudice te vereor.
'At last the Muses have made songs fit for me to lay at the feet of my mistress. So long as . . . [they are pleasing] to you, I
am not afraid to be judged by you, Viscus, . . . nor by you, Cato.'
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C. Cornelius, was born at Forum Iulii (Fréjus) in Gaul, of poor parents, about B.C. 66. He went to Italy at
an early age, and began his career as a poet when he was about twenty years of age. He had already attained
considerable distinction at the time of Caesar's death, 44; and upon the arrival of Octavianus in Italy after
that event, Gallus embraced his party, and soon acquired great influence with him. In 41 he was one of the
triumvirs appointed by Octavianus to distribute lands in the north of Italy among his veterans, and on that
occasion he afforded protection to the inhabitants of Mantua and to Vergil. He afterwards accompanied
Octavianus to the battle of Actium, 31, and commanded a detachment of the army. After the battle, Gallus was
sent with the army to Egypt, in pursuit of Antony; and when Egypt was made a Roman province, Octavianus
appointed Gallus the first prefect of the province. He remained in Egypt for nearly four years; but he
incurred at length the enmity of Octavianus, though the exact nature of his offence is uncertain. According
to some accounts he spoke of the emperor in an offensive and insulting manner; he erected numerous statues of
himself in Egypt, and had his own exploits inscribed on the pyramids. The Senate deprived him of his estates,
and sent him into exile; whereupon he put an end to his life by falling upon his own sword, B.C. 27. The
intimate friendship existing between Gallus and the most eminent men of the time, as Asinius Pollio, Vergil,
Varus, and Ovid, and the high praise they bestow upon him, prove that he was a man of great intellectual
powers and acquirements. Ovid (Trist. iv. 10.5) assigns to him the first place among the Roman elegiac poets;
and we know that he wrote a collection of elegies in four books, the principal subject of which was his love
of Lycoris. (See Vergil's Tenth Eclogue.) But all his productions have perished; for the four epigrams in the
Latin Anthology attributed to Gallus could not have been written by a contemporary of Augustus. Gallus
translated into Latin the poems of Euphorion of Chalcis, but this translation is also lost. Some critics
attributed to him the poem Ciris, usually printed among the works of Vergil. See Völker, De C. Galli Vita et
Scriptis, pt. i. (Bonn, 1840), pt. ii. (Elberfeld, 1844); NicolasA. , De la Vie et des Ouvrages de C. Gallus
(Paris, 1851). His story is made the basis of the well-known work of W. Becker on Roman antiquities. See
Becker.
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Marcus Aurelius Claudius (May 10, 213 – January, 270), commonly known as Claudius II or Claudius Gothicus, was
Roman Emperor from 268 to 270. During his reign he fought successfully against the Alamanni and scored a crushing
victory against the Goths at the Battle of Naissus.
Life
Origin and rise to power -
Claudius' origin is uncertain. He was either from Sirmium (Syrmia; in Pannonia Inferior) or from Naissus Dardania
(in Moesia Superior); both areas are located in Serbia.
Claudius was the commander of the Roman army that decisively defeated the Goths at the Battle of Naissus in
September 268; in the same month, he attained the throne, amid charges, never proven, that he murdered his
predecessor Gallienus. However, he soon proved to be less than bloodthirsty, as he asked the Roman Senate to spare
the lives of Gallienus' family and supporters. He was less magnanimous toward Rome's enemies, however, and it was
to this that he owed his popularity.
Claudius, like Maximinus Thrax before him, was of barbarian birth. After an interlude of failed aristocratic Roman
emperors since Maximinus's death, Claudius was the first in a series of tough soldier-emperors who would eventually
restore the Empire from the Crisis of the third century.
[edit]Claudius as emperor
At the time of his accession, the Roman Empire was in serious danger from several incursions, both within and
outside its borders. The most pressing of these was an invasion of Illyricum and Pannonia by the Goths. Not long
after being named emperor (or just prior to Gallienus' death, depending on the source), he won his greatest
victory, and one of the greatest in the history of Roman arms.
At the Battle of Naissus, Claudius and his legions routed a huge Gothic army. Together with his cavalry commander,
the future Emperor Aurelian, the Romans took thousands of prisoners, destroyed the Gothic cavalry as a force and
stormed their laager (a circular alignment of wagons long favored by the Goths). The victory earned Claudius his
surname of "Gothicus" (conqueror of the Goths), and that is how he is known to this day. More importantly, the
Goths were soon driven back across the Danube River, and a century passed before they again posed a serious threat
to the empire.
While this was going on, the Germanic tribe known as the Alamanni had crossed the Alps and attacked the empire.
Claudius responded quickly, routing the Alamanni at the Battle of Lake Benacus in the late fall of 268, a few
months after the battle of Naissus. He then turned on the Gallic Empire, ruled by a pretender for the past fifteen
years and encompassing Britain, Gaul, and the Iberian Peninsula. He won several victories and soon regained control
of Spain and the Rhone river valley of Gaul. This set the stage for the ultimate destruction of the Gallic Empire
under Aurelian.
However, Claudius did not live long enough to fulfill his goal of reuniting all the lost territories of the empire.
Late in 269 he was preparing to go to war against the Vandals, who were raiding in Pannonia. However, he fell
victim to the Plague of Cyprian (possibly smallpox), and died early in January 270. Before his death, he is thought
to have named Aurelian as his successor, although Claudius' brother Quintillus briefly seized power.
The Senate immediately deified Claudius as "Divus Claudius Gothicus".
Links to Constantinian dynasty -
The Historia Augusta reports Claudius and Quintillus having another brother named Crispus and through him a niece.
Said niece Claudia reportedly married Eutropius and was mother to Constantius Chlorus. Historians however suspect
this account to be a genealogical fabrication intended to link Constantine I's family to that of a well-respected
emperor.
Saint Valentine -
Claudius Gothicus has been linked to Saint Valentine at least since the Middle Ages. According to the Nuremberg
Chronicle of 1493 AD, the emperor martyred the Roman priest during a general persecution of Christians. The text
states that St. Valentine was beaten with clubs and finally beheaded for giving aid to Christians in Rome. [1] The
Golden Legend of 1260 AD recounts how St. Valentine refused to deny Christ before the "Emperor Claudius" in 280 AD
and as a result was beheaded. Some 20th century historians have questioned these medieval accounts, claiming that
references to St. Valentine are very scanty in old historical records and many of the accounts of the life of the
saint appear to have originated with Geoffrey Chaucer. There is very little evidence that Claudius II reversed
Gallienus's policy of toleration for Christians, either.
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Marcus Aurelius Probus (c. 19 August 232 – September/October 282), commonly known as Probus, was Roman Emperor from 276
to 282. During his reign, the Rhine and Danube frontier was strengthened after successful wars against several Germanic
tribes such as the Goths, Alamanni, Longiones, Franks, Burgundians, and Vandals.
Born in 232 in Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica), Pannonia, Probus entered the army around 250 upon reaching adulthood. He
distinguished himself under the emperors Valerian, Aurelian and Tacitus. He was appointed governor of the East by
Tacitus, whose death in 276 prompted Probus' soldiers to proclaim him emperor.
Florianus, the half-brother of Tacitus, was also proclaimed successor by his soldiers, but was killed after an indecisive
campaign. Probus travelled west, defeating the Goths along the lower Danube in 277 - acquiring the title of Gothicus. His
position as emperor was ratified by the Senate around this time.
In 278, Probus campaigned successfully in Gaul against the Alamanni and Longiones; both tribes had advanced through the
Neckar valley and across the Rhine into Roman territory. Meanwhile, his generals defeated the Franks and these operations
were directed to clearing Gaul of Germanic invaders (Franks, and Burgundians), allowing Probus to adopt the titles of
Gothicus Maximus and Germanicus Maximus. One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to be idle, and to employ
them in time of peace on useful works, such as the planting of vineyards in Gaul, Pannonia and other districts, in order
to restart the economy in these devastated lands.
In 279–280, Probus was, according to Zosimus, in Raetia, Illyricum and Lycia, where he fought the Vandals. In the same
years, Probus' generals defeated the Blemmyes in Egypt; Probus then ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals
along the Nile, where the production of grain for the Empire was centered.
In 280–281, Probus had also put down three usurpers, Julius Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus. The extent of these revolts
is not clear, but there are clues that they were not just local problems[1]. In 281, the emperor was in Rome, where he
celebrated his triumph.
Probus was eager to start his eastern campaign, delayed by the revolts in the west. He left Rome in 282, travelling first
towards Sirmium, his birth city, when the news that Marcus Aurelius Carus, commander of the Praetorian Guard, had been
proclaimed emperor reached him. Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when those troops changed sides and
supported Carus, Probus's remaining soldiers then assassinated him (September/October 282).
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A Roman emperor (A.D. 276-282). He was a native of Sirmium in Pannonia, and rose to distinction by his
military abilities. He was appointed, by the emperor Tacitus, governor of the whole East, and, upon the death
of that sovereign, the purple was forced upon his acceptance by the armies of Syria. The downfall of Florianus
(q.v.) speedily removed his only rival, and he was enthusiastically hailed by the united voice of the Senate,
the people, and the legions. The reign of Probus presents a series of the most brilliant achievements. He
defeated the barbarians on the frontiers of Gaul and Illyricum and in other parts of the Roman Empire, and put
down the rebellions of Saturninus at Alexandria, and of Proculus and Bonosus in Gaul. But, after crushing all
external and internal foes, he was killed at Sirmium by his own soldiers, who had risen in mutiny against him,
because he had employed them in laborious public works. Probus was as just and virtuous as he was warlike, and
is deservedly regarded as one of the greatest and best of the Roman emperors. His life is given in the
Historia Augusta; see also Zosim. i. 64.
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Marcus Aurelius Carus (c. 230 – July or August 283) was
Roman Emperor from 282 to 283. During his short reign, Carus
fought the Germanic tribes and Sarmatians along the Danube
frontier with success. During his campaign against the
Sassanid Empire he sacked their capital Ctesiphon, but died
shortly thereafter. He was succeeded by his sons Carinus and
Numerian; creating a dynasty which, though shortlived,
granted further stability to a resurgent empire.
Biography
Carus, whose name before the accession may have been Marcus
Numerius Carus, was born, probably, at Narbo (modern
Narbonne) in Gaul,[1] but was educated at Rome. He was a
senator, and had filled various civil and military posts
before he was appointed prefect of the Praetorian Guard by
the emperor Probus in 282. After the murder of Probus at
Sirmium, Carus was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers.
Although Carus severely avenged the death of Probus, he was
himself suspected of having been an accessory to the deed.
He does not seem to have returned to Rome after his
accession, but contented himself with an announcement of the
fact to the Senate.
Bestowing the title of Caesar upon his sons Carinus and
Numerian, he left Carinus in charge of the western portion
of the empire, and took Numerian with him on the expedition
against the Persians which had been contemplated by Probus.
Having defeated the Quadi and Sarmatians on the Danube,
Carus proceeded through Thrace and Asia Minor, annexed
Mesopotamia, pressed on to Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and
marched his soldiers beyond the Tigris. The Sassanid Emperor
Bahram II, limited by internal opposition, could not
effectively defend his territory. For his victories, which
avenged all the previous defeats suffered by the Romans
against the Sassanids, Carus received the title of Persicus
Maximus.
Carus' hopes of further conquest were cut short by his
death. One day, after a violent storm, it was announced that
he was dead. His death was variously attributed to disease,
the effects of lightning, or a wound received in a campaign
against the Persians. The facts that he was leading a
victorious campaign, and that his son Numerian succeeded him
without opposition, suggest that his death may have been due
to natural causes.
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A Roman emperor, who succeeded Probus. He was first appointed, by the latter, prætorian prefect, and after his death was
chosen by the army to be his successor, A.D. 282. Carus created his two sons, Carinus and Numerianus, Caesars, as soon as
he was elevated to the Empire, and, some time after, gave them each the title of Augustus. On the news of the death of
Probus, the barbarians put themselves in motion, and Carus, sending his son Carinus into Gaul, departed with Numerianus
for Illyricum, in order to oppose the Sarmatae, who threatened Thrace and Italy. He slew 16,000, and made 20,000
prisoners. Proceeding after this against the Persians, he made himself master of Mesopotamia, and of the cities of
Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and took in consequence the surnames of Persicus and Parthicus. He died, however, in the midst of
his successes, A.D. 283. (See Aper.) His whole reign was one of not more than sixteen or seventeen months. Carus was
deified after his death. According to Vopiscus, by whom his life was written, he held a middle rank between good and bad
princes.
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Lucius Aelius Seianus (20 BC – October 18, AD 31), commonly
known as Sejanus, was an ambitious soldier, friend and
confidant of the Roman Emperor Tiberius. An equestrian by
birth, Sejanus rose to power as prefect of the Roman
imperial bodyguard, known as the Praetorian Guard, of which
he was commander from AD 14 until his death in 31.
While the Praetorian Guard was formally established under
Emperor Augustus, Sejanus introduced a number of reforms
which saw the unit evolve beyond a mere bodyguard into a
powerful and influential branch of the government involved
in public security, civil administration, and ultimately
political intercession; changes which would have a lasting
impact on the course of the Principate.
During the 20s, Sejanus gradually accumulated power by
consolidating his influence over Tiberius and eliminating
potential political opponents, including the emperor's son,
Drusus Julius Caesar. When Tiberius withdrew to Capri in 26,
Sejanus was left in control of the entire state mechanism as
de facto ruler of the empire. For a time the most
influential and feared citizen of Rome, Sejanus suddenly
fell from power in 31, the year his career culminated with
the consulship. Amidst suspicions of conspiracy against
Tiberius, Sejanus was arrested and executed, along with his
followers...
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Aelius. A Roman statesman, born at Vulsinii in Etruria. He was the son of Seius Strabo, who was commander of the praetorian troops at
the close of the reign of Augustus, A.D. 14 (Tac. Ann. iv. 1). In the same year Seianus was made the colleague of his father in the
command of the praetorian bands; and upon his father being sent as governor to Egypt, he obtained the sole command of these troops. He
ultimately gained such influence over Tiberius that this suspicious man, who was close and reserved to all mankind, opened his bosom to
Seianus, and made him his confidant. For many years he governed Tiberius; but, not content with this high position, he formed the design
of obtaining the imperial power. With this view he sought to make himself popular with the soldiers, and gave posts of honour and
emolument to his creatures and favourites. With the same object he resolved to get rid of all the members of the imperial family. He
debauched Livia, the wife of Drusus, the son of Tiberius; and by promising her marriage and a participation in the imperial power, he
was enabled to poison Drusus with her connivance and assistance (A.D. 23). An accident increased the credit of Seianus, and confirmed
the confidence of Tiberius. The emperor, with Seianus and others, was feasting in a natural cave, between Amyclae, which was on the
seacoast, and the hills of Fundi. The entrance of the cave suddenly fell in and crushed some of the slaves; and all the guests, in
alarm, tried to make their escape. Seianus, resting his knees on the couch of Tiberius, and placing his shoulders under the falling
rock, protected his master, and was discovered in this posture by the soldiers who came to their relief. After Tiberius had shut himself
up in the island of Capreae, Seianus had full scope for his machinations; and the death of Livia, the mother of Tiberius (A.D. 29), was
followed by the banishment of Agrippina and her sons Nero and Drusus. Tiberius at last began to suspect the designs of Seianus, and felt
that it was time to rid himself of a man who was almost more than a rival. To cover his schemes and remove Seianus from about him,
Tiberius made him joint consul with himself in A.D. 31. He then sent Sertorius Macro to Rome with a commission to take the command of
the praetorian cohorts. Macro, after assuring himself of the troops, and depriving Seianus of his usual guard, produced a letter from
Tiberius to the Senate, in which the emperor expressed his apprehensions of Seianus. The consul Regulus conducted him to prison, and the
people loaded him with insult and outrage. The Senate on the same day decreed his death, and he was immediately executed. His body was
dragged about the streets and finally thrown into the Tiber. Many of the friends of Seianus perished at the same time, and his son and
daughter shared his fate (Tac. Ann. iv. 41-59, 74; v. 6-9; Suet. Tib.; Dio Cass. lvii., lviii.; Juv.x. 65-86). The story of Seianus is
the subject of a play by Ben Jonson, entitled Sejanus, produced in 1603. See Tiberius.
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Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger) (c. 3 BC – 65 AD) was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman,
dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero. He was later
forced to commit suicide for complicity in the Pisonian conspiracy to assassinate this last of the Julio-Claudian emperors; however, he may
have been innocent.[1][2] His father was Seneca the Elder and his older brother was Gallio...
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L. Annaeus, second son of the preceding, was born at Corduba
about B.C. 3. He was from infancy of a delicate
constitution, and liable to serious illnesses, in one of
which he owed his life to the devoted care of his maternal
aunt, in whose company, he tells us, he was brought to Rome.
His instructors there were the eminent philosophers
Fabianus, Attalus, and Sotion , under whom he studied with
unremitting ardour, carrying his zeal for their precepts so
far as to cultivate a somewhat ostentatious asceticism. His
prudent father, alive to the jealousy of the court,
recommended less perilous forms of virtue. Caligula, who
affected to be a severe critic of Seneca's style,
unquestionably envied his talent, and had marked him out for
destruction, but was induced to spare his feeble health,
which seemed to threaten an early grave. Under Claudius,
Seneca rapidly rose to eminence. As quaestor he had the
promise of a political career opened to him. He was also a
successful pleader, a skilful professor of eloquence, and a
leader in the world of fashion. But he had made powerful
enemies. An intimacy was known to exist between him and
Iulia Livilla, youngest daughter of Germanicus, which was
liable to an unfavourable construction; so that when
Messalina by her intrigues effected the exile of the
princess, she was able to involve Seneca in a similar fate
(A.D. 41). He was banished to Corsica, where he spent eight
years, a fretful and helpless spectator of events. With the
downfall of Messalina his fortunes revived. Agrippina,
wishing to use him as the instrument of her ambitious
projects, and perhaps, as Dio insinuates, captivated by his
engaging person, contrived to secure his appointment as
tutor to her son, the young Nero, then eleven years of age,
and already destined for the throne. This was a position
exactly suited to Seneca's genius. There is every reason to
believe that he endeavoured to imbue his pupil's mind with
maxims of wisdom and clemency; and the early part of Nero's
reign, the "golden quinquennium" of justice and mercy, was
long remembered as due to the influence of Seneca and
Durrus, who jointly administered the State. It soon became
evident, however, that Nero could not be controlled. The
tutor tried to retain his influence by dangerous and
unworthy concessions to the vices of the pupil, but without
success. It was Nero who held Seneca bound by the magnetism
of fear, of a more violent will, and of imperial splendours.
The minister was compelled to follow the downward course of
Nero's policy, giving such colour as his practised rhetoric
afforded to its odious features till Agrippina's murder-the
motive of which he was called upon to embody in a state-
paper-brought the climax to a long series of inconsistencies
between profession and practice, and showed him at once the
moral hollowness and the actual insecurity of his position.
From this time Nero seems to have turned against him; and
although the long-foreseen blow did not descend until A.D.
65, when Piso's conspiracy gave a decent pretext for
accusing him, yet for several years Seneca had been prepared
for death, and had made generous, but ineffectual, attempts
to disarm the emperor's malice. Bidden to effect his own
death, the philosopher, with his high-born and beautiful
wife Paulina, who insisted on dying with him, opened his
veins. Paulina was restored by her friends to life, though
with difficulty: he, after suffering excruciating agony,
which he endured with cheerfulness, discoursing to his
friends on the glorious realities to which he was about to
pass, was at length suffocated by the vapour of a stove.
Seneca is undoubtedly the most brilliant figure of his time,
and, except Tacitus, the most important
So-called Bust of Seneca the Philosopher. (Naples Museum.)
thinker and writer of the post-Augustan Empire. He embodied
all the leading characteristics of the age, with which,
unlike the majority of Roman citizens, he was in thorough
harmony; and consequently he has been judged with more
prejudice even by posterity than might have been expected.
That he was a truly great or good man can scarcely be
maintained; that he was even a great thinker is open to
question; but the inconsistencies of a life passed amid such
overpowering temptations must not blind us to his real
earnestness of purpose, or to the merit of exercising, under
constant risk, a restraining influence on perhaps the vilest
character known to history. It is impossible to doubt
Seneca's love for virtue. Amid exaggerations, conceits,
paradoxes, follies, the moral end is always held out as the
only one worthy of being consistently followed, to which
every kind of speculative knowledge is subordinate. His
death, though not without a conscious study of effect, was a
truly noble one; and we must believe him sincere when, on
comparing himself with others and reconsidering his actions
and omissions, he declares that he can look back with
satisfaction upon his life. His opinion, thrice expressed,
to the effect that true wisdom will not seek for an
impracticable standard of purity in a hopelessly corrupt
age, must be referred to the lower level of moral
excellence, which Stoicism considered alone compatible with
public life, and not to the ideal of the unencumbered,
untempted sage.
Of Seneca's poetical writings, some few epigrams are
preserved in the Anthologia Latina. We possess also nine
tragedies correctly ascribed to him, viz.: Hercules Furens,
Troades (or Hecuba), Phoenissae (not all genuine), Medea,
Phaedra (or Hippolytus), Oedipus, Agamemnon, Thyestes, and
Hercules Oetaeus, and one praetexta, the Octavia,
incorrectly ascribed. Doubts have been thrown on the
identity of the tragedian with the philosopher, but they are
quite unfounded. The tragedies no doubt belong to his
earlier life, and probably were written, partly during his
exile, partly after his return to Rome, to assist the poetic
proclivities of Nero. They are free imitations of Greek
originals, which have in most cases survived so as to admit
of a comparison. Both in dramatic power and loftiness of
tragic feeling the Latin plays are immeasurably inferior.
They abound, however, in brilliant declamation, philosophic
contemplation, and witty aphorisms. They can hardly have
been intended for the stage, to which they are wholly
unsuited; but they are admirably fitted for declamatory
reading, though even for this purpose overloaded with
rhetoric.
Seneca's prose works were numerous and important; a
considerable portion are lost, but the larger and more
valuable part remains. Among the former are his speeches,
written to be delivered by Nero, a treatise De Situ Indiae,
another De Situ et Sacris Aegypti, another De Motu Terrarum;
several treatises on moral philosophy, viz.: Exhortationes,
De Officiis, De Immatura Morte, De Superstitione, De
Matrimonio, Quo Modo Amicitia Continenda Sit, De Paupertate,
De Misericordia, De Remediis Fortuitorum, and De Verborum
Copia; a biography of his father, a panegyric on Messalina,
and several books of letters. His extant works comprise (a)
the twelve so-called dialogues, viz.: Ad Lucilium de
Providentia, Ad Serenum de Animi Tranquillitate, Ad S. de
Otio, Ad S. de Constantia Sapientis, Ad Novatum de Ira Libri
III., Consolatio ad Marciam, Consolatio ad Polybium,
Consolatio ad Helviam Matrem, De Vita Beata ad Gallionem, De
Brevitate Vitae ad Paulinum; (b) three books, Ad Neronem de
Clementia; (c) seven books, De Beneficiis ad Aebutium
Liberalem; (d) twenty books of moral letters, Ad Lucilium
(but the collection is incomplete); (e) seven books,
Naturales Quaestiones, addressed to Lucilius; (f) a
political satire on the death and apotheosis of Claudius,
called by διο ἀποκολοκύντωσις, which is of interest as the
only remaining example of the Satura Menippea; (g) fourteen
spurious letters of a correspondence with St. Paul, which
seem to have imposed upon St. Jerome (De Vir. Illust. 12).
See Epistola.
From this catalogue it will be seen how wide was the field
embraced by Seneca's genius. Little need be said about his
scientific works, except that they show no mean acuteness of
conjecture and considerable knowledge of physical theories,
though these are often subordinated to an ethical purpose.
His views of nature are in the main Stoic, and his examples
are probably drawn from Greek sources.
It is on his moral treatises that Seneca's fame rests. In
the particular department that he selected, viz., the
application of certain leading principles to practical life,
he excels all other writers of antiquity. Nominally a Stoic,
he belonged really to the Eclectic School, culling precepts
from every form of doctrine with impartial appreciation.
"The remedies of the soul," he says, "have been discovered
long ago: it is for us to learn how to apply them." On this
text his system is a comment. It requires, above all else, a
thorough knowledge of the human heart, and in this Seneca is
preeminent. In that dark and perilous period, when universal
mistrust prevailed, the moralist must be able to dive into
the secret recesses of the soul, drawing to light its hidden
disquiet, and fortifying it against the blows of
circumstance or the deeper thrusts of human turpitude. No
writer, ancient or modern, shows a more complete mastery of
the pathology of mind. Many of his letters are of the nature
of sermons; others are spiritual meditations; others,
brilliant attacks on the falsehood and vice of the time. In
all these is the same incisiveness of style, the same
fertility of illustration, the same varied experience, the
same emphatic and reiterated pressing home of his point.
This last feature is apt to weary the reader; and Seneca,
well aware of the danger, endeavours, by every artifice of
rhetorical ingenuity, to maintain the interest of his theme.
"To impress the dull conscience, reiteration is a necessity:
to knock once at the door when night is come is never
enough: you must knock frequently and hard." This leads him
to use a tone of exaggeration which, by its seeming
insincerity, does injustice to the writer's heart, and has
caused him to be too severely judged. His religious and
moral maxims so often approximate to those of Christianity
that the fathers of the church adopted the view that he had
adopted their faith, to which the fictitious correspondence
with St. Paul seemed to lend support. The coincidences,
however, though sufficiently remarkable, are accidental
only, and arise from the character of his mind, which was
essentially that of a "seeker after God."
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Lucius Septimius Severus (11 April 145 – 4 February 211), commonly known as Septimius Severus or Severus, was Roman Emperor from 193 to 211.
Severus was born in Leptis Magna in the province of Africa. As a young man, Severus advanced through the customary succession of offices
under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Severus seized power after the death of Emperor Pertinax in 193 during the so-called Year
of the Five Emperors. After deposing the incumbent emperor Didius Julianus in a bloodless coup, Severus fought his rival claimants, the
generals Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus. Niger was defeated in 194 at the Battle of Issus, and Albinus three years later at the Battle
of Lugdunum.
After solidifying his rule, Severus waged a brief war against the Parthian Empire, sacking their capital Ctesiphon in 197. In 202 he
campaigned in Africa against the Garamantes, briefly taking their capital Garama and expanding the southern frontier of the empire
radically. Late in his reign he fought the Picts in Caledonia and strengthened Hadrian's Wall in Britain. Severus died in 211 at Eboracum,
succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta. With the succession of his sons, Severus founded the Severan dynasty, the last dynasty of the
empire before the Crisis of the Third Century...
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A Roman emperor (A.D. 193-211), who was born 146, near Leptis in Africa. After holding various important military commands under M.
Aurelius and Commodus, he was at length appointed commander-in-chief of the army in Pannonia and Illyria. By this army he was
proclaimed emperor after the death of Pertinax (A.D. 193). He forthwith marched upon Rome, where Iulianus had been made emperor by
the Praetorian troops. Iulianus was put to death upon his arrival before the city. (See Iulianus.) Severus then turned his arms
against Pescennius Niger, who had been saluted emperor by the Eastern legions. The struggle was brought to a close by a decisive
battle near Issus, in which Niger was defeated by Severus, and, having been shortly afterwards taken prisoner, was put to death by
order of the latter (194 A.D.). Severus then laid siege to Byzantium, which refused to submit to him even after the death of Niger,
and which was not taken till 196. The city was treated with great severity by Severus. Its walls were levelled with the earth, its
soldiers and magistrates put to death, and the town itself, deprived of all its political privileges, made over to the Perinthians.
During the continuance of this siege, Severus had crossed the Euphrates (195 A.D.) and subdued the Mesopotamian Arabians. He
returned to Italy in 196, and in the same year proceeded to Gaul to oppose Albinus, who had been proclaimed emperor by the troops
in that country. Albinus was defeated and slain in a terrible battle fought near Lyons on the 19th of February, 197. Severus
returned to Rome in the same year; but after remaining a short time in the capital, he set out for the East in order to repel the
invasion of the Parthians, who were ravaging Mesopotamia. He crossed the Euphrates early in 198, and commenced a series of
operations which were attended with brilliant results. Seleucia and Babylon were evacuated by the enemy, and Ctesiphon was taken
and plundered after a short siege. After spending three years in the East, and visiting Arabia, Palestine, and Egypt, Severus
returned to Rome in 202. For the next seven years he remained tranquilly at Rome, but in 208 he went to Britain with his sons
Caracalla and Geta. Here he carried on war against the Caledonians, and erected the celebrated wall, which bore his name, from the
Solway to the mouth of the Tyne. After remaining two years in Britain, he died at Eboracum (York) on the 4th of February, 211, in
the sixty-fifth year of his age and the eighteenth of his reign. His life is written by Spartianus. See Duruy, Septime - Sévère
(Paris, 1878); and Hassebrank, Kaiser Septimius Severus, 2 pts. (1890-91).
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Spartacus ( Greek: Σπάρτακος; Latin: Spartacus[1]) (c. 109–71
BC) was the most notable leader of the slaves in the Third
Servile War, a major slave uprising against the Roman
Republic. Little is known about Spartacus beyond the events of
the war, and surviving historical accounts are sometimes
contradictory and may not always be reliable.
Spartacus' struggle, often seen as oppressed people fighting
for their freedom against a slave-owning aristocracy, has
found new meaning for modern writers since the 19th century.
The rebellion of Spartacus has proven inspirational to many
modern literary and political writers, making Spartacus a folk
hero among cultures both ancient and modern...
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A famous fighter, by birth a Thracian, and successively a
shepherd, a soldier, and a chief of banditti. On one of his
predatory expeditions he was taken prisoner, and sold to a
trainer of gladiators. In B.C. 73 he was a member of the
gladiatorial company of Lentulus, and was detained in his
school at Capus, in readiness for the games at Rome. He
persuaded his fellow-prisoners to make an attempt to gain
their freedom. About seventy of them broke out of the
trainingschool of Lentulus, and took refuge in the crater of
Vesuvius. Spartacus was chosen leader, and was soon joined
by a number of runaway slaves. These were blockaded by C.
Claudius Pulcher at the head of three thousand men, but
Spartacus attacked the besiegers and put them to flight. His
numbers rapidly increased, and for two years (B.C. 73-71) he
defeated one Roman army after another, and laid waste Italy,
from the foot of the Alps to the southernmost corner of the
peninsula. After both the consuls of the year 72 had been
defeated by Spartacus, M. Licinius Crassus, the praetor, was
appointed to the command of the war. Crassus carried on the
contest with vigour and success; and, after gaining several
advantages over the enemy, at length defeated them on the
River Silarus in a decisive battle, in which Spartacus was
slain. The character of Spartacus has been maligned by the
Roman writers. Cicero compares the vilest of his
contemporaries to him: Horace speaks of him ( Carm. iii. 14,
19) as a common robber; none recognize his greatness, but
the terror of his name survived to a late period of the
Empire. Accident made Spartacus a shepherd, a freebooter,
and a gladiator; nature formed him a hero. The excesses of
his followers he could not always repress, and his efforts
to restrain them often cost him his popularity. But he was
in himself not less mild and just than he was able and
valiant.
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Flavius Stilicho (occasionally written as Stilico) (ca. 359 – August 22, 408) was a high-ranking general (magister militum),
Patrician and Consul of the Western Roman Empire, notably of semi-barbarian birth.
Career -
Stilicho was the son of a Vandal father and a Roman mother. Despite his father's origins there is little to suggest that Stilicho
considered himself anything other than a Roman, and he was probably not Arian like many of Germanic Christians and probably Nicene
Orthodox because of his high rank within the empire. Most emperors, being Catholic/Orthodox, would have not trusted the Empire's
security to an Arian, and Stilicho rose in rank under Theodosius I, who declared Nicene Christianity the official religion of the
Roman Empire...
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The son of a Vandal leader, who became one of the most
distinguished generals of Theodosius I., on whose death (A.D.
395) he became the real ruler of the West under the emperor
Honorius. It was he who defeated Alaric at the battle of
Pollentia (403 A.D.) and thus saved the Western Empire from
the Visigoths. In 405 he won a great victory over Radagaisus,
who had led a host of barbarians into Italy. His importance as
a soldier is seen in the fact that only three months after his
death, Alaric and his hosts were thundering at the gates of
Rome. He was put to death at Ravenna in 408 (Zosim. bks. iv.,
v.).
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Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix[1] (c. 138 BC – 78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He had
the rare distinction of holding the office of consul twice as well as the dictatorship. He was one of the canonical
great men of Roman history; included in the biographical collections of leading generals and politicians, originating
in the biographical compendium of famous Romans, published by Marcus Terentius Varro. In Plutarch's Sulla, in the
famous series - Parallel Lives, Sulla is paired with the Spartan general and strategist Lysander.
Sulla's dictatorship came during a high point in the struggle between optimates and populares, the former seeking to
maintain the power of the oligarchy in the form of the Senate while the latter resorted in many cases to naked
populism, culminating in Caesar's dictatorship. Sulla was a highly original, gifted and skillful general, never losing
a battle; he remains the only man in history to have attacked and occupied both Athens and Rome. His rival, Gnaeus
Papirius Carbo, described Sulla as having the cunning of a fox and the courage of a lion - but that it was the former
attribute that was by far the most dangerous. This mixture was later referred to by Machiavelli in his description of
the ideal characteristics of a ruler...
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Lucius, surnamed Felix, the dictator, was born in B.C. 138.
Although his father left him only a small property, his
means were sufficient to secure for him a good education. He
studied Greek and Roman literature with diligence and
success, and appears early to have imbibed that love for
literature and art by which he was distinguished throughout
life. At the same time he prosecuted pleasure with equal
ardour, and his youth as well as his manhood was disgraced
by the most sensual vices. Still his love of pleasure did
not absorb all his time, nor did it emasculate his mind; for
no Roman during the latter days of the Republic, with the
exception of Iulius Caesar, had a clearer judgment, a keener
discrimination of character, or a firmer will. The slender
property of Sulla was increased by the liberality of his
step-mother and of a courtesan named Nicopolis, both of whom
left him all their fortune. His means, though still scanty
for a Roman noble, now enabled him to aspire to the honours
of the State. He was quaestor in 107, when he served under
Marius in Africa. Hitherto he had only been known for his
profligacy; but he displayed both zeal and ability in the
discharge of his duties, and soon gained the approbation of
his commander and the affections of the soldiers. It was to
Sulla that Iugurtha was delivered by Bocchus; and the
quaestor thus shared with the consul the glory of bringing
this war to a conclusion. Sulla himself was so proud of his
share in the success that he had a seal ring engraved,
representing the surrender of Iugurtha, which he continued
to wear till the day of his death. Sulla continued to serve
under Marius with great distinction in the campaigns against
the Cimbri and Teutones; but Marius becoming jealous of the
rising fame of his officer, Sulla left Marius in 102, and
took a command under the colleague of Marius, Q. Catulus,
who intrusted the chief management of the war to Sulla.
Sulla now returned to Rome, where he appears to have lived
quietly for some years. He was praetor in 93, and in the
following year (B.C. 92) was sent as propraetor into
Cilicia, with special orders from the Senate to restore
Ariobarzanes to his kingdom of Cappadocia, from which he had
been expelled by Mithridates. Sulla met with complete
success. He defeated Gordius, the general of Mithridates, in
Cappadocia, and placed Ariobarzanes on the throne.
The enmity between Marius and Sulla now assumed a more
deadly form. Sulla 's ability and increasing reputation had
already led the aristocratic party to look up to him as one
of their leaders; and thus political animosity was added to
private hatred. In addition to this, Marius and Sulla were
both anxious to obtain the command of the impending war
against Mithridates; and the success which attended Sulla 's
recent operations in the East had increased his popularity,
and pointed him out as the most suitable person for this
important command. About this time Bocchus erected in the
Capitol gilded figures, representing the surrender of
Iugurtha to Sulla , at which Marius was so enraged that he
could scarcely be prevented from removing them by force. The
exasperation of both parties became so violent that they
nearly had recourse to arms against each other; but the
breaking out of the Social War hushed all private quarrels
for the time. Marius and Sulla both took an active part in
the war against the common foe. But Marius was now advanced
in years; and he had the deep mortification of finding that
his achievements were thrown into the shade by the superior
energy of his rival. Sulla gained some brilliant victories
over the enemy, and took Bovianum, the chief town of the
Samnites. He was elected consul for 88, and received from
the Senate the command of the Mithridatic War. The events
which followed--his expulsion from Rome by Marius, his
return to the city at the head of his legions, and the
proscription of Marius and his leading adherents--are
related in the article Marius.
Sulla remained at Rome till the end of the year, and set out
for Greece at the beginning of 87, in order to carry on the
war against Mithridates. He landed at Dyrrhachium, and
forthwith marched against Athens, which had become the
headquarters of the Mithridatic cause in Greece. After a
long and obstinate siege, Athens was taken by storm on the
first of March in 86, and was given up to rapine and
plunder. Sulla then marched against Archelaüs, the general
of Mithridates, whom he defeated in the neighbourhood of
Chaeronea in Boeotia; and in the following year he again
gained a decisive victory over the same general near
Orchomenus. But while Sulla was carrying on the war with
such success in Greece, his enemies had obtained the upper
hand in Italy. The consul Cinna , who had been driven out of
Rome by his colleague Octavius soon after Sulla 's departure
from Italy, had entered it again with Marius at the close of
the year. Both Cinna and Marius were appointed consuls 86,
and all the regulations of Sulla were swept away. Sulla ,
however, would not return to Italy till he had brought the
war against Mithridates to a conclusion. After driving the
generals of Mithridates out of Greece, Sulla crossed the
Hellespont, and early in 84 concluded a peace with the king
of Pontus. He now turned his arms against Fimbria, who had
been appointed by the Marian party as his successor in the
command. But the troops of Fimbria deserted their general,
who put an end to his own life.
Sulla now prepared to return to Italy. After leaving his
legate, L. Licinius Murena, in com
Sulla. (Bust in the Capitoline Museum.)
mand of the province of Asia, with two legions, he set sail
with his own army to Athens. While preparing for his deadly
struggle in Italy, he did not lose his interest in
literature. He carried with him from Athens to Rome the
valuablelibrary of Apellicon of Teos, which contained most
of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus. (See Apellicon.)
He landed at Brundisium in the spring of 83. The Marian
party far outnumbered him in troops, and had every prospect
of victory. By bribery and promises, however, Sulla gained
over a large number of the Marian soldiers, and he persuaded
many of the Italian towns to espouse his cause. In the field
his efforts were crowned with equal success; and he was ably
supported by several of the Roman nobles, who espoused his
cause in different parts of Italy. Of these one of the most
distinguished was the young Cn. Pompey, who was at the time
only twenty-three years of age. (See Pompeius, No. 10.) In
the following year (B.C. 82) the struggle was brought to a
close by the decisive battle gained by Sulla over the
Samnites and Lucanians under Pontius Telesinus before the
Colline Gate of Rome. This victory was followed by the
surrender of Praenesté and the death of the younger Marius,
who had taken refuge in this town.
Sulla was now master of Rome and Italy; and he resolved to
take the most ample vengeance upon his enemies, and to
extirpate the popular party. One of his first acts was to
draw up a list of his enemies who were to be put to death,
called a proscriptio. It was the first instance of the kind
in Roman history. All persons in this list were outlaws who
might be killed by any one with impunity, even by slaves;
their property was confiscated to the State, and was to be
sold by public auction; their children and grandchildren
lost their votes in the Comitia, and were excluded from all
public offices. Further, all who killed a proscribed person
received two talents as a reward, and whoever sheltered such
a person was punished with death. Terror now reigned not
only at Rome, but throughout Italy. Fresh lists of the
proscribed constantly appeared. No one was safe; for Sulla
gratified his friends by placing in the fatal lists their
personal enemies, or persons whose property was coveted by
his adherents. The confiscated property, it is true,
belonged to the State, and had to be sold by public auction;
but the friends and dependants of Sulla purchased it at a
nominal price, as no one dared to bid against them. The
number of persons who perished by the proscriptions is
stated differently, but it appears to have amounted to many
thousands. At the commencement of these horrors Sulla had
been appointed dictator for as long a time as he judged it
to be necessary. This was towards the close of 81. Sulla 's
chief object in being invested with the dictatorship was to
carry into execution, in a legal manner, the great changes
which he meditated in the constitution and the
administration of justice. He had no intention of abolishing
the Republic; and, consequently, he caused consuls to be
elected for the following year, and was elected to the
office himself in 80, while he continued to hold the
dictatorship. The general object of Sulla 's reforms was to
restore, as far as possible, the ancient Roman constitution,
and to give back to the Senate and the aristocracy the power
which they had lost. Thus he deprived the tribunes of the
plebs of all real power, and abolished altogether the
legislative and judicial functions of the Comitia Tributa.
At the beginning of 81 he celebrated a splendid triumph on
account of his victory over Mithridates. In a speech which
he delivered to the people at the close of the ceremony, he
claimed for himself the surname of Felix, as he attributed
his success in life to the favour of the gods. In order to
strengthen his power, Sulla established military colonies
throughout Italy. The inhabitants of the Italian towns which
had fought against Sulla were deprived of the full Roman
franchise, and were only allowed to retain the commercium:
their land was confiscated and given to the soldiers who had
fought under him. Twenty-three legions, or, according to
another statement, forty-seven legions, received grants of
land in various parts of Italy. A great number of these
colonies was settled in Etruria, the population of which was
thus almost entirely changed. These colonies had the
strongest interest in upholding the institutions of Sulla ,
since any attempt to invalidate the latter would have
endangered their newly acquired possessions. Sulla likewise
created at Rome a kind of body-guard for his protection by
giving the citizenship to a great number of slaves who had
belonged to persons proscribed by him. The slaves thus
rewarded are said to have been as many as ten thousand, and
were called Cornelii after him as their patron.
After holding the dictatorship till the beginning of 79,
Sulla resigned this office, to the surprise of all classes.
He retired to his estate at Puteoli, and there, surrounded
by the beauties of nature and art, he passed the remainder
of his life in those literary and sensual enjoyments in
which he had always taken so much pleasure. His dissolute
mode of life hastened his death, but the immediate cause was
the rupture of a blood-vessel; though some time before he
had been suffering from the disgusting disease which is
known in modern times by the name of morbus pediculosus, or
phthiriasis. He died in 78, in the sixtieth year of his age.
He was honoured with a public funeral, and a monument was
erected to him in the Campus Martius, the inscription on
which had been composed by himself. It stated that none of
his friends ever did him a kindness, and none of his enemies
a wrong, without being fully repaid. Sulla was married five
times: (a) To Ilia or Iulia, who bore him a daughter,
married to Q. Pompeius Rufus, the son of Sulla 's colleague
in the consulship in 88; (b) to Aelia; (c) to Caelia; (d) to
Caecilia Metella, who bore him a son, who died before Sulla
, and likewise twins, a son and a daughter; (e) to Valeria,
who bore him a daughter after his death.
Sulla wrote a history of his own life and times, called
Memorabilia (Ὑπομνήματα). It was dedicated to L. Lucullus,
and extended to twentytwo books, the last of which was
finished by Sulla a few days before his death. He also wrote
Fabulae Atellanae, and the Greek Anthology contains a short
epigram which is ascribed to him. See Gerlach, Marius und
Sulla (1856); and Beesly, The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla
(New York, 1878).
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Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (AD 56 – AD 117) was a
senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving
portions of his two major works-the Annals and the Histories-
examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius,
Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors.
These two works span the history of the Roman Empire from the
death of Augustus in AD 14 to (presumably) the death of
emperor Domitian in AD 96. There are enormous lacunae in the
surviving texts, including one four books long in the Annals.
Other works by Tacitus discuss oratory (in dialogue format,
see Dialogus de oratoribus), Germania (in De origine et situ
Germanorum), and biographical notes about his father-in-law
Agricola, primarily during his campaign in Britannia (see De
vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae).
Tacitus was an author writing in the latter part of the Silver
Age of Latin literature. His work is distinguished by a
boldness and sharpness of wit, and a compact and sometimes
unconventional use of Latin...
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Publius Cornelius. (The praenomen, Publius, is given in the best MS. [Med. I.]; and in an inscription.) One of the greatest of
the Roman writers of history. The time and place of his birth are unknown. He was a little older than the younger Pliny , who was
born A.D. 61. His father was probably Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman eques, who is mentioned as a procurator in Gallia Belgica, and
who died in 79 (Pliny , Epist. vii. 76). Tacitus was first promoted by the emperor Vespasian, and he received other favours from
both Titus and Domitian ( Hist. i. 1). The most probable account is that Tacitus was appointed tribunus militum laticlavius by
Vespasian, quaestor by Titus, and praetor by Domitian. In 78 he married the daughter of the famous general, C. Iulius Agricola,
to whom he had been betrothed in the preceding year, while Agricola was consul. In the reign of Domitian, and in 88, Tacitus was
praetor, and he assisted as one of the quindecimviri at the Ludi Saeculares which were celebrated in that year ( Ann. xi. 11).
Agricola died at Rome in 93, but neither Tacitus nor the daughter of Agricola was then with him. It is not known where Tacitus
was during the last illness of Agricola. In the reign of Nerva, 97, Tacitus was appointed consul suffectus, in the place of T.
Virginius Rufus, who had died in that year, and whose funeral oration he delivered. We know that Tacitus had attained oratorical
distinction when the younger Pliny was commencing his career. He and Tacitus were appointed in the reign of Nerva (A.D. 99) to
conduct the prosecution of Marius, proconsul of Africa. Tacitus and Pliny were most intimate friends. In the collection of the
letters of Pliny there are eleven letters addressed to Tacitus. The time of the death of Tacitus is unknown, but he appears to
have survived Trajan, who died 117. Nothing is recorded of any children of his, though the Emperor Tacitus claimed a descent from
the historian, and ordered his works to be placed in all public libraries.
Extant works of Tacitus
1. Vita Agricolae
The life of Agricola, which was written after the death of Domitian (A.D. 96), as we may probably conclude from the introduction,
which was certainly written after Trajan's accession. This life is justly admired as a specimen of biography. It is a monument to
the memory of a noble man and an able commander and administrator, by an affectionate son-in-law, who has portrayed, in his
peculiar manner and with many masterly touches, the virtues of one of the most illustrious of the Romans.
2. Historiae
These were written after the death of Nerva (A.D. 98) and before the Annales. They comprehended the period from the second
consulship of Galba (A.D. 68) to the death of Domitian (A.D. 96), and the author designed to add the reigns of Nerva and Trajan.
The first four books alone are extant in a complete form, and they comprehend only the events of about one year. The fifth book
is imperfect, and goes no further than the commencement of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, and the war of Civilis in Germany. It
is not known how many books of the Historiae there were, but it must have been a large work if it was all written on the same
scale as the first five books.
3. Annales
These commence with the death of Augustus (A.D. 14), hence ab excessu divi Augusti, and comprise the period to the death of Nero
(A.D. 68)-a space of fifty-four years. The greater part of the fifth book is lost, and also the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth,
the beginning of the eleventh, and the end of the sixteenth, which is the last book. These lost parts comprised the whole of
Caligula's reign, the first five years of Claudius, and the last two of Nero.
4. De Moribus et Populis Germaniae
Usually called the Germania, a treatise describing the Germanic nations. It is of little value as a geographical description; the
first few chapters contain as much of the geography of Germany as Tacitus knew. The main subject is the description of the
political institutions, the religion, and the habits of the various tribes included under the name Germani. The value of the
information contained in this treatise has often been discussed, and its credibility attacked; but we may estimate its true
character by observing the precision of the writer as to those Germans who were best known to the Romans from being near the
Rhine. That the hearsay accounts of more remote tribes must partake of the defects of all such evidence is obvious; and we cannot
easily tell whether Tacitus embellished that which he had heard obscurely told. But to consider the Germany as a fiction, or as a
purely political tract, is one of those absurdities which need only be recorded, not refuted.
Dialogus de Oratoribus.
If this dialogue is the work of Tacitus, and it probably is, it must be his earliest work, for it was written in the sixth year
of Vespasian. The style is more easy than that of the Annales-more diffuse, less condensed; but there is an obvious difference
between the style of the Dialogus and the Historiae-nothing so striking as to make us contend for a different authorship. Besides
this, it is nothing unusual for works of the same author, which are written at different times, to vary greatly in style,
especially if they treat of different matters. The oldest MSS. also attribute the Dialogus to Tacitus. (See Gudeman's
introduction to his edition of the work.) The treatise is an essay, in the form of a dialogue, giving an account of the decay of
oratory under the Empire.
Assessment.
The Annales of Tacitus, the work of a mature age, contain the chief events of the period which they embrace, arranged under their
several years. There seems no peculiar propriety in giving the name of Annales to this work, simply because the events are
arranged in the order of time. In the Annales of Tacitus, the Princeps or Emperor is the centre about which events are grouped.
Yet the most important public events, both in Italy and the provinces, are not omitted, though everything is treated as
subordinate to the exhibition of imperial power. The Historiae, which were written before the Annales, are in a more diffuse
style, and the treatment of the extant part is different from that of the Annales. Tacitus wrote the Historiae as a contemporary;
the Annales as not a contemporary. They are two distinct works, not parts of one, which is clearly shown by the very different
proportions of the two works: the first four books of the Historiae comprise about a year, and the first four books of the
Annales comprise fourteen years.
The moral dignity of Tacitus is impressed upon his works; the consciousness of a love of truth, of the integrity of his purpose.
His great power is in the knowledge of the human mind, his insight into the motives of human conduct; and he found materials for
its exercise in the history of the emperors, and particularly Tiberius, whose strange career and enigmatical personality
fascinated him. The Annales are filled with dramatic scenes and striking catastrophes. He laboured to produce effect by the
exhibition of great personages on the stage; but as to the mass of the people we learn little from Tacitus. The style of Tacitns
is peculiar, though it bears some resemblance to In the Annales it is concise, vigorous, and pregnant with meaning; laboured, but
elaborated with art, and stripped of every superfluity. A single word sometimes gives effect to a sentence; and if the meaning of
the word is missed, the sense of the writer is not reached. Such a work is probably the result of many transcriptions by the
author. Tacitus is generally brief and rapid in his sketches; but he is sometimes almost too minute when he comes to work out a
dramatic scene; and he displays all the conscious rhetoric of his age. The condensed style of Tacitus sometimes makes him
obscure, but it is a kind of obscurity that is dispelled by careful reading. Yet a man must read carefully and often, in order to
understand him; and it cannot be supposed that Tacitus was ever a popular writer. He is often intensely epigrammatic, and
exhibits the qualities of style that are found in the typical writers of the Silver Age. Many of his pregnant phrases have passed
into the world's anthology of quotations, such as Omne ignotum pro magnifico and Solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant. In his
view of the condition of Roman society he is thoroughly pessimistic, and by contemplating only one section of it he is led into
an unconscious exaggeration which the reader should correct by the reading of the contemporary and friend of Tacitus, Pliny the
Younger, whose more pleasing picture of the time is a wholesome check upon any too sweeping condemnation of the imperial period
of Rome's social history.
Manuscripts
The manuscripts of Tacitus are few and unsatisfactory. For the first six books of the Annales only one source exists-the Codex
Mediceus (I.) of the ninth century, and found about 1520. From this bks. vii.-ix. are lost, as are Historiae v.-xiv. For what
remains of these, a second Codex Mediceus (II.) of the eleventh or twelfth century is the only authority. The Germania and
Dialogus are found in two manuscripts-one at Leyden (Codex Leidensis [Perizonianus]), and the other in the Vatican. The Agricola
is found in two transcriptions of an earlier MS. Both of these are in the Vatican. On the codices of Tacitus, see the
introduction to the edition of the Dialogus by Michaelis (1868), and Gudeman (1894), and in Ritter's edition (1864).
Bibliography
Editions of the complete works of Tacitus are the editio princeps by Puteolanus (Milan, c. 1476); Lipsius (Antwerp, 1574);
Gronovius (Amsterdam, 1672); Bekker, with variorum notes, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1831); Ritter (last ed. Bonn, 1864); Döderlein, 2
vols. (Halle, 1841-47); Orelli, 2 vols. (Zürich, 1846, variously revised and republished, 1859, 1877); and texts by Halm (1884);
and Müller (Prague, 1885).
Separate editions with English notes are those of the Annales by Furneaux, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1891- 92); Allen (Boston, 1890); of
the Historiae by Simcox (London, 1876), Godley (London, 1887-90), and Spooner (London, 1891); of the Agricola and Germania by
Frost (London, 1861), Church and Brodribb (London, 1889), by Haverfield (announced), and by Hopkins (New York and Boston, 1893);
of the Dialogus by Peterson (Oxford, 1893), and especially by Gudeman (New York and Boston, 1894), a most exhaustive and
elaborate work, with extremely valuable prolegomena; also a compact and convenient edition by Bennett (New York and Boston,
1894). There are English translations of Tacitus by Gordon (London, 1728-31), Murphy (London, 1793), and by Church and Brodribb
(London, 1876- 77). There is a fine lexicon to Tacitus by Gerber and Greef, still appearing in parts. An older lexicon (complete)
is that of Boetticher (1832).
On Tacitus, see Urlichs, De Taciti Vita (Würzburg, 1879); J. Müller, Philos. und relig. Anschau-
ungen des Tacitus (Feldkirch, 1874); and Schiller, Geschichte d. röm. Kaiserzeit, i. 586 (Gotha, 1883). On his diction, etc., see
Dräger, Ueber Syntax und Stil des Tacitus (3d ed. Leipzig, 1882); Wolff, Die Sprache des Tacitus (Frankfurt, 1879); Gericke, De
Abundanti Dicendi Genere Tacitino (Berlin, 1882), and the numerous monographs cited in Teuffel-SchwabeWarr, ii. 333, 16. See also
the short studies by Donne (1873) and Church and Brodribb (1881).
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Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, also called Tarquin the Elder or Tarquin I, was the fifth King of Rome from 616 BC
to 579 BC. His wife was Tanaquil.
Early life -
According to Livy, Tarquinius Priscus came from the Etruscan city of Tarquinii. Livy claims that his original
Etruscan name was Lucumo, but since Lucumo (Etruscan Lauchme) is the Etruscan word for "King", there is
reason to believe that Priscus' name and title have been confused in the official tradition. After inheriting
his father's entire fortune, Lucius attempted to gain a political office. Disgruntled with his opportunities
in Etruria (because of a prejudice against foreigners), he migrated to Rome with his wife Tanaquil, at her
suggestion. He had been prohibited from obtaining political office in Tarquinii because of the ethnicity of
his father, Demaratus the Corinthian, who came from the Greek city of Corinth. Legend has it that on his
arrival in Rome in a chariot, an eagle took his cap, flew away and then returned it back upon his head.
Tanaquil, who was skilled in prophecy, interpreted this as an omen of his future greatness. In Rome he
attained respect through his courtesy. King Ancus Marcius himself noticed Tarquinius and, by his will,
appointed Tarquinius guardian of his own sons...
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Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (535 B.C. – 496 B.C.) was the seventh King of Rome, reigning from 535 until the
Roman revolt in 509 B.C. which would lead to the establishment of the Roman Republic. He is more commonly
known by his cognomen Tarquinius Superbus (literally, Tarquin the Proud[1]) and was a member of the Etruscan
dynasty of Rome. The historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus may have divided one historical figure named Tarquin
into two separate kings because of problems with dating their legendary events. It is said that Tarquin killed
the preceding king, Servius Tullius to make himself king of Rome.
Tarquin's father, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, was the fifth King of Rome reigning from 616-579 B.C. His grand-
father was said to be Demaratus the Corinthian, from the Greek city of Corinth. Priscus came from the Etruscan
city of Tarquinii. Disgruntled with his opportunities in Etruria, Priscus migrated to Rome with his wife
Tanaquil, at her suggestion. A propitious omen is said to have led to Priscus' establishment as King of
Rome...
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(Tarcho). The name of a family in early Roman tradition to which the fifth and seventh kings of Rome belonged. The legend of the
Tarquins ran as follows: Demaratus, their ancestor, belonged to the noble family of the Bacchiadae at Corinth, and fled from his native
city when the power of his order was overthrown by Cypselus. He settled at Tarquinii in Etruria, where he had mercantile connections. He
married an Etruscan wife, by whom he had two sons, Lucumo and Aruns. The latter died in the lifetime of his father, leaving his wife
pregnant; but as Demaratus was ignorant of this circumstance, he bequeathed all his property to Lucumo, and died himself shortly
afterwards. But, although Lucumo was thus one of the most wealthy persons at Tarquinii, and had married Tanaquil, who belonged to a
family of the highest rank, he was excluded, as a stranger, from all power and influence in the State. Discontented with this inferior
position, and urged on by his wife, he resolved to leave Tarquinii and remove to Rome. He accordingly set out for Rome, riding in a
chariot with his wife, and accompanied by a large train of followers. When they had reached the Ianiculum, an eagle seized his cap, and
after carrying it away to a great height placed it again upon his head. Tanaquil, who was skilled in the Etruscan science of augury,
bade her husband hope for the highest honour from this omen. Her predictions were soon verified. The stranger was received with welcome,
and he and his followers were admitted to the rights of Roman citizens. He took the name of L. Tarquinius, to which Livy adds Priscus.
His wealth, his courage, and his wisdom gained him the love both of Ancus Marcius and of the people. The former appointed him guardian
of his children; and, when he died, the Senate and the people unanimously elected Tarquinius to the vacant throne. The reign of
Tarquinius was distinguished by great exploits in war and by great works in peace. He defeated the Latins and Sabines; and the latter
people ceded to him the town of Collatia, where he placed a garrison under the command of Egerius, the son of his deceased brother
Aruns, who took the surname of Collatinus. Some traditions relate that Tarquinius defeated the Etruscans also. Among the important works
which Tarquinius executed in peace, the most celebrated are the vast sewers by which the lower parts of the city were drained, and which
still remain, with not a stone displaced, to bear witness to his power and wealth. He is also said in some traditions to have laid out
the Circus Maximus in the valley which had been redeemed from water by the sewers, and also to have instituted the Great or Roman Games,
which were henceforth performed in the Circus. The Forum, with its porticoes and rows of shops, was also his work, and he likewise began
to surround the city with a stone wall, a work which was finished by his successor, Servius Tullius. The building of the Capitoline
Temple is, moreover, attributed to the elder Tarquinius, though most traditions ascribe this work to his son, and only the vow to the
father. Tarquinius also made some changes in the constitution of the State. He added one hundred new members to the Senate, who were
called patres minorum gentium, to distinguish them from the old senators, who were now called patres maiorum gentium. He wished to add
to the three centuries of equites established by Romulus three new centuries, and to call them after himself and two of his friends. His
plan was opposed by the augur Attus Navius, who gave a convincing proof that the gods were opposed to his purpose. (See Navius.)
Accordingly, he gave up his design of establishing new centuries, but to each of the former
Tomb of the Tarquins.
centuries he associated another under the same name, so that henceforth there were the first and second Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. He
increased the number of Vestal Virgins from four to six. Tarquinius was murdered, after a reign of thirty-eight years, at the
instigation of the sons of Ancus Marcius. But the latter did not secure the reward of their crime, for Servius Tullius, with the
assistance of Tanaquil, succeeded to the vacant throne (Livy, i. 34-41). Tarquinius left two sons and two daughters. His two sons, L.
Tarquinius and Aruns, were subsequently married to the two daughters of Servius Tullius. One of his daughters was married to Servius
Tullius, and the other to M. Brutus, by whom she became the mother of the celebrated L. Brutus, the first consul at Rome. Servius
Tullius, whose life is given under Tullius, was murdered, after a reign of forty-four years, by his son-in-law, L. Tarquinius, who
ascended the vacant throne.
L. Tarquinius Superbus commenced his reign without any of the forms of election. One of the first acts of his reign was to abolish the
rights which had been conferred upon the plebeians by Servius; and at the same time all the senators and patricians whom he mistrusted
or whose wealth he coveted were put to death or driven into exile. He surrounded himself by a body-guard, by means of which he was
enabled to do what he liked. His cruelty and tyranny obtained for him the surname of Superbus. But although a tyrant at home, he raised
Rome to great influence and power among the surrounding nations. He gave his daughter in marriage to Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum, the
most powerful of the Latin chiefs; and under his sway Rome became the head of the Latin Confederacy. He defeated the Volscians, and took
the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia, with the spoils of which he commenced the erection of the Capitol which his father had vowed. In the
vaults of this temple he deposited the Sibylline Books, which the king purchased from a Sibyl or prophetess. She had offered to sell him
nine books for 300 pieces of gold. The king refused the offer with scorn. Therefore she went away and burned three, and then demanded
the same price for the six. The king still refused. She again went away and burned three more, and still demanded the same price for the
remaining three. The king now purchased the three books, and the Sibyl disappeared. (See Sibylla.) He next engaged in war with Gabii,
one of the Latin cities, which refused to enter into the league. Unable to take the city by force of arms, Tarquinius had recourse to
stratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending to be ill-treated by his father, and covered with the bloody marks of stripes, fled to Gabii. The
infatuated inhabitants intrusted him with the command of their troops; whereupon he sent a messenger to his father to inquire how he
should deliver the city into his hands. The king, who was walking in his garden when the messenger arrived, made no reply, but kept
striking off the heads of the tallest poppies with his stick. Sextus took the hint. He put to death or banished all the leading men of
the place, and then had no difficulty in compelling it to submit to his father.
In the midst of his prosperity, Tarquinius fell through a shameful outrage committed by one of his sons. Tarquinius and his sons were
engaged in besieging Ardea, a city of the Rutulians. Here, as the king's sons, and their cousin, Tarquinius Collatinus, the son of
Egerius, were feasting together, a dispute arose about the virtue of their wives. As nothing was doing in the field, they mounted their
horses to visit their homes by surprise. They first went to Rome, where they surprised the king's daughters at a splendid banquet. They
then hastened to Collatia, and there, though it was late in the night, they found Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, spinning amid her
handmaids. The beauty and virtue of Lucretia had fired the evil passions of Sextus. A few days afterwards he returned to Collatia, where
he was hospitably received by Lucretia as her husband's kinsman. In the dead of night he entered the chamber with a drawn sword: by
threatening to lay a slave with his throat cut beside her, whom he would pretend to have killed in order to avenge her husband's honour,
he forced her to yield to his wishes. As soon as Sextus had departed, Lucretia sent for her husband and father. Collatinus came,
accompanied by L. Brutus; Lucretius, with P. Valerius, who afterwards gained the surname of Publicola. They found her in an agony of
sorrow. She told them what had happened, enjoined them to avenge her dishonour, and then stabbed herself to death. They all swore to
avenge her. Brutus threw off his assumed stupidity, and placed himself at their head. They carried the corpse to Rome. Brutus, who was
tribunus celerum, summoned the people, and related the deed of shame. All classes were inflamed with the same indignation. A decree was
passed deposing the king, and banishing him and his family from the city. The army, encamped before Ardea, likewise renounced their
allegiance to the tyrant. Tarquinius, with his two sons, Titus and Aruns, took refuge at Caeré in Etruria. Sextus repaired to Gabii, his
own principality, where he was shortly after murdered by the friends of those whom he had put to death. Tarquinius reigned twenty-four
years. He was banished B.C. 510. The people of Tarquinii and Veii espoused the cause of the exiled tyrant, and marched against Rome. The
two consuls advanced to meet them. A bloody battle was fought, in which Brutus and Aruns, the son of Tarquinius, slew each other.
Tarquinius next repaired to Lars Porsena, the powerful king of Clusium, who marched against Rome at the head of a vast army. The history
of this expedition is related under Porsena. After Porsena quitted Rome, Tarquinius took refuge with his son-in-law, Mamilius Octavius
of Tusculum. Under the guidance of the latter, the Latin States espoused the cause of the exiled king, and declared war against Rome.
The contest was decided by the celebrated battle of Lake Regillus, in which the Romans gained the victory by the help of Castor and
Pollux. Tarquinius himself was wounded, but escaped with his life; his son Sextus is said to have fallen in this battle, though,
according to another tradition, as we have already seen, he was slain by the inhabitants of Gabii. Tarquinius Superbus had now no other
State to whom he could apply for assistance. He had already survived all his family; and he now fled to Aristobulus at Cumae, where he
died a wretched and remorseful old man (Livy, ii. 121).
Such is the story of the Tarquins according to the ancient writers; but this story must not be received as a real history. It is the
attempt to assign a definite origin to certain Roman institutions, to some features in the military organization, and to some ancient
public works in the city, of which the history had been obscured by lapse of time. There can be no real doubt that it indicates as the
time when these things were carried out a period during which a family of Etruscan origin held the chief power at Rome; and there is at
least much probability (though this is denied by some writers of great authority) that this rule was imposed upon Rome by the dominant
power of the Etruscans. See Mommsen, History of Rome (Amer. ed.), i. pp. 174, 321 foll., 590; Ihne, Early Rome (New York, 1878).
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Flavius Theodosius (11 January 347 – 17 January 395), commonly known as Theodosius I or Theodosius the Great, was Roman
Emperor from 378 to 395. Theodosius was the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of the
Roman Empire. During his reign, the Goths secured control of Illyricum after the Gothic War - establishing their
homeland south of the Danube within the empire's borders. He is known for making Nicene Christianity the official state
religion of the Roman Empire, [1] issuing decrees that effectively worked towards melding the Roman state and the
Christian Church into a single de facto church-state entity.[2]
He is recognized by the Eastern Orthodox Church as Saint Theodosius. He defeated the usurpers Magnus Maximus and
Eugenius and fostered the destruction of some prominent pagan temples: the Serapeum in Alexandria, the Temple of Apollo
in Delphi, and the Vestal Virgins in Rome. After his death, Theodosius' sons Arcadius and Honorius inherited the East
and West halves respectively, and the Roman Empire was never again re-united...
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Surnamed The Great, Roman emperor of the East, A.D. 378-395.
He was the son of the general Theodosius who restored
Britain to the Empire, and was beheaded at Carthage in the
reign of Valens (A.D. 376). The future emperor was born in
Spain about A.D. 346. He received a good education; and he
learned the art of war under his own father, whom he
accompanied in his British campaigns. During his father's
lifetime he was raised to the rank of Duke (dux) of Moesia,
where he defeated the Sarmatians (374 A.D.) and saved the
province. On the death of his father he retired before court
intrigues to his native country. He acquired a considerable
military reputation in the lifetime of his father; and after
the death of Valens, who fell in battle against the Goths,
he was proclaimed emperor of the East by Gratian, who felt
himself unable to sustain the burden of the Empire. The
Roman Empire in the East was then in a critical position;
for the Romans were disheartened by the bloody defeat which
they had sustained, and the Goths were insolent in their
victory. Theodosius, however, showed himself equal to the
difficult position in which he was placed; he gained two
signal victories over the Goths, and concluded a peace with
the barbarians in 382.
In the following year (383 A.D.) Maximus assumed the
imperial purple in Britain, and invaded Gaul with a powerful
army. In the war which followed Gratian was slain; and
Theodosius, who did not consider it prudent to enter into a
contest with Maximus, acknowledged the latter emperor of the
countries of Spain, Gaul, and Britain, but he secured to
Valentinian, the brother of Gratian, Italy, Africa, and
western Illyricum. But when Maximus expelled Valentinian
from Italy in 387, Theodosius espoused the cause of the
latter, and marched into the West at the head of a powerful
army. After defeating Maximus in Pannonia, Theodosius
pursued him across the Alps to Aquileia. Here Maximus was
surrendered by his own soldiers to Theodosius and was put to
death. Theodosius spent the winter at Milan, and in the
following year (389 A.D.) he entered Rome in triumph,
accompanied by Valentinian and his own son Honorius. Two
events in the life of Theodosius about this time may be
mentioned as evidence of his uncertain character and his
savage temper. In 387 a riot took place at Antioch, in which
the statues of the emperor, of his father, and of his wife
were thrown down; but these idle demonstrations were quickly
suppressed by an armed force. When Theodosius heard of these
riots, he degraded Antioch from the rank of a city, stripped
it of its possessions and privileges, and reduced it to the
condition of a village dependent on Laodicea. But in
consequence of the intercession of Antioch and the Senate of
Constantinople, he pardoned the city, and all who had taken
part in the riot. The other event is an eternal brand of
infamy on the name of Theodosius. In 390, while the emperor
was at Milan, a serious riot broke out at Thessalonica, in
which the imperial officer and several of his troops were
murdered. Theodosius resolved to take the most signal
vengeance upon the whole city. An army of barbarians was
sent to Thessalonica; the people were invited to the games
of the Circus; and as soon as the place was full, the
soldiers received the signal for massacre. For three hours
the spectators were indiscriminately exposed to the fury of
the soldiers, and 7000 of them, or, as some accounts say,
more than twice that number, paid the penalty of the
insurrection. St. Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, represented
to Theodosius his crime in a letter, and told him that
penitence alone could efface his guilt. Accordingly, when
the emperor proceeded to perform his devotions in the usual
manner in the great church of Milan, the archbishop stopped
him at the door, and demanded an acknowledgment of his
guilt. The conscience-struck Theodosius humbled himself
before the church, which has recorded his penance as one of
its greatest victories. He laid aside the insignia of
imperial power; in the posture of a suppliant in the church
of Milan he asked pardon for his great sin before all the
congregation; and, after eight months, the emperor was
restored to communion with the Church.
Theodosius spent three years in Italy, during which he
established Valentinian II. on the throne of the West. He
returned to Constantinople towards the latter end of 391.
Valentinian was slain in 392 by Arbogastes, who raised
Eugenius to the Empire of the West. This involved Theodosius
in a new war; but it ended in the defeat and death both of
Eugenius and Arbogastes in 394. Theodosius died at Milan,
four months after the defeat of Eugenius, on the 17th of
January, 395. His two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, had
already been elevated to the rank of Augusti, and it was
arranged that the Empire should be divided between them,
Arcadius having the East, and Honorius the West. Theodosius
was a firm Catholic, and a fierce opponent and persecutor of
the Arians and all heretics. It was in his reign also that
the formal destruction of paganism took place; and we still
possess a large number of the laws of Theodosius,
prohibiting the exercise of the pagan religion, and
forbidding the heathen worship under severe penalties, in
some cases extending to death.
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Albius Tibullus (ca. 55-19 BC) was a Latin poet and writer of
elegies. Little is known about his life. His first and second
books of poetry are extant; many other texts attributed to
Tibullus are of questionable origins. There are only a few
references to him in later writers and a short Life of
doubtful authority. His praenomen is not known, nor is his
birthplace and his gentile name has been questioned. His
status was probably that of a Roman knight (so the Life
affirms); and he had inherited a considerable estate. But,
like Virgil, Horace and Propertius, he seems to have lost most
of it in 41 BC amongst the confiscations of Mark Antony and
Octavian...
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a Roman elegiac poet of equestrian family. The date of his birth is uncertain, but he died young, soon after
Vergil. His birth is therefore placed by conjecture B.C. 54, and his death B.C. 19. Of his youth and education
absolutely nothing is known. The estate belonging to the equestrian ancestors of Tibullus was at Pedum, between
Tibur and Praenesté. This property, like that of the other great poets of the day, Vergil and Horace, had been
either entirely or partially confiscated during the Civil Wars; yet Tibullus retained or recovered part of it,
perhaps through Messalla, and spent there the better portion of his short, but peaceful and happy, life (Tib. i.
1, 19; cf. Plin. Ep. i. 4, 7). When his friend and patron, Messalla, was going to his prefecture in Asia, B.C.
30, Tibullus, after first refusing, eventually agreed to accompany him, but fell ill on the way at Corcyra and
returned thence to Rome (Tib.i. 1; i. 3). Afterwards, in 28, he went to Aquitania with Messalla, who had been
sent by Augustus to suppress a formidable insurrection which had broken out in this province. Part of the glory
of the Aquitanian campaign, which Tibullus celebrates in language of unwonted loftiness, redounds, according to
the poet, to his own fame. He was present at the battle of Atax (Aude in Languedoc), which quelled the Aquitanian
rebellion (Tib. i. 7). So ceased the active life of Tibullus; his remaining history is the chronicle of his
poetry and of the loves which inspired it. The first object of his attachment is celebrated under the poetic name
of Delia: according to Apuleius ( Apol. 10) her real name was Plania. To Delia are addressed the first six
elegies of the first book. The poet's attachment to Delia had begun before he left Rome for Aquitania. But Delia
seems to have been faithless during his absence from Rome. On his return from Corcyra he found her ill, and
attended her with affectionate solicitude (Eleg. i. 5), and hoped to induce her to retire with him into the
country. But first a richer lover appears to have supplanted him with the inconstant Delia, and afterwards there
appears a husband in his way. The second book of elegies is chiefly devoted to a new mistress named Nemesis (cf.
Ovid, Am. iii. 9, 32; Mart. viii. 73, 7). It is probable, though not certain, that this Nemesis is the same as
the Glycera mentioned only by Horace ( Carm. i. 33, 2), who reproves him for dwelling so long in his plaintive
elegies on the "pitiless Glycera."
The poetry of his contemporaries shows Tibullus to have been a gentle and singularly amiable man. To Horace
especially he was an object of warm attachment. Besides the ode which alludes to his passion for Glycera (Hor.
Carm. i. 33), the epistle to Tibullus gives the most full and pleasing view of his poetical retreat, and of his
character; it is written by a kindred spirit. Horace does homage to that perfect purity of taste which
distinguishes the poetry of Tibullus, and he takes pride in the candid but favourable judgment of his own
Satires. The time of Tibullus he supposes to be shared between the finishing his exquisite small poems, which
were to surpass even those of Cassius of Parma, up to that time the models of this kind of composition, and the
enjoyment of the country. Tibullus possessed, according to his friend's notions, all the blessings of life-a
competent fortune, favour with the great, fame, health; and he seemed to know how to enjoy all those blessings.
The first two books alone of the elegies under the name of Tibullus are of undoubted authenticity. The third is
the work of another, a very inferior poet, whether Lygdamus be a real or fictitions name. This poet was much
younger than Tibullus, for he was born in the year of the battle of Mutina, 43. It is probable that he was a less
gifted member of Messalla's literary circle: this connection with the patron of Tibullus might account for his
elegies being confused with the genuine poems of Tibullus. The hexameter poem on Messalla, which opens the fourth
book, is so inferior that, although a successful elegiac poet may have failed when he attempted epic verse, it
cannot readily be ascribed to a writer of the exquisite taste of Tibullus. If it is his, it must be regarded as
an early poem written in an imitative manner, when he was under the full influence of the Alexandrian School. The
smaller elegies of the fourth book have all the inimitable grace and simplicity of Tibullus. With the exception
of the thirteenth (of which some lines are hardly surpassed by Tibullus himself) these poems relate to the love
of a certain Sulpicia , a woman of noble birth, for Cerinthus, the real or fictitious name of a beautiful youth.
Nor is there any improbability in supposing that Tibullus may have written elegies in the name or by the desire
of Sulpicia. If Sulpicia was herself the poetess, she approached nearer to Tibullus than any other writer of
elegies. The first book of elegies alone seems to have been published during the author's life, probably soon
after the triumph of Messalla (B.C. 27). The second book probably did not appear till after the death of
Tibullus. With it may have been published the elegies of his imitator, perhaps his friend and associate in the
society of Messalla, Lygdamus (if that be a real name), i. e. the third book and likewise the fourth, made up of
poems belonging, as it were, to this intimate society of Messalla; the Panegyricus Messallae by some unnamed
author, which, feeble as it is, seems to be of that age; the poems in the name of Sulpicia , with the concluding
one, the thirteenth, a fragment of Tibullus himself. There are editions of Tibullus by Lachmann (Berlin, 1829);
Dissen, 2 vols. (Göttingen, 1835); Bährens (Leipzig, 1878); Hiller, with a good index (Leipzig, 1885); selections
by Ramsay. There is an English verse translation by Cranstoun, with notes (London, 1872). See Sellar's Roman
Poets of the Republic for a good literary estimate of the poet.
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Titus Quinctius Flamininus (c. 228 BC – 174 BC) was a Roman politician and general instrumental in
the Roman conquest of Greece.
Member of the gens Quinctia, and brother to Lucius Quinctius Flamininus, he served as a military
tribune in the Second Punic war and in 205 BC he was appointed propraetor in Tarentum. He was a
curule aedile in Rome in 203 BC and a quaestor in 199 BC. He became consul in 198 BC, despite being
only about thirty years old, younger than the constitutional age required to serve in that position.
As Livy records, two tribunes, Marcus Fulvius and Manius Curius publicly opposed his candidacy for
consulship, as he was just a quaestor, but the Senate overrode the opposition and he was elected
along with Sextus Aelius Paulus.
After his election to the consulship he was chosen to replace Publius Sulpicius Galba who was consul
with Gaius Aurelius in 200 BC, according to Livy, as general during the Second Macedonian War. He
chased Philip V of Macedon out of most of Greece, except for a few fortresses, defeating him at the
Battle of the Aous, but as his term as consul was coming to an end he attempted to establish a peace
with the Macedonian king. During the negotiations, Flamininus was made proconsul, giving him the
authority to continue the war rather than finishing the negotiations. In 197 BC he defeated Philip at
the Battle of Cynoscephalae in Thessaly, the Roman legions making the Macedonian phalanx obsolete in
the process. Philip was forced to surrender, give up all the Greek cities he had conquered, and pay
Rome 1,000 talents, but his kingdom was left intact to serve as a buffer state between Greece and
Illyria. This displeased the Achaean League, Rome's allies in Greece, who wanted Macedon to be
dismantled completely...
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Gaius Messius Quintus Decius (ca. 201- June 251) was Roman Emperor from 249 to 251. In the last year of his reign, he co-ruled
with his son Herennius Etruscus until both of them were killed in the Battle of Abrittus.
Early life and rise to power -
Decius, who was born at Budalia, now Martinci, Serbia near Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica), in Lower Pannonia was one of the first
among a long succession of future Roman Emperors to originate from the province of Illyricum in the Danube.[1]. Unlike some of
his immediate imperial predecessors such as Philip the Arab or Maximinus, Decius was a distinguished senator who had served as
consul in 232, had been governor of Moesia and Germania Inferior soon afterwards, served as governor of Hispania Tarraconensis
between 235–238, and was urban prefect of Rome during the early reign of Emperor Philip the Arab (Marcus Iulius Phillipus)...
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Tullus Hostilius (r. 673 BC – 642 BC) was the third of the Kings of Rome. He succeeded Numa Pompilius, and was succeeded by Ancus
Marcius. Unlike his predecessor, Tullus was known as a warlike king.
Tullus Hostilius was the grandson of Hostus Hostilius who had fought with Romulus and died during the Sabine invasion of Rome [1].
The principal feature of Tullus' reign was his defeat of Alba Longa. After beating Alba Longa in war (by the victory of three Roman
champions over three Albans) Alba Longa became Rome's vassal state. However, after the Alban dictator subsequently betrayed Rome,
Tullus ordered Alba Longa to be destroyed, and forced the migration of the Alban citizenry to Rome where they were integrated and
became Roman citizens [2].
Tullus also fought successful wars against Fidenae and Veii and against the Sabines [3].
According to Livy, Tullus paid little heed to religious observances during his reign, thinking them unworthy of a king's attention.
However, at the close of his reign, Rome was affected by a series of prodigies including a shower of stones on the Alban Mount (in
response to which a public religious festival of nine days was held - a novendialis), a loud voice was heard on the summit of the
mount complaining about the Albans failed devotion to their former gods, and a pestilence struck in Rome. King Tullus became ill, and
was filled with superstition. He reviewed the commentaries of Numa Pompilius and attempted to carry out sacrifices recommended by Numa
to Jupiter Elicius. However Tullus did not undertake the ceremony correctly, and both he and his house were struck by lightning and
reduced to ashes as a result of the anger of Jupiter...
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Flavius Julius Valens (328 – 9 August 378) was Roman Emperor from 364 to 378, after he was given the Eastern
part of the empire by his brother Valentinian I. Valens, sometimes known as the Last True Roman, was
defeated and killed in the Battle of Adrianople, which marked the beginning of the fall of the Western Roman
Empire.
Life -
Appointment to emperor -
Valens and his brother Valentinian were both born in Cibalae in 328 and 321 respectively. They had grown up
on estates purchased by their father Gratian the Elder in Africa and Britain. While Valentinian had enjoyed
a successful military career prior to his appointment as emperor, Valens apparently had not. He had spent
much of his youth on the family's estate and only joined the army in the 360s, participating with his
brother in the Persian campaign of Emperor Julian...
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An emperor of the East A.D. 364-378, born about A.D. 328,
and made emperor by his brother Valentinian. (See
Valentinianus.) The greater part of Valens's reign was
occupied by his wars with the Goths. At first he gained
great advantages over the barbarians, and concluded a peace
with them in 370, on the condition that they should not
cross the Danube. In 376 the Goths were driven out of their
country by the Huns, and were allowed by Valens to cross the
Danube and settle in Thrace and the country on the borders
of the Danube. Dissensions soon arose between the Romans and
these dangerous neighbors, and in 377 the Goths took up arms
under Fritigern. Valens collected a powerful army, and
marched against the Goths, but he was defeated by them with
immense slaughter, near Adrianople, on the 9th of August,
378. Valens was never seen after the battle: some say he
died on the field; and others relate that he was burned to
death in a peasant's house, to which he was carried, and
which the barbarians set fire to without knowing who was in
it (Amm. Marc. xxxi. 13). The reign of Valens is important
in the history of the Empire on account of the admission of
the Goths into the countries south of the Danube-the
commencement of the decline of the Roman power. Furious
contests between the rival creeds of the Catholics and the
Arians also characterize this reign.
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Flavius Valentinianus (321 – 17 November 375), commonly known
as Valentinian I or Valentinian the Great[1], was Roman
Emperor from 364 to 375. He was the last emperor to have de
facto control of the entire empire. Upon becoming emperor he
made his brother Valens his co-emperor, giving him rule of the
eastern provinces while Valentinian retained the west. During
his reign, Valentinian fought successfully against the
Alamanni, Quadi, and Sarmatians. Most notable was his victory
over the Alamanni in 367 at the Battle of Solicinium. His
brilliant general Count Theodosius defeated a revolt in Africa
and the Great Conspiracy, a coordinated assault on Britain by
Picts, Scots, and Saxons. Valentinian was also the last
emperor to conduct campaigns across the Rhine and Danube
rivers. He rebuilt and improved the fortifications along the
frontiers – even building fortresses in enemy territory. Due
to the successful nature of his reign and almost immediate
decline of the empire after his death, he is often considered
the "last great western emperor". He founded the Valentinian
Dynasty, with his sons Gratian and Valentinian II succeeding
him in the western half of the empire...
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A Roman emperor (A.D. 364- 375), was the son of Gratianus, and was born A.D. 321, at Cibalis in Pannonia. His first wife was
Valeria Severa, by whom he became the father of the emperor Gratianus. He held important military commands under Julian and
Jovian; and on the death of the latter, in February, 364, Valentinian was elected emperor by the troops at Nicaea. A few
weeks after his elevation Valentinian, by the desire of the soldiers, associated in the empire his brother Valens, and
assigned to him the East, while he himself undertook the government of the West. Valentinian was a Catholic, though his
brother Valens was an Arian; but he did not persecute either Arians or heathens. He possessed good abilities, prudence, and
vigour of character. He had a capacity for military matters, and was a vigilant, impartial, and laborious administrator. The
greater part of Valentinian's reign was occupied by the wars against the Alemanni and the other barbarians on the Roman
frontier, in which his operations were attended with success. He not only drove the Alemanni out of Gaul, but on more than
one occasion crossed the Rhine, and carried the war into the enemy's country. His usual residence was Treviri (Trèves). In
375 he went to Carnuntum on the Danube, in order to repel the Quadi and Sarmatians, who had invaded Pannonia. After an
indecisive campaign he took up his winter-quarters at Bregetio. In this place, while giving an audience to the deputies of
the Quadi, and speaking with great heat, he fell down in a fit and expired suddenly, on the 17th of November (Amm. Marc.
xxviii.-xxx.; Zosim. iv. 17).
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Flavius Placidius Valentinianus (2 July 419 – 16 March 455), commonly known as Valentinian III, was Western Roman
Emperor from 425 to 455.
Family -
Valentinian was born in the western capital of Ravenna in 419. He was the only son of Galla Placidia and Flavius
Constantius. The former was the younger half-sister of the western emperor Honorius, and the latter was at the
time Patrician and the power behind the throne.
Through his mother, Valentinian was a descendent both of Theodosius I, who was his maternal grandfather, and of
Valentinian I, who was the father of his maternal grandmother. It was also through his maternal side that he was
the nephew of Honorius and first cousin to Theodosius II (the son of Honorius' brother Arcadius), who was eastern
emperor throughout most of Valentianian's life. Valentinian had a full sister, Justa Grata Honoria, who was
probably born in 417 or 418 (the history of Paul the Deacon mentions her first when mentioning the children of the
marriage, suggesting she was the eldest[1]). His mother had previously been married to Ataulf of the Visigoths,
and had borne a son, Theodosius, in Barcelona in 414; but the child had died early in the following year, thus
eliminating an opportunity for a Romano-Visigothic line.[2][3]
When Valentinian was less than two years old, Honorius appointed Constantius co-emperor, a dignity he would hold
until his death seven months later. As a result of all these family ties, Valentinian was the son, grandson,
great-grandson, cousin, and nephew (twice over) of Roman Emperors...
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Roman emperor A.D. 426-455, was born 419, and was the son of Constantius III. by Placidia, the sister of Honorius and the
daughter of Theodosius I. He was declared Augustus in 425 by Theodosius II., and was placed over the West, but as he was only
six years of age the government was intrusted to his mother Placidia. During his long reign the Empire was repeatedly exposed to
the invasions of the barbarians; and it was only the military abilities of Aetius which saved the Empire from ruin. In 429 the
Vandals under Genseric crossed over into Africa, which they conquered, and of which they continued in possession till the reign
of Justinian. The weakness of the Empire during this reign was shown also by the fact that the Britons (from whose country the
Roman troops had been withdrawn forty years before), finding it vain to apply to Rome for aid against the incursions of the
Picts, invited the Jutes under Hengest and Horsa to help them, in 449. The Goths likewise established themselves in Gaul; but
Aetius finally made peace with them (439 A.D.), and with their assistance gained a great victory over Attila and the vast army
of the Huns at Châlons in 451. (See Attila.) The power and influence of Aetius excited the jealousy and fears of Valentinian,
who murdered his faithful general in 454. (See Aetius.) In the following year the emperor himself was slain by Petronius
Maximus, whose wife he had violated.
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Publius Licinius Valerianus[1] (193/195/200 – 260 or 264), commonly known as Valerian or Valerian the
Elder, was Roman Emperor from 253 to 260. He was taken captive by Persian king Shapur I after the
Battle of Edessa, becoming the only emperor to do so and causing wide range instability across the
empire.
Life -
Origins and rise to power -
Unlike the majority of the pretenders during the Crisis of the Third Century, Valerian was of a noble
and traditional senatorial family. Details of his early life are elusive, but for his marriage to
Egnatia Mariniana, who gave him two sons: later emperor Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus and
Valerianus Minor.[citation needed]
He was Consul for the first time either before 238 as a Suffectus or in 238 as an Ordinarius. In 238
he was princeps senatus, and Gordian I negotiated through him for Senatorial acknowledgement for his
claim as emperor. In 251, when Decius revived the censorship with legislative and executive powers so
extensive that it practically embraced the civil authority of the emperor, Valerian was chosen censor
by the Senate, though he declined to accept the post. Under Decius he was nominated governor of the
Rhine provinces of Noricum and Raetia and retained the confidence of his successor, Trebonianus
Gallus, who asked him for reinforcements to quell the rebellion of Aemilianus in 253. Valerian headed
south, but was too late: Gallus' own troops had killed him and joined Aemilianus before his arrival.
The Raetian soldiers then proclaimed Valerian emperor and continued their march towards Rome. At the
time of his arrival in September or October, Aemilianus' legions defected, killing him and proclaiming
Valerian emperor. In Rome, the Senate quickly acknowledged him, not only for fear of reprisals, but
also because he was one of their own...
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P. Licinius, a Roman emperor, A.D. 253-260. He was entrapped
into a conference by the Persians, taken prisoner (260 A.D.)
by Sapor, and passed the remainder of his life in captivity,
subjected to every insult which Oriental cruelty could devise.
His skin was stuffed after his death and hung in one of the
Persian temples for many years.
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Marcus Terentius Varro (116 BC – 27 BC), also known as Varro
Reatinus to distinguish him from his younger contemporary
Varro Atacinus, was a Roman scholar and writer.
Biography -
Varro was born in or near Reate (now Rieti) to a family
thought to be of equestrian rank, and always remained close to
his roots in the area, owning a large farm in the Reatine
plain, probably near Lago di Ripa Sottile, till his old
age.[citation needed]
Politically, he supported Pompey, reaching the office of
praetor, after having been tribune of the people, quaestor and
curule aedile. He was one of the commission of twenty that
carried out the great agrarian scheme of Caesar for the
resettlement of Capua and Campania (59 BC)...
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M. Terentius Varro Reatīnus, a celebrated writer, whose vast and varied erudition in almost every department of
literature earned for him the title of the "most learned of the Romans" (Quint.x. i. 95; Dionys. ii. 21; C. D. vi.
2). He was born at Reaté B.C. 116, and was trained under L. Aelius Stilo Praeconinus, and afterwards by Antiochus,
a philosopher of the Academy. Varro held a high naval command in the wars against the pirates and Mithridates, and
afterwards served as the legatus of Pompeius in Spain in the Civil War, but was compelled to surrender his forces
to Caesar (Flor. ii. 13, 29; B.C. i. 38, ii. 17-20). He then passed over into Greece, and shared the fortunes of
the Pompeian party till after the battle of Pharsalia, when he obtained the forgiveness of Caesar, who employed him
in superintending the collection and arrangement of the great library designed for public use (Iul. 44; Orig. vi.
5). For some years after this period Varro remained in literary seclusion, passing his time chiefly at his country
seats near Cumae and Tusculum, occupied with study and composition. Caesar had forced Antony to restore to Varro an
estate which he had seized (Cic. Phil. ii. 40, 103), and, perhaps in consequence, upon the formation of the Second
Triumvirate his name appeared upon the list of the proscribed; but he succeeded in making his escape, and, after
having remained for some time concealed, he obtained the protection of Octavian. His life is said to have been
saved by Fufius Calenus (B. C. iv. 47), and it is probable that he recovered a great portion of his estates; but
most of his magnificent library had been destroyed (Gell. iii. 10). The remainder of his career was passed in
tranquillity, and he continued to labour in his favourite studies. His death took place B.C. 28, when he was in his
eighty-ninth year.
Not only was Varro the most learned of Roman scholars, but he was likewise the most voluminous of Roman authors.
Gellius (l. c.) states that Varro claimed to have written 490 books before he was seventy-seven: Ausonius gives in
round numbers 600 as the total number of books written by Varro (Prof. Burd. xx. 10); and this agrees with a list
given by St. Jerome which makes out the writings of Varro to consist of seventy-four different works, containing
altogether 620 books. (Cf. also Augustin. De Civ. Dei, vi. 2; and Acad. i. 9.) Hence it would appear that 130 of
the books were written in the last twelve years of his life. Of these works only two have survived:
Extant works of Varro
De Re Rustica Libri III, still extant, written when the author was eighty years old, and the most important of all
the treatises upon ancient agriculture now extant, being far superior to the more voluminous production of
Columella, with which alone it can be compared. It is edited by Keil (Halle, 1884 foll.), and in the Scriptores Rei
Rusticae Veteres Latini, by Schneider (Leipzig, 1764-1797).
De Lingua Latina, a grammatical treatise which extended to twenty-four books; but six only (v.-x.) have been
preserved, and these in a mutilated condition. The remains of this treatise are particularly valuable, since they
have been the means of preserving many terms and forms which would otherwise have been altogether lost, and much
curious information is here treasured up connected with the ancient usages, both civil and religious, of the
Romans. Editions by Spengel (Berlin, 1826, reedited 1885); in Didot's collection (Paris, 1875); and by O. Müller
(last ed. Leipzig, 1883). The remains of Varro's other grammatical treatises are discussed by Wilmanns (1864). The
work entitled Antiquitatum Libri was divided into two sections: Antiquitates Rerum Humanarum, in twenty-five books,
and Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum, in sixteen books. It described the political and religious institutions of Rome,
and was Varro's greatest work, upon which chiefly his reputation for profound learning was based; but unfortunately
only a few fragments of it have come down to us, printed in Merkel's edition of Ovid's Fasti, pp. cvi.-ccxlvii.
(1841). With the second section of the work we are, comparatively speaking, familiar, since St. Augustine drew very
largely from this source in his De Civitate Dei.
Varro wrote also a collection of biographies called Imagines or Hebdomades in fifteen books, which contain 700
lives or sketches of famous Greeks and Romans, arranged in groups of seven. It is said to have been illustrated
with portraits and afterwards to have appeared in a cheaper edition without pictures. Another work, Disciplinae, in
nine books, described the "liberal arts," viz., grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astrology,
music, medicine, and architecture (see Liberales Artes); and he wrote other works on philosophy (Logistorici in
seventy-six books), geography, and law. Among his poetical works were the Saturae, which were composed in a variety
of metres and with an admixture of prose. Varro in these pieces copied to a certain extent the productions of
Menippus the Gadarene (see Menippus), and hence designated them as Saturae Menippeae s. Cynicae. They appear to
have been a series of disquisitions on a vast variety of subjects, frequently, if not uniformly, couched in the
shape of dialogue, the object proposed being the inculcation of moral lessons and serious truths in a familiar,
playful, and even jocular style. The best editions of the fragments of these Saturae are by Riese (Leipzig, 1865),
and Bücheler (with Petronius) (Berlin, 1882). The Sententiae Varronis, a collection of pithy sayings, may possibly
have been gathered from the writings of Varro Reatinus, but this is wholly uncertain. They are edited by Devit
(Padua, 1843). See Boissier, Études sur M. T. Varron (Paris, 1861); and Ritschl, Die Schriftstellerei des Varro in
his Opuscula, iii. 419-505; id. Parerga, pp. 70 foll.
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Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (November 16, 42 BC – March
16, AD 37), born Tiberius Claudius Nero, was Roman Emperor
from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son
of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother
divorced his father and was remarried to Augustus in 39 BC,
making him a step-son of Octavian. Tiberius would later
marry Augustus' daughter Julia the Elder (from his marriage
to Scribonia) and even later be adopted by Augustus, by
which act he officially became a Julian, bearing the name
Tiberius Julius Caesar. The subsequent emperors after
Tiberius would continue this blended dynasty of both
families for the next forty years; historians have named it
the Julio-Claudian dynasty. In relations to the other
emperors of this dynasty, Tiberius was the stepson of
Augustus, great-uncle of Caligula, paternal uncle of
Claudius, and great-great uncle of Nero.
Tiberius was one of Rome's greatest generals, conquering
Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily Germania; laying
the foundations for the northern frontier. But he came to be
remembered as a dark, reclusive, and somber ruler who never
really desired to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him
tristissimus hominum, "the gloomiest of men."[1] After the
death of Tiberius’ son Drusus Julius Caesar in 23, the
quality of his rule declined and ended in a terror. In 26,
Tiberius exiled himself from Rome and left administration
largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian Prefects
Sejanus and Macro. Caligula, Tiberius' grand-nephew and
adopted grandson, succeeded the emperor upon his death...
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An emperor of Rome from A.D. 14 to 37. His full name was
Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar. He was the son of T. Claudius
Nero and of Livia, and was born on the 16th of November,
B.C. 42, before his mother married Augustus. Tiberius was
tall and strongly made, and his health was good. His face
was handsome, and his eyes large. He was carefully educated,
and became well acquainted with Greek and Latin literature,
his master in rhetoric being Theodorus of Gadara. Though not
without military courage, as his life shows, he had a great
timidity of character, and was of a jealous and suspicious
temper; and these qualities rendered him cruel after he had
acquired power. There can be little doubt that his morose
reserve and his dissimulation had been increased, if not
created, by his relations to Augustus. As emperor the
difficulties of his position, and the influence of Livia and
still more of Seianus, increased his tendency to jealousy
and suspicion of all who seemed rivals or dangerous from
their popularity. The system of espionage and delation (see
Delatores) once begun could only increase with each act of
tyranny and cruelty, till his rule became a veritable reign
of terror. Yet in reading his history, especially the tales
of his monstrous and incredible licentiousness, it must be
recollected that Tacitus and Suetonius both wrote with a
strong bias against him and his rule, and were ready to
accept as true the worst scandals which were handed down. If
Velleius was prejudiced in the other direction, it is at
least right to adopt some part of his less unfavourable
portrait and to imagine that the old age of Tiberius was not
so absolutely contradictory of his youth as it is sometimes
made to appear. The cruelty of his rule applied only to
Rome. The testimony of Iosephus and Philo shows that his
provincial government was just and lenient.
In B.C. 11, Augustus compelled Tiberius, much against his
will, to divorce his wife, Vipsania Agrippina, and to marry
Iulia, the widow of Agrippa, and daughter of the emperor,
with whom Tiberius, however, did not long live in harmony.
Tiberius was thus brought into still closer contact with the
imperial family; but as Gaius and Lucius Caesar, the
grandsons of Augustus, were still living, the prospect of
Tiberius succeeding to the imperial power seemed very
remote. He was employed on various military services. In 20,
he was sent by Augustus to restore Tigranes to the throne of
Armenia. It was during this campaign that Horace addressed
one of his epistles to Iulius Florus (i. 12), who was
serving under Tiberius. In 15, Drusus and his brother
Tiberius were engaged in warfare with the Raeti, and the
exploits of the two brothers were sung by Horace (Carm. iv.
4, 14). In 13, Tiberius was consul with P. Quintilius Varus.
In 11, while his brother Drusus was fighting against the
Germans, Tiberius conducted the war against the Dalmatians
and against the Pannonians. Drusus died in 9, owing to a
fall from his horse. On the news of the accident, Tiberius
was sent by Augustus to Drusus, whom he found just alive.
Tiberius returned to the war in Germany, and crossed the
Rhine. In 7 he was consul a second time. In 6 he obtained
the tribunicia potestas for five years, but during this year
he retired with the emperor's permission to Rhodes, where he
spent the next seven years. Tacitus says that his chief
reason for leaving Rome was to get away from his wife, who
treated him with contempt, and whose licentious life was no
secret to her husband; probably, too, he was unwilling to
stay at Rome when the grandsons of Augustus were attaining
years of maturity, for there was mutual jealousy between
them and Tiberius. He returned to Rome A.D. 2. He was
relieved from one trouble during his absence, for his wife
Iulia had been banished to the island of
Tiberius. (Vatican.)
Pandataria (B.C. 2), and he never saw her again. (See
Iulia.) After the deaths of L. Caesar (A.D. 2) and C. Caesar
(A.D. 4), Augustus adopted Tiberius, with the view of
leaving to him the imperial power; and at the same time he
required Tiberius to adopt Germanicus, the son of his
brother Drusus, though Tiberius had a son Drusus by his wife
Vipsania. From the year of his adoption to the death of
Augustus, Tiberius was in command of the Roman armies,
though he visited Rome several times. He was sent into
Germany A.D. 4. He reduced all Illyricum to subjection A.D.
9; and in A.D. 12 he had the honour of a triumph at Rome for
his German and Dalmatian victories.
On the death of Augustus at Nola, on the 19th of August,
A.D. 14, Tiberius, who was on his way to Illyricum, was
immediately summoned home by his mother, Livia. He assumed
the imperial power without any opposition, affecting all the
while a great reluctance. He began his reign by putting to
death Postumus Agrippa, the surviving grandson of Augustus,
and he alleged that it was done pursuant to the command of
the late emperor. When he felt himself sure in his place, he
began to strengthen the principate. He took from the popular
assembly the election of the magistrates, and transferred it
to the Senate. The news of the death of Augustus roused a
mutiny among the legions in Pannonia, which was quelled by
Drusus, the son of Tiberius. The armies on the Rhine under
Germanicus showed a disposition to reject Tiberius, and if
Germanicus had been inclined to try the fortune of a
campaign, he might have had the assistance of the German
armies against his uncle. But Germanicus restored discipline
to the army by his firmness, and maintained his fidelity to
the new emperor. The first year of his reign was marked by
the death of Iulia, whom Augustus had removed from
Pandataria to Rhegium. The death of Germanicus in the East,
in A.D. 19, relieved Tiberius from all fear of a rival
claimant to the throne; and it was believed by many that
Germanicus had been poisoned by order of Tiberius. (See
Germanicus.) From this time Tiberius began to indulge with
less restraint in his love of tyranny, and many
distinguished senators were soon put to death on the charge
of treason against the emperor (laesa maiestas).
Notwithstanding his suspicious nature, Tiberius gave his
complete confidence to Seianus, who for many years possessed
the real government of the State. This ambitious man aimed
at the imperial power. In 23, Drusus, the son of Tiberius,
was poisoned by the contrivance of Seianus. Three years
afterwards (A.D. 26) Tiberius left Rome, and withdrew into
Campania. He never returned to the city. He left on the
pretext of dedicating temples in Campania, but the real
cause was probably his dislike to Rome, where he knew that
he was unpopular; and Seianus was only too anxious to
encourage any feeling which would keep the emperor at a
distance from the city. That Tiberius went because he wished
to hide his licentiousness in this place of retirement may
be set down as a silly invention, for Rome was not a place
where licentiousness was hated. He took up his residence
(A.D. 27) in the island of Capreae, at a short distance from
the Campanian coast. The death of Livia (A.D. 29), the
emperor's mother, released Tiberius from one cause of
anxiety. He had long been tired of her, because she wished
to exercise authority, and one object in leaving Rome was to
be out of her way. Livia's death gave Seianus and Tiberius
free scope, for Tiberius never entirely released himself
from a kind of subjection to his mother, and Seianus did not
venture to attempt the overthrow of Livia's influence. The
destruction of Agrippina and her children was now the chief
purpose of Seianus; but he finally got from Tiberius (A.D.
31) the reward that was his just desert, an ignominious
death. (See Seianus.) The death of Seianus was followed by
the execution of his friends; and for the remainder of the
reign of Tiberius, Rome continued to be the scene of tragic
occurrences. Tiberius died on the 16th of March, 37, at the
villa of Lucullus, in Misenum. He was seventy-eight years of
age, and had reigned twenty-two years. He was succeeded by
Gaius (Caligula), the son of Germanicus, but, according to
Tacitus, he had himself appointed no successor (Tac. Ann.
vi. 46), though he had appointed Gaius the heir of his
private property (Suet. Tib. 76) in conjunction with
Tiberius Gemellus, whom Gaius afterwards put to death. On
the other hand, Iosephus has a story of Tiberius committing
the Empire to Gaius ( Ant. xviii. 6, 9). Tiberius did not
die a natural death. It was known that his end was rapidly
approaching, and having had a fainting-fit, he was supposed
to be dead. Thereupon Gaius came forth and was saluted as
emperor; but he was alarmed by the intelligence that
Tiberius had recovered and called for something to eat.
Gaius was so frightened that he did not know what to do; but
Macro, the prefect of the Praetorians, with more presence of
mind, gave orders that a quantity of clothes should be
thrown on Tiberius, and that he should be left alone (Tac.
Ann. v. 50; Dio Cass. lviii. 28). Suetonius mentions a
suspicion that Tiberius was poisoned at the last by Gaius
(Suet. Tib. 73; Suet. Cal. 12). Tiberius wrote a brief
commentary of his own life, the only book that the emperor
Domitian studied (Suet. Tib. 67; Suet. Dom. 20), and also
Greek poems, and a lyric poem on the death of L. Caesar
(Suet. Tib. 70). Tiberius, both as a ruler and as a man, has
not lacked defenders in modern times, among them Dean
Merivale in his Romans under the Empire (1865); Beesly,
Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius (1878); and Baring-Gould,
The Tragedy of the Caesars, vol. i. (1892). For the adverse
view see Boissier, L'Opposition sous les Césars (1875). For
the general history of his reign see Pasch, Zur Kritik der
Geschichte des Kaisers Tiberius (Altenburg, 1866); Stahr,
Tiberius (Berlin, 1873); H. Schiller, Geschichte der
römischen Kaiserzeit (Gotha, 1883); and Freytag, Tiberius
und Tacitus (Berlin, 1870). See also the essay prefixed to
Furneaux's Annales, vol. i. (1884).
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Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (1 August 10 BC
– 13 October AD 54), born Tiberius Claudius Drusus, then
Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus until his accession, was
Roman Emperor from 41 to 54 AD. A member of the Julio-
Claudian dynasty, he succeeded his nephew Caligula. The son
of Drusus and Antonia Minor, he was born in Lugdunum in
Gaul, and was the first emperor to be born outside Italy. He
was reportedly afflicted with some type of disability, and
his family had virtually excluded him from public office
until his consulship with his nephew Caligula in 37 AD.
Claudius' infirmity may have saved him from the fate of many
other nobles during the purges of Tiberius' and Caligula's
reigns; potential enemies did not see him as a serious
threat. His survival led to his being declared emperor by
the Praetorian Guard after Caligula's assassination, at
which point he was the last adult male of his family.
Despite his lack of experience, Claudius proved to be an
able and efficient administrator. He was also an ambitious
builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts, and canals
across the empire. During his reign, the empire conquered
Britain, Thrace, Noricum, Pamphylia, Lycia, and Judaea. He
took a personal interest in the law, presided at public
trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. However, he
was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by
the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his
position; this resulted in the deaths of many senators.
These events damaged his reputation among the ancient
writers, though more recent historians have revised this
opinion. After his death in 54, his grand-nephew and adopted
son Nero succeeded him as emperor...
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Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numerianus (d. November, 284), known in English as Numerian, was a Roman Emperor (December 283 –
November, 284), together with his brother Carinus. They were sons of Carus, a Gaul raised to the office of praetorian prefect
under Emperor Probus in 282.
Reign -
In 282, the legions of the upper Danube in Raetia and Noricum proclaimed Numerian's father, the praetorian prefect Marcus Aurelius
Carus, emperor, beginning a rebellion against the emperor Probus.[2] Probus' army, stationed in Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica,
Serbia), decided they did not wish to fight Carus, and assassinated Probus instead.[3] Carus, already sixty, wished to establish a
dynasty;[4] and immediately elevated Carinus and Numerian to the rank of Caesar.[5]
In 283, Carus raised Carinus to the title Caesar,[6] left him in charge of the West, and moved with Numerian and his praetorian
prefect Arrius Aper to the East, to wage war against the Sassanid Empire. (The Sassanids had been embroiled in a succession
dispute since the death of Shapur, and were in no position to oppose Carus' advance.)[7] According to Zonaras, Eutropius, and
Festus, Carus won a major victory against the Persians, taking Seleucia and the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon (near modern Al-
Mada'in, Iraq), cities on opposite banks of the Tigris.[8] In celebration, Numerian, Carus, and Carinus all took the title Persici
maximi.[9] Carus died in July or early August,[1] reportedly due to a strike of lightning.[10]
Carus' death left Numerian and Carinus as the new Augusti. Carinus quickly made his way to Rome from Gaul, and arrived in January
284. Numerian lingered in the East.[11] The Roman retreat from Persia was orderly and unopposed, for the Persian King, Bahram II,
was still struggling to establish his authority.[12] By March 284 Numerian had only reached Emesa (Homs) in Syria; by November,
only Asia Minor.[13] In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health, as he issued the only extant rescript in his name
there.[14] (Coins are issued in his name in Cyzicus at some time before the end of 284, but it is impossible to know whether he
was still in the public eye by that point.)[15] After Emesa, Numerian's staff, including the prefect Aper, reported that Numerian
suffered from an inflammation of the eyes, and had to travel in a closed coach.[16] When the army reached Bithynia,[11] some of
Numerian's soldiers smelled an odor reminiscent of a decaying corpse emanating from the coach.[12] They opened its curtains.
Inside, they found Numerian, dead.[17]
Aper officially broke the news in Nicomedia (İzmit) in November.[18] Numerian's generals and tribunes called a council for the
succession, and chose Diocles, commander of the cavalry arm of the imperial bodyguard,[19] emperor,[20] in spite of Aper's
attempts to garner support.[18] On November 20, 284, the army of the east gathered on a hill 5 km (3.1 mi) outside Nicomedia. The
army unanimously saluted their new Augustus, and Diocles accepted the purple imperial vestments. He raised his sword to the light
of the sun, and swore an oath denying responsibility for Numerian's death. He asserted that Aper had killed Numerian and concealed
it.[21] In full view of the army, Diocles drew his blade and killed Aper.[22]
According to Historia Augusta, Numerian was a man of considerable literary attainments, remarkably amiable and known as a great
orator and poet. However, no other sources, apart from the unreliable Historia, report anything about his personality.
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Marcus Aurelius. A Roman who succeeded to the imperial throne conjointly with his elder brother Carinus, after the death of their father Carus, at the
beginning of A.D. 284. Numerianus was with the army in Mesopotamia at the death of Probus; but, instead of following up the advantage which his father had
gained over the Persians, he was compelled by the army to abandon the conquests which had been already made, and to retreat to Syria. During the retreat,
a weakness of the eyes obliged him to confine himself to a litter, which was guarded by the praetorians. The administration of all affairs, civil as well
as military, devolved on Arrius Aper, the praetorian prefect, his father-in-law. The army was eight months on its march from the banks of the Tigris to
the Thracian Bosporus, and during all that time the imperial authority was exercised in the name of the emperor, who never appeared to his soldiers.
Reports at length spread among them that their emperor was no longer living; and when they had reached the city of Chalcedon they could not be prevented
from breaking into the imperial tent, where they found only his corpse. Suspicion naturally fell upon Arrius; and an assembly of the army was accordingly
held, for the purpose of avenging the death of Numerianus and electing a new emperor. Their choice fell upon Diocletian, who, immediately after his
election, put Arrius to death with his own hands, without giving him an opportunity of justifying himself, which might, perhaps, have proved dangerous to
the new emperor. The virtues of Numerianus are mentioned by most of his biographers. His manners were mild and affable; and he was celebrated among his
contemporaries for eloquence and poetic talent. The Senate voted him a statue, with the inscription, "To Numerianus Caesar, the most powerful orator of
his times" (Vopisc. Numerian.; Aurel. Vict. De Caes. 38; Eutrop. ix. 12).
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Marcus Salvius Otho (28 April 32[1] – 16 April 69), also
called Marcus Salvius Otho Caesar Augustus,[2] was Roman
Emperor for three months, from 15 January to 16 April 69. He
was the second emperor of the Year of the four emperors. Birth
and lineage Otho belonged to an ancient and noble Etruscan
family, descended from the princes of Etruria and settled at
Ferentinum (modern Ferento, near Viterbo) in Etruria. His
paternal grandfather, Marcus Salvius Otho, whose father was a
Roman knight but whose mother was of lowly origin and perhaps
not even free-born, was raised in Livia's household and rose
to senatorial rank through her influence, although he did not
advance beyond the rank of praetor. His father was Lucius
Otho...
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A Roman emperor from Jan. 15 to April 16, A.D. 69, who was born in 32. He was one of the companions of Nero in his debaucheries; but when
the emperor took possession of his wife, the beautiful but profligate Poppaea Sabina, Otho was sent as governor to Lusitania, which he
administered with credit during the last ten years of Nero's life. Otho attached himself to Galba, when he revolted against Nero, in the
hope of being adopted by him, and succeeding to the Empire. But when Galba adopted L.
Piso, on the tenth of January, 69, Otho formed a conspiracy against Galba, and was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers at Rome, who put
Galba to death. Meantime, Vitellius had been proclaimed emperor at Cologne by the German troops on the third of January. When this news
reached Otho, he marched into the north of Italy to oppose the generals of Vitellius. He at first won several victories over Caecina, the
general of Vitellius, but his army was defeated by Caecina and Valens in a decisive battle near Bedriacum, whereupon he put an end to his
own life at Brixellum, in the thirty-seventh year of his age. His life is given by Suetonius and Plutarch.
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Publius Ovidius Naso (20 March 43 BC – AD 17/18), known as Ovid in the English-speaking world, was a Roman poet who is best known as the
author of the three major collections of erotic poetry: Heroides, Amores, and Ars Amatoria. He is also well known for the Metamorphoses, a
mythological hexameter poem, the Fasti, about the Roman calendar, and the Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto, two collections of poems written in
exile on the Black Sea. Ovid was also the author of several smaller pieces, the Remedia Amoris, the Medicamina Faciei Femineae, and the long
curse-poem Ibis. He also authored a lost tragedy, Medea. He is considered a master of the elegiac couplet, and is traditionally ranked
alongside Virgil and Horace as one of the three canonic poets of Latin literature. The scholar Quintilian considered him the last of the
canonical Latin love elegists.[1] His poetry, much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, decisively influenced European art and
literature and remains as one of the most important sources of classical mythology...
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A very popular Roman poet, born March 21, B.C. 43, at Sulmo (now Solmona), in the country of the Paeligni, son of a wealthy
Roman of an old equestrian family. He came at an early age to Rome, to be educated as a pleader, and enjoyed the tuition of
the most famous rhetoricians of the time-Porcius Latro and Arellius Fuscus. It was not long before the instinct for poetry
awoke in him with such power that it needed all his father's resolution to keep him to his legal studies; his oratorical
exercises were simply poems in prose, as is testified by one of his fellow-students-the elder Seneca (Controv. ii. 10, 8).
After he had visited Greece and Asia to complete his education, he entered into political life at his father's desire, and
filled several subordinate offices. But he soon withdrew again from public business, partly from an inclination to idleness,
and lived only for poetry, in the society of the poets of his day, among whom he was especially intimate with Propertius. He
came into note as a poet by a tragedy called the Medea, which is now lost, but is much praised by ancient literary critics;
and about the same time he produced a series of amatory, and in some parts extremely licentious, poems.
When little more than a mere boy, as he says himself (Tristia, iv. 10, 69), he had a wife given him by his father; but this
marriage, like a second one, ended in a divorce. He derived more satisfaction, as well as the advantage of contact with the
court and with men of the highest distinction, from a third marriage, with a widow of noble family and high connections. To
her influence, perhaps, should be referred the fact that he turned his attention to more important and more serious works.
He had almost completed his best known work, the Metamorphoses, when suddenly, in A.D. 8, he was banished for life by
Augustus to Tomi (Kustindje), on the Black Sea, near the mouths of the Danube. The cause for this severity on the part of
the emperor is unknown; Ovid himself admits that there was a fault on his side, but only an error, not a crime (Tristia, i.
3, 37). At all events, the matter directly affected Augustus; and as Ovid describes his eyes as the cause of his misfortune,
it is conjectured that he had been an unintentional eye-witness of some offence on the part of the frivolous granddaughter
of the prince, the younger Iulia, and had neglected to inform the emperor of the matter. His indecent amatory poems, to
which he also points as the source of the emperor's displeasure, can at most only have been used as a plausible excuse in
the eyes of the public, as they had been published more than ten years before. See Deville, Sur l'Exil d'Ovide (Paris,
1859); Appal, Quibus de Causis Ovidius Relegatus Sit (Leipzig, 1872); Körber, De Ovidii Relegationis Causis (St. Petersburg,
1883); and Thomas in the Revue de Philologie, xiii. 47.
After a perilous voyage Ovid reached the place of his exile in the winter of A.D. 10-11; and there, far from his beloved
wife and his daughter Perilla, who had inherited the poetic talent of her father, far from his friends and all intercourse
with men of genius, he had to pass the last years of his life in desolation among the barbarous Getae. Even in his exile his
poetic talent did not fail him. It was then that he composed his poems of lamentation, entitled the Tristia, and his letters
from Pontus, which afford touching proofs of his grief, though also of his failing powers. His ceaseless prayers and
complaints had succeeded in softening Augustus, when the latter died. All his efforts to gain forgiveness or some
alleviation of his condition met with no response from Tiberius, and he was compelled to close his life, broken-hearted and
in exile, A.D. 17 or 18.
His extant works are:
1.
Erotic poems (Amores), published about B.C. 14, in five books, and again about B.C. 2, in three books. The latter edition is
the one we possess; some of its forty-nine elegies depict, in a very sensual way, the poet's life, the centre of which is
the unknown Corinna, who by later writers was identified with Iulia, the daughter of Augustus (Sid. Apoll. xxiii. 159), but
with no probability.
2.
Letters (Epistulae), also called Heroïdes, rhetorical declamations in the form of love-letters sent by heroines to their
husbands or lovers, twentyone in number; the last six of these, however, and the fourteenth, are considered spurious.
3.
Methods for beautifying the face (Medicamina Faciei), advice to women respecting the art of the toilette; this poem has come
down to us in an incomplete form.
4.
The Art of Love (Ars Amandi or Amatoria), in three books, published about B.C. 2, advice to men (books i. and ii.) and women
(book iii.) as to the methods of contracting a love-affair and insuring its continuance-a work as licentious as it is
original and elaborate.
5.
Cures for Love (Remedia Amoris), the pendant to the previous work, and no less offensive in substance and tone.
6.
The fifteen books of the Transformations (Metamorphoses), his most important work. It is composed in hexameter verse; the
material is borrowed from Greek and (to a less extent) from Roman sources, being a collection of legends of transformations,
very skilfully combining jest and earnest in rapid alternations, and extending from chaos to the apotheosis of Caesar. When
it was completed and had received the last touches, the work was cast into the flames by Ovid in his first despair at
banishment, but was afterwards rewritten from other copies.
7.
A Calendar of Roman Festivals (Fasti), begun in the last years before his banishment, and originally in twelve books,
corresponding to the number of the months. Of these only six are preserved, probably because Ovid had not quite completed
them at Rome, and had not the means to do so at Tomi. It was originally intended for dedication to Augustus. After
Augustus's death the poet began to revise it, with a view to its dedication to Germanicus; he did not, however, proceed with
his revision beyond the first book. It contains, in elegiac metre, the most important celestial phenomena and the festivals
of each month, with a description of their celebration and an account of their origin according to the Italian legends.
8.
Poems of Lament (Tristia), to his family, to his friends, and to Augustus, belonging to the years A.D. 9-13, in five books;
the first of these was written while he was still on his journey to Tomi.
9.
Letters from Pontus (Epistulae ex Ponto), in four books, only distinguished from the previous poems by their epistolary
form.
10.
Ibis, an imitation of the poem of the same name by Callimachus, who had attacked, under this name, Apollonius of Rhodes,
consisting of imprecations on a faithless friend at Rome, written in the learned and obscure style of the Alexandrian poets.
11.
A short fragment of a didactic poem on the fish in the Black Sea (Halieutica), written in hexameters. Besides these Ovid
wrote, during his exile, numerous poems which have been lost, among them a eulogy of the deceased Augustus in the Getic
tongue-a sufficient proof of the strength of his irrepressible love for poetry. In fact, in this respect he is distinguished
above all other Roman poets. Perhaps no one ever composed with less exertion; yet at the same time no one ever used so
important a faculty for so trivial a purpose. His poetry is for the most part simply entertaining; in this kind of writing
he proves his mastery by his readiness in language and metre, by his unwearied powers of invention, by his ever-ready wit,
elegance, and charm, though, on the other hand, he is completely wanting in deep feeling and moral earnestness. By his
talent, Ovid as well as Vergil has had great influence on the further development of Roman poetry, especially with regard to
metre. Many imitated his style so closely that their poems were actually attributed to himself. Among these, besides a
number of Heroïdes (see above), we have the Nux, the nut-tree's complaint of the ill-treatment it met with, a poem in
elegiac verse, which was at all events written about the time of Ovid; a poem on cosmetics, De Medicamine Faciei, the
Consolatio ad Liviam on the death of Drusus; and a number of jointed skits such as the De Pulice, De Vetula, various
Priapeia, etc.
Bibliography.-Of the MSS. of Ovid the best are the Codex Petavianus of the eighth century (Vatican); the Codex B
(Arundelianus) of the ninth century (British Museum); two at Munich (D and E) and one (G) at Göttingen of the twelfth
century; the Codex Puteaneus of the tenth century (Paris), which is said to be one of the best classical MSS. in existence;
the Codex Marcianus of the eleventh century (Florence). For an elaborate account of the MSS. and a vast collection of
variant readings, see the edition of N. Heinsius cited below.
Editions of the whole of Ovid are those by D. Heinsius, 3 vols. (Leipzig, Leyden, 1629); N. Heinsius, 3 vols. (Amsterdam,
1652; revised 1661); Burmann, 4 vols. (Amsterdam, 1727); Merkel and Ehwald (Leipzig, 1888 foll.); Reise, last ed. 3 vols.
(Leipzig, 1889 foll.); and by Zingerle and others (Prague, 1883 foll.). Separate editions of the different works, with
notes, are as follows: of the Amores by L. Müller (Leipzig, 1867); of the Heroïdes by Palmer (London, 1874) and Shuckburgh
(London, 1879); of the Ars Amatoria by Herzberg (with translation, Stuttgart, 1854) and Williams (London, 1884); of the
Metamorphoses by Zingerle (Prague, 1885); of the Fasti by Merkel (Berlin, 1841), Peter (Leipzig, 1879), Keightley (London,
1848), and Paley, 3d ed. (London, 1888); of the Tristia by Owen (London, 1889); of the Epistolae ex Ponto by Korn, critical
notes (Leipzig, 1868), and bk. i. by Keene (London, 1887); of the Halieutica by Haupt (Leipzig, 1838); of the Ibis by R.
Ellis (Oxford, 1881); of the Nux by Lindemann (Zittau, 1844). The spurious Ovidiana were collected and printed in Goldast's
Catalecta Ovidii (Frankfort, 1610), some of them being of mediæval origin. On Ovid's life see Nageotte, Ovide (Dijon, 1872),
and especially Leutsch in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopädie (1836). No authentic portraits of the poet are known to exist. On
Ovid's verse see L. Müller, De Re Metrica, xci. 408; and Schmidt, De Ovidii Hexametris (Cleves, 1856).
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Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus (229 BC-160 BC) was a two-time consul of the Roman Republic and a noted general.
Family -
His father was Lucius Aemilius Paullus, the consul defeated and killed in the battle of Cannae. Lucius Aemilius was, in his time, the
head of his branch of the Aemilii Paulli, an old and aristocratic patrician family. Their influence was immense, particularly due to
their fortune and alliance with the Cornelii Scipiones. He was father to Scipio Aemilianus Africanus
[edit]Early career
After the fulfilment of his military service, and being elected military tribune, Paullus was elected curule aedile in 193 BC. The next
step of his cursus honorum was the election as praetor in 191 BC. At the term of this office he went to the Hispania provinces, where he
campaigned against the Lusitanians between 191 and 189 BC. However, he failed to be elected consul for several years. Paullus was elected
consul for the first time in 182 BC, with Gnaeus Baebius Tamphilus as junior partner. His next military command, with proconsular
imperium, was in the next year, against the Ingauni of Liguria.
Paullus and Macedonia =
The Third Macedonian War broke out in 171 BC, when king Perseus of Macedon defeated a Roman army led by the consul Publius Licinius
Crassus in the battle of Callicinus. After two years of indecisive results for both sides, Paullus was elected consul again in 168 BC
(with Gaius Licinius Crassus as colleague). As consul, he was appointed by the senate to deal with the Macedonian war. Shortly
afterwards, on June 22, he won the decisive battle of Pydna. Perseus of Macedonia was made prisoner and the Third Macedonian War ended.
To set an example, Paullus ordered the killing of 500 Macedonians known for opposition against Rome. He also exiled many more to Italy
and confiscated their belongings in the name of Rome but according to Plutarch, keeping too much to himself. On the return to Rome in 167
BC, his legions were displeased with their share of the plunder. To keep them happy, Paullus decided for a stop in Epirus, a kingdom
suspected of sympathizing with the Macedonian cause. The region had been already pacified, but Paullus ordered the sacking of 70 of its
towns. 150,000 people were enslaved and the region was left to bankruptcy.
Paullus' return to Rome was glorious. With the immense plunder collected in Macedonia and Epirus, he celebrated a spectacular triumph,
featuring no less than the captured king of Macedonia himself. As a gesture of acknowledgment, the senate awarded him the surname
(cognomen) Macedonicus. This was the peak of his career. In 164 BC he was elected censor. He fell ill, appeared to be recovering, but
relapsed within three days and died during his term in 160 BC.
Family life and descendants -
His father Lucius Aemilius Paullus died in battle in 216 BC in the Battle of Cannae, when Aemilius Paullus was still a boy. The Aemilii
Paulli were connected by marriage and political interests to the Scipios, but their role in his subsequent upbringing is not clear.
He had been married first to Papiria Masonis (or Papiria Masonia), daughter of the consul Gaius Papirius Maso (consul in 231 BC), whom he
divorced, according to Plutarch, for no particular reason. From this marriage, four children were born: two sons and two daughters, the
elder Aemilia Paulla Prima apparently married[1] to the son of Marcus Porcius Cato, and the younger Aemilia Paulla Secunda to Aelius
Tubero, a rich man of a plebeian family. He divorced his wife while his younger son was still a baby, according to Roman historians; thus
the divorce probably took place around 183 BC-182 BC. Nevertheless, he was elected consul in 182 BC.
Paullus Macedonicus then married a second time (this wife's name is unknown) and had two more sons, the elder born around 181 BC and the
younger born around 176 BC. He also apparently had another daughter (Aemilia Tertia), who was a small girl when her father was chosen
consul for the second time.[2]
Since four boys were too many for a father to support across the cursus honorum, Paullus decided to give the oldest two boys up for
adoption, probably between 175 BC and 170 BC. The elder was taken by a Quintus Fabius Maximus and became Quintus Fabius Maximus
Aemilianus, thus joining his fortunes to the house of a national hero. The younger, possibly named Lucius, was adopted by his own
cousin[3] Publius Cornelius Scipio, elder son and heir of Scipio Africanus, and became Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, thus falling
heir to the legacy of Rome's most influential political dynasty.
With the eldest sons safely adopted by two of the most powerful patrician houses, Paullus Macedonicus counted on the two younger ones to
continue his own name. This was not due to happen. Both of them died young, one shortly after the other, at the same time that Paullus
celebrated his triumph. The elder of the two remaining sons was 14 and the younger 9, according to Polybius. Their names are unknown to
us. The successes of his political and military career were thus not accompanied by a happy family life.
At his death, his sons Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus and Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus received his property by his
will, even though they were legally no longer Aemilii Paulli; Scipio gave his share to his older brother who was less wealthy. Paullus's
second wife (whose name is unknown to us) received her dowry back from the sale of some of her late husband's property. (Livy and
Polybius both claim that Paullus died relatively poor, and that he had kept little for himself from the successful Macedonian campaign).
His married daughters had presumably received dowries from their father; Aemilia Paulla Prima is known to have married in or around 164
BC.
With the death of Macedonicus, the Aemilii Paulli became extinct, even though he had two living sons. His elder surviving son Fabius
Aemilianus eventually became consul and fathered at least one son, who in turn became consul as Fabius Allobrigicus in 121 BC. This man,
in turn, may have been the ancestor of later Fabii who tied their fortunes to Julius Caesar and Augustus.[4] The younger surviving son
was more famous as Scipio Aemilianus but died leaving no known issue. Of the daughters, the elder was ancestor of at least two consuls of
no particular distinction. The younger was mother of a consul Quintus Aelius Tubero.
His first and former wife Papiria Masonia survived her ex-husband and lived to enjoy her former sister-in-law's property presented to her
by her younger son (per Polybius). At her death, her property was divided between her sons, but Scipio gave it to his sisters.
Paullus's immediate surviving descendants -
Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, apparently father of
Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus, consul 121 BC
Quintus Fabius Maximus, who was allegedly deprived of his inheritance by a Roman magistrate
Fabia, Chief Vestal[5] (fl. 50 BC), who married (div) Publius Cornelius Dolabella (ca.70 BC or earlier[6]-43 BC), consul in 44 BC, as his
first wife, and had a son (see below). Dolabella then was adopted (illegally, without the consent of the Pontifex Maximus, i.e. Caesar)
into the plebeian ranks, and then married 50 BC Tullia, only daughter of Cicero).[7][8][9]. According to some sources, Fabia was the
elder half-sister of Tullia's mother Terentia.[10]
Publius Cornelius Dolabella, consul in 10 AD with C. Junius Silanus.[11]
Publius Cornelius Dolabella was proconsul of Africa in the reign of Tiberius, AD 23-AD 24. Smith reports: "In the course of the
administration of his province he gained a complete victory over the Numidian Tacfarinas ; but although he had formerly been a very great
flatterer of Tiberius, yet he did not obtain the ornaments of a triumph, in order that his predecessor in the province of Africa, Junius
Blaesius, an uncle of Sejanus, might not be thrown into the shade. In A.D. 27 he joined Domitius Afer in the accusation against his own
relative, Quintilius Varus, (Tac. Ann. iii. 47, 68, iv. 23, &c. 66.)"[12]
another son, mentioned occasionally in sources, possibly the same as Allobrogicus, who was quaestor to his better-known blood uncle
(below) in Spain.
Scipio Aemilianus (died 129 BC)
Aemilia Paulla Prima, mother of
Gaius Porcius Cato
Aemilia Paulla Secunda, mother of
Quintus Aelius Tubero, consul 117 BC
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Lucius, afterwards surnamed Macedonĭcus, son of the last, was born about 230 or 229, since at the time of his second consulship (B.C.
168) he was upwards of sixty years of age. He was one of the best specimens of the high Roman nobles. He would not condescend to
flatter the people for the offices of the State, maintained with strictness severe discipline in the army, was deeply skilled in the
law of the augurs, to whose college he belonged, and maintained throughout life a pure and unspotted character. He was elected curule
aedile in B.C. 192; was praetor in 191, and obtained Further Spain as his province, where he carried on war with the Lusitani; and
was consul in 181, when he conquered the Ingauni, a Ligurian people. For the next thirteen years he lived quietly at Rome, devoting
most of his time to the education of his children. He was consul a second time in 168, and brought the war against Perseus to a
conclusion by the defeat of the Macedonian monarch, near Pydna, on the 22d of June. Perseus shortly afterwards surrendered himself to
Paulus. (See Perseus.) Paulus remained in Macedonia during the greater part of the following year as proconsul, and arranged the
affairs of Macedonia in conjunction with ten Roman commissioners, whom the Senate had despatched for the purpose. Before leaving
Greece he marched into Epirus, where, in accordance with a cruel command of the Senate, he gave to his soldiers seventy towns to be
pillaged because they had been in alliance with Perseus. The triumph of Paulus, which was celebrated at the end of November, 167, was
the most splendid that Rome had yet seen. It lasted three days. Before the triumphal car of Aemilius walked the captive monarch of
Macedonia and his children, and behind it were his two illustrious sons, Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Scipio Africanus the younger, both
of whom had been adopted into other families. But the glory of the conqueror was clouded by family misfortune. At this very time he
lost his two younger sons; one, twelve years of age, died only five days before his triumph, and the other, fourteen years of age,
only three days after his triumph. The loss was all the severer, since he had no son left to carry his name down to posterity. In 164
Paulus was censor with Q. Marcius Philippus, and died in 160, after a long and tedious illness. The fortune he left behind him was so
small as scarcely to be sufficient to pay his wife's dowry. The Adelphi of Terence was brought out at the funeral games exhibited in
his honour. Aemilius Paulus was married twice. By his first wife, Papiria, the daughter of C. Papirius Maso, consul 231, he had four
children-two sons, one of whom was adopted by Fabius Maximus and the other by P. Scipio, and two daughters, one of whom was married
to Q. Aelius Tubero, and the other to M. Cato, son of Cato the censor. He afterwards divorced Papiria; and by his second wife, whose
name is not mentioned, he had two sons, whose death has been recorded above, and a daughter, who was a child at the time that her
father was elected to his second consulship.
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Pelagius (ca. AD 354 – ca. AD 420/440) was an ascetic who denied the doctrine of original sin as developed by Augustine
of Hippo, and was declared a heretic by the Council of Carthage. His interpretation of a doctrine of free will became
known as Pelagianism. He was well educated, fluent in both Greek and Latin, and learned in theology. He spent time as
an ascetic, focusing on practical asceticism, which his teachings clearly reflect. He was certainly well known in Rome,
both for the harsh asceticism of his public life as well as the power and persuasiveness of his speech. His reputation
in Rome earned him praise early in his career even from such pillars of the Church as Augustine, who referred to him as
a "saintly man." However, he was later accused of lying about his own teachings in order to avoid public condemnation.
Most of his later life was spent defending his doctrine against theologians teaching the Catholic Faith. They held that
Catholicism came from the apostles and that Pelagius was spreading novelties in the Faith unknown to the apostolic
tradition.
Due to his status as a heretic, little of his work has come down to the present day except in the quotes of his
opponents. However, more recently some have defended Pelagius as a misunderstood orthodox...
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Probably a native of Britain, who was celebrated as the propagator of those heretical opinions which have derived their name from
him, and which were opposed with great energy by his contemporaries Augustine and Jerome. He first appears in history about the
beginning of the fifth century A.D., when we find him residing at Rome. In the year 409 or 410, when Alaric was threatening Rome,
Pelagius, accompanied by his disciple and ardent admirer Caelestius, passed over to Sicily, from thence proceeded to Africa, and
leaving Caelestius at Carthage, sailed for Palestine. The fame of his sanctity had preceded him, for upon his arrival he was
received with great warmth by St. Jerome and many other distinguished fathers of the Church. Soon afterwards the opinions of
Pelagius were denounced as heretical; and in A.D. 417 Pelagius and Caelestus were anathematized by Pope Innocentius. Their
doctrines included a denial of the tenet of original sin; a belief in the possibility of a sinless life on earth; and a rejection
of the teaching of the Church with regard to grace. Pelagius also believed in the freedom of the human will. The date and
circumstances of his death are not known. A very few only of the numerous treatises of Pelagius have descended to us. They are
printed with the works of St. Jerome. There are special monographs on Pelagius by Wiggers (Eng. tr. Andover, 1840); Jacobi
(1842); Wörter (1866); and Klasen (1882).
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Publius Helvius Pertinax (1 August 126 – 28 March 193), commonly known as Pertinax, was Roman Emperor for three months from 192 to
193. He is known as the first emperor of the tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors. Upon his death he was succeeded by Didius
Julianus, whose reign was similarly short-lived...
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A Roman emperor who ruled from January 1 to March 28, A.D.
193, having been reluctantly persuaded to accept the Empire on
the death of Commodus. But having attempted to check the
license of the Praetorian Guards, he was slain by the latter,
who then put up the Empire for sale. See Capitolin. Pertinax;
and Krakauer, Commodus und Pertinax (Breslau, 1883).
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Gaius Petronius Arbiter (ca. 27–66 AD) was a Roman courtier during the reign of Nero. He is speculated to be the author of the Satyricon, a
satirical novel believed to have been written during the Neronian age.
Life -
Tacitus, Plutarch and Pliny the Elder describe Petronius as the elegantiae arbiter, "judge of elegance" in the court of the emperor Nero.
He served as consul in the year AD 62. Later, he became a member of the senatorial class who devoted themselves to a life of pleasure,
whose relationship to Nero was apparently akin to that of a fashion advisor. Tacitus gives this account of Petronius in his historical work
the Annals:
He spent his days in sleep, his nights in attending to his official duties or in amusement, that by his dissolute life he had become as
famous as other men by a life of energy, and that he was regarded as no ordinary profligate, but as an accomplished voluptuary. His
reckless freedom of speech, being regarded as frankness, procured him popularity. Yet during his provincial government, and later when he
held the office of consul, he had shown vigor and capacity for affairs. Afterwards returning to his life of vicious indulgence, he became
one of the chosen circle of Nero’s intimates, and was looked upon as an absolute authority on questions of taste (elegantiae arbiter) in
connection with the science of luxurious living.
None of the ancient sources give any further detail about his life, or mention that he was a writer. However a medieval manuscript, written
around 1450, of the Satyricon credited a "Titus Petronius" as the author of the original work. Traditionally this reference is linked with
Petronius Arbiter, since the novel appears to have been written or at least set during his lifetime. The link, however, remains speculative
and disputed.
As a writer -
Petronius’ development of his characters in the Satyricon, namely Trimalchio, transcends the traditional style of writing of ancient
literature. In the literature written during Petronius’ life the emphasis was always on the typical considerations of plot, which had been
laid down by classical rules. The character, which was hardly known in ancient literature, was secondary. Petronius goes beyond these
literary limitations in his exact portrayals of detailed speech, behavior, surroundings, and appearance of the characters.
Another literary device Petronius employs in his novel is a collection of specific allusions. The allusions to certain people and events
are evidence that the Satyricon was written during Nero’s time. These also suggest that it was aimed at a contemporary audience in which a
part consisted of Nero’s courtiers and even Nero himself.
One such allusion, found in Book IX, refers to the story of the good wife Lucretia which was well-known at the time:
"If you're a Lucretia," he said, "You've found a Tarquin".
The message Petronius tries to convey in his work is far from moral and does not intend to produce reform, but is written above all to
entertain and should be considered artistically. As the title implies the Satyricon is a satire, specifically a Menippean satire, in which
Petronius satirizes nearly anything, using his impeccable taste as the only standard. It is speculated that Petronius’ depiction of
Trimalchio mirrors that of Nero. Although we never know the author's own opinion, we see the opinions of the characters in the story and
how Encolpius criticizes Trimalchio.
Death -
Petronius’ high position soon made him the object of envy for those around him. Having attracted the jealousy of Tigellinus, the commander
of the emperor’s guard, he was accused of treason. He was arrested at Cumae in 66 AD but did not wait for a sentence. Instead he chose to
take his own life. Tacitus again records his elegant suicide in the sixteenth book of the Annals:
Yet he did not fling away life with precipitate haste, but having made an incision in his veins and then, according to his humour, bound
them up, he again opened them, while he conversed with his friends, not in a serious strain or on topics that might win for him the glory
of courage. And he listened to them as they repeated, not thoughts on the immortality of the soul or on the theories of philosophers, but
light poetry and playful verses. To some of his slaves he gave liberal presents, a flogging to others. He dined, indulged himself in sleep,
that death, though forced on him, might have a natural appearance. Even in his will he did not, as did many in their last moments, flatter
Nero or Tigellinus or any other of the men in power. On the contrary, he described fully the prince's shameful excesses, with the names of
his male and female companions and their novelties in debauchery, and sent the account under seal to Nero. Then he broke his signet-ring,
that it might not be subsequently available for imperiling others.
In fiction -
Petronius, usually assumed to be the author of the Satyricon, appears or is referenced in several works of fiction:
Henryk Sienkiewicz's novel Quo Vadis and its adaptations (but see below for the film), where C. Petronius is the preferred courtier of
Nero, using his wit to adulate and mock him at the same time. He is horrified at Nero's burning of Rome, and eventually commits suicide to
escape both Nero's antics and his anticipated execution.
Mika Waltari's novel The Roman.
in Robert A. Heinlein's novel The Door into Summer, in which the protagonist's cat is named "Petronius the Arbiter".
in Jesse Browner's novel The Uncertain Hour, which recounts Petronius' final banquet and suicide (as told by Tacitus, Annals 16 ).
in Anthony Burgess's novel The Kingdom of the Wicked, Gaius Petronius appears as a major character, an advisor to Nero.
In the 1951 film of Quo Vadis, Petronius is portrayed by Leo Genn, for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting
Actor.
In the 2001 film of Quo Vadis, Petronius is portrayed by Boguslaw Linda. It was the first Polish adaptation of Sienkiewicz's novel.
In the 1835 short story "A Tale of Roman Life" by Alexander Pushkin, Petronius' final days in Cumae are chronicled.
George Orwell in "Bookshop Memories" (1936): "Modern books for children are rather horrible things, especially when you see them in the
mass. Personally I would sooner give a child a copy of Petrenius Arbiter than PETER PAN, but even Barrie seems manly and wholesome compared
with some of his later imitators."
In recent times, a popular quote (reportedly by Charlton Ogburn, 1957[1]) on reorganization is often (but spuriously[2][3]) attributed to a
Gaius Petronius. In one version, it reads:
"We trained hard ... but it seemed that every time we were beginning to form up into teams we would be reorganized. I was to learn later in
life that we tend to meet any new situation by reorganizing; and a wonderful method it can be for creating the illusion of progress while
producing confusion, inefficiency, and demoralization."
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Gaius, or (possibly) Titus. A Roman novelist probably to be identified with an accomplished voluptuary at the court of
Nero. He was one of the chosen companions of Nero, and was regarded as director-in-chief of the imperial pleasures, the
judge whose decision upon the merits of any proposed scheme of enjoyment was held as final (elegantiae arbiter). The
influence thus acquired excited the jealous suspicions of Tigellinus. Petronius was accused of treason; and believing
that destruction was inevitable, he resolved to die as he had lived, and to excite admiration by the frivolous
eccentricity of his end. Having caused his veins to be opened, he from time to time checked the flow of blood by the
application of bandages. During the intervals he conversed with his friends, and even showed himself in the public
streets of Cumae, where these events took place; so that at last, when he collapsed from exhaustion, his death (A.D.
66), although compulsory, appeared to be the result of natural and gradnal decay. He is said to have despatched in his
last moments a sealed document to the emperor, taunting him with his brutal excesses (Tac. Ann. xvi. 18, 19; Pliny ,
Pliny H. N. xxxvii. 20).
The remarkable work which is traditionally ascribed to this person and which has come down to modern times in an
incomplete form, was originally written in at least 16 books, with the title Satira or Satiricon. It is in prose, with
many passages in verse scattered through it as quotations, or as compositions of characters introduced in the novel. The
book is a sort of comic romance, in which the adventures of a certain Encolpius and his companions in the south of
Italy, chiefly in Puteoli or its environs (on the place see H. W. Hayley in Harvard Studies in Class. Philology for
1892), are made a vehicle for exposing the false taste and vices of the age. Unfortunately the vices of the personages
introduced are depicted with such fidelity that we are perpetually disgusted by the obscenity of the descriptions. The
longest section is generally known as the Dinner of Trimalchio (Cena Trimalchionis), presenting us with a caricatured
account of a fantastic banquet, such as the gourmands of the Empire were wont to exhibit on their tables. Next in
interest is the well-known tale of the Ephesian Matron, which is really older than the time of Petronius, and is found
in various forms in the literature of many peoples, even in the Chinese; and which in English is introduced into one of
the sermons of Jeremy Taylor. It is probably the best if not the only remaining specimen of a Milesian Tale. (See Novels
and Romances.) The novel is also remarkable for its pictures of low life, and for the specimens which it gives of the
Latin of the uneducated classes (sermo plebeius), of which it is the most important literary example. The dialogue is
amusing, abounding in idiomatic expressions, popular maxims, ungrammatical language, and slang. See Sermo Plebeius.
A remarkable attempt at fraud by one François Nodot in the seventeenth century is associated with the history of the
text of Petronius. Nodot professed to have got possession of a complete copy of Petronius with no lacunae, found, he
said, at the sack of Belgrade. His text was printed at Rotterdam in 1693, but was at once seen to be a forgery; yet as
it gives a continuous narrative instead of the fragmentary one of the genuine text its additions are sometimes printed
(in different type) in editions of Petronius.
There are twenty-one existing manuscripts of Petronius, the most important being the Codex Traguriensis in the
Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. It was found at Trau in Dalmatia in 1663, and contains the Cena Trimalchionis. See
Beck, The Age of Petronius (Cambridge, Mass., 1856), and the account of the MSS. in Bücheler's large edition.
The best editions are those of Burmann (2d ed. Amsterdam, 1743); Reiske (Leipzig, 1748); Bücheler, ed. maior (Berlin,
1862); and Bücheler, ed. minor, text only (Berlin, 1886; last ed. 1895); De Guerle, with translation into French (Paris,
1862); of the Cena, with German translation and notes (Leipzig, 1892); and Waters, with English notes (announced, 1895).
On the language, see Ludwig, De Petronii Sermone Plebeio (Leipzig, 1870); von Guericke, De Lingua Vulgari apud Petronium
(Königsberg, 1875); Cesareo, De Petronii Sermone (Rome, 1887); Schuchardt, Der Vokalismus des Vulgärlateins (Leipzig,
1866-68); and Cooper, Word Formation in the Roman Sermo Plebeius (N. Y. and Boston, 1895). For criticism, etc., see
Pétrequin, Récherches sur Pétrone (Paris, 1869); Gaston Boissier in the Revue des Deux Mondes for November, 1874;
Thomas, La Société Romaine d'après Pétrone (Paris, 1892); and H. W. Hayley, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, iii.
pp. 1-40 (1892).
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Marcus Julius Philippus (c. 204–249), commonly known as Philip the Arab or Philippus I Arabs, was Roman Emperor
from 244 to 249. He came from Syria, and rose to become a major figure in the empire. He achieved power after the
death of Gordian III, quickly negotiating peace with the Persian empire. During his reign Rome celebrated its
millennium.
Among early Christian writers Philip had the reputation of being sympathetic to the Christian faith. It was even
claimed that he converted to Christianity, becoming the first Christian emperor, but this is disputed.
Philip was overthrown and killed following a rebellion led by his successor Decius...
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M. Iulius Philippus I., Roman emperor A.D. 244-249, was an Arabian by birth, and entered the Roman army, in which he rose to
high rank. He accompanied Gordianus III. in his expedition against the Persians; and upon the death of the excellent
Misitheus (see Misitheus), he was promoted to the vacant office of praetorian praefect. He availed himself of the influence
of his high office to excite discontent among the soldiers, who at length assassinated Gordian, and proclaimed Philippus
emperor, 244. Philippus proclaimed his son Caesar, concluded a disgraceful peace with Sapor, founded the city of
Philippopolis, and then returned to Rome. In 245 he was engaged in prosecuting a successful war against the Carpi on the
Danube. In 248, rebellions, headed by Iotapinus and Marinus, broke out simultaneously in the East and in Moesia. Both
pretenders speedily perished, but Decius, having been dispatched to recall the legions on the Danube to their duty, was
himself forcibly invested with the purple by the troops, and compelled by them to march upon Italy. Philippus, having gone
forth to encounter his rival, was slain near Verona either in battle or by his own soldiers. The great domestic event of the
reign of Philippus was the exhibition of the Secular Games, which were celebrated with even more than the ordinary degree of
splendour, since Rome had now, according to the received tradition, attained the thousandth year of her existence (A.D.
248).
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Titus Maccius Plautus (c. 254–184 BC), commonly known as
Plautus, was a Roman playwright of the Old Latin period. His
comedies are among the earliest surviving intact works in
Latin literature. He wrote Palliata comoedia, the genre
devised by the innovator of Latin literature, Livius
Andronicus. The word Plautine (pronounced /ˈplɔːtaɪn/) is used
to refer to Plautus's works or works similar to or influenced
by his...
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Plautus, T. Maccius
The most celebrated comic poet of Rome. He was a native of Sarsina, a small village in Umbria. He used to be called M. Accius Plautus,
but his real name, as Ritschl has shown, was T. Maccius Plautus. The date of his birth is uncertain, but it may be placed about B.C.
254. He probably came to Rome at an early age, since he displays so perfect a mastery of the Latin language, and an acquaintance with
Greek literature which he could hardly have acquired in a provincial town. Whether he ever obtained the Roman franchise is doubtful.
When he arrived at Rome he was in needy circumstances, and was first employed in the service of the actors. With the money he had
saved in this inferior station he set himself up in business, but failed; he then returned to Rome, and his necessities obliged him to
enter the service of a baker, who employed him in turning a hand-mill. While in this degrading occupation he wrote three plays, the
sale of which to the managers of the public games enabled him to quit his drudgery and begin his literary career. He was then probably
about thirty years of age (224 B.C.), and therefore commenced writing comedies a few years before the breaking out of the Second Punic
War. He continued his literary occupation for about forty years, and died in 184, when he was seventy years of age. His contemporaries
at first were Livius Andronicus and Naevius, afterward Ennius and Caecilius: Terence did not rise into notice till almost twenty years
after his death. During the long time that he held possession of the stage, he was always a great favourite of the people; and he
expressed a bold consciousness of his own powers in the epitaph which he wrote for his tomb, and which has come down to us:
"Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, comoedia luget
Scena deserta, dein risus, ludus iocusque
Et numeri innumeri simul omnes collacrumarunt."
Plautus wrote a great number of comedies, and in the last century of the Republic there were 130 plays which bore his name. Most of
these, however, were not considered genuine by the best Roman critics. There were several works written upon the subject; and of these
the most celebrated was the treatise of Varro, entitled Quaestiones Plautinae. Varro limited the undoubted comedies of the poet to
twenty-one, which were hence called the Fabulae Varronianae. These Varronian comedies are the same as those which have come down to
our own time, with the loss of one. At present we possess only twenty comedies of Plautus; but there were originally twenty-one in the
manuscripts, and the Vidularia, which was the twentyfirst, and which came last in the collection, was torn off from the manuscript in
the Middle Ages. The titles of the twenty-one Varronian plays are:
1. Amphitruo 2. Asinaria 3. Aulularia 4. Captivi 5. Curculio 6. Casina 7. Cistellaria 8. Epidicus 9. Bacchides 10. Mostellaria 11.
Menaechmi 12. Miles 13. Mercator 14. Pseudolus 15. Poenulus 16. Persa 17. Rudens 18. Stichus 19. Trinummus 20. Truculentus 21.
Vidularia.
This is the order in which they occur in the manuscripts, though probably not the one in which they were originally arranged by Varro.
The present order is evidently alphabetical; the initial letter of the title of each play is alone regarded, and no attention is paid
to those which follow: hence we find Captivi, Curculio, Casina, Cistellaria: Mostellaria, Menaechmi, Miles, Mercator: Pseudolus,
Poenulus, Persa. The play of the Bacchides forms the only exception to the alphabetical order. It was probably placed after the
Epidicus by some copyist, because he had observed that Plautus, in the Bacchides (ii. 2, 36), referred to the Epidicus as an earlier
work. The names of the comedies are either taken from some leading character in the play, or from some circumstance which occurs in
it: those titles ending in -aria are adjectives, giving a general description of the play: thus Asinaria is the "Ass-Comedy."
The comedies of Plautus enjoyed unrivalled popularity among the Romans, and continued to be represented down to the time of
Diocletian. The continued popularity of Plautus through so many centuries was owing, in a great measure, to his being a national poet.
Though he founds his plays upon Greek models, the characters in them act, speak, and joke like genuine Romans, and he thereby secured
the sympathy of his audience more completely than Terence could ever have done. Whether Plautus borrowed the plan of all his plays
from Greek models, it is impossible to say. The Cistellaria, Bacchides, Poenulus, and Stichus were taken from Menander, the Casina and
Rudens from Diphilus, and the Mercator and the Trinummus from Philemon, and many others were undoubtedly founded upon Greek originals.
But in all cases Plautus allowed himself much greater liberty than Terence; and in some instances he appears to have simply taken the
leading idea of the play from the Greek, and to have filled it up in his own fashion. It has been inferred from a well-known line of
Horace (Epist. ii. 1.58), Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi, that Plautus took great pains to imitate Epicharmus. But
there is no correspondence between any of the existing plays of Plautus and the known titles of the comedies of Epicharmus; and the
verb properare probably has reference only to the liveliness and energy of Plautus's style, in which he bore a resemblance to the
Sicilian poet. It was, however, not only with the common people that Plautus was a favourite; educated Romans read and admired his
works down to the latest times. Cicero (De Off. i. 29) places his wit on a par with that of the old Attic comedy, and St. Jerome used
to console himself with the perusal of the poet after spending many nights in tears on account of his past sins. The favourable
opinion which the ancients entertained of the merits of Plautus has been confirmed by the judgment of the best modern critics, and by
the fact that several of his plays have been imitated by many of the best modern poets. Thus the Amphitruo has been imitated by
Molière and Dryden, the Aulularia by Molière in his Avare, the Mostellaria by Regnard, Addison, and others, the Menaechmi by
Shakespeare in his Comedy of Errors, the Trinummus by Lessing in his Schatz, and so with others. Horace (A. P. 270), indeed, expresses
a less favourable opinion of Plautus; but it must be recollected that the taste of Horace had been formed by a different school of
literature, and that he undervalued the ancient poets of his country. Moreover, it is probable that the censure of Horace does not
refer to the general character of Plautus's poetry, but merely to his inharmonious verses and to some of his jests. Plautus performed
an important work in the enrichment of the Latin language. His genius for coining words was very remarkable, and in after-years the
majority of his new terms were taken into the literary language by Cicero, who gave them the stamp of his authority. In this respect
he stands out as a unique and important figure, and one whose influence has been too little recognized. See Peck's History of the
Latin Language, pt. iii.; Besta, De Verborum Compositione Plaut. (Breslau, 1876); Ulrich, Die Composita bei Plautus (Halle, 1884);
Georke, Vocabula Graeca in Linguam Lat. Recepta (Königsberg, 1868); and Rassow in Jahn's Jahrbücher, Suppl. xv. 589.
The MSS. of Plautus that are of especial importance are the Codex Ambrosianus (A) at Milan (a palimpsest) of the fourth or fifth
century; the Codex Palatinus (B), now at Rome; the Codex Decurtatus (C) at Heidelberg; the Codex Vaticanus or Vetus (D); and the Codex
Britannicus (J) in the British Museum. The last four are of about the eleventh or twelfth century, and represent a single archetype.
No MS. contains all the plays.
The text of Plautus has come down to us in a very corrupt state. It contains many lacunae and interpolations. Thus the Aulularia has
lost its conclusion, the Bacchides its commencement, etc. Of the present complete editions the best are by Lambinus (Paris, 1576);
Pareus (Frankfort, 1610); Bothe, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1834); Weise, 2 vols. (Quedlinburg, 1837-38; last ed. 1886); Ussing (Copenhagen,
1886); Leo (2 vols. Berlin, 1885-1896); Ritschl (Bonn, 1848-54; revised by Loewe, Goetz, and Schoell, 1894). There is no complete
edition with English notes, but the following of separate plays are good: Wagner's Aulularia (1866); Hallidie's Captivi (1890);
Ramsay's Mostellaria, incomplete (1869); Morris's Mostellaria (1880); Tyrrell's Miles Gloriosus (1885); Gray's Epidicus (1893);
Sloman's Trinummus (1883); Fowler's Menaechmi (1889); Palmer's Amphitruo (1890); Morris's Pseudolus (1894); and Fennell's Stichus
(1893). Foreign editions are those of the Asinaria by Richter (Nuremberg, 1833); of the Captivi, with critical apparatus, by Brix (4th
ed. Leipzig, 1884); of the Curculio by Geppert (Berlin, 1845); of the Casina by Geppert (Berlin, 1866); of the Cistellaria by Benoist
(Lyons, 1863); of the Epidicus by Geppert (Berlin, 1865); of the Bacchides by Ritschl (Halle, 1835); of the Menaechmi by Brix (3d ed.
Leipzig, 1880) and Vahlen (Berlin, 1882); of the Poenulus by Geppert (Berlin, 1864); of the Rudens by Benoist (Paris, 1864); of the
Trinummus by Brix (3d ed. Leipzig, 1879); and of the Truculentus by Spengel and Studemund (Göttingen, 1868). On the Vidularia, which
was lost during the Middle Ages, see Studemund, De Vidularia Plautina (Greifswald, 1870); and Leo, De Vidularia (Berlin, 1892).
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Gaius Plinius Secundus (23 AD – August 25, 79), better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural
philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian.
Spending most of his spare time studying, writing or investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field, he wrote an
encyclopedic work, Naturalis Historia, which became a model for all such works written subsequently. Pliny the Younger, his
nephew, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:
For my part I deem those blessed to whom, by favour of the gods, it has been granted either to do what is worth writing of, or
to write what is worth reading; above measure blessed those on whom both gifts have been conferred. In the latter number will
be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions.[1]
Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncle's now missing work on the History of the German Wars. Pliny
the Elder died on August 25, 79 AD, while attempting the rescue by ship of a friend and his family from the eruption of Mount
Vesuvius that had just destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The prevailing wind would not allow his ship to leave
the shore. His companions attributed his collapse and death to toxic fumes, but they were unaffected by the fumes, suggesting
natural causes...
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Gaius Plinius Secundus, called the Elder. A Roman
representative of encyclopaedic learning, born A.D. 23, at
Novum Comum (Como), in Upper Italy. Although throughout his
life he was almost uninterruptedly occupied in the service
of the State, yet at the same time he carried on the most
widely extended scientific studies to which he laboriously
devoted all his leisure hours, and thus gained for himself
the reputation of the most learned man of his age. Under
Claudius he served as commander of a troop of cavalry
(praefectus alae) in Germany; under Vespasian, with whom he
was in the highest favour, he held several times the office
of imperial governor in the provinces, and superintended the
imperial finances in Italy. Finally, under Titus, he was in
command of the fleet stationed at Misenum, when in A.D. 79,
at the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius, his zeal for
research led him to his death. For a detailed account of
this event, as well as of his literary labours, we have to
thank his nephew, the Younger Pliny (Epist. iii. 5; vi. 16).
Besides writings upon military, grammatical, rhetorical, and
biographical subjects, he composed two greater historical
works-a history of the Germanic wars in twenty books, and a
history of his own time in thirty-one books. His last work
was the Natural History (Historia Naturalis), in thirtyseven
books, which has been preserved to us. This was dedicated to
Titus, and was published in A.D. 77; but he was
indefatigably engaged in amplifying it up to the time of his
death. This encyclopaedia is compiled from 20,000 notices,
which he had extracted from about 2000 writings by 474
authors. Book i. gives a list of contents and the names of
the authors used; ii. is on astronomy and physics; iii.-vi.,
a general sketch of geography and ethnography, mainly a list
of names; vii.-xix., natural history proper (vii.,
anthropology; viii.-xi., zoölogy of land and water animals,
birds, and insects; xii.-xix., botany); xx.-xxxii., the
pharmacology of the vegetable kingdom (xx.-xxvii.) and of
the animal kingdom (xxviii.-xxxii.); xxxiii.xxxvii.,
mineralogy and the use of minerals in medicine and in
painting, sculpture, and the engraving of gems, besides
valuable notices upon the history of art. A kind of
comparative geography forms the conclusion.
Considering the extent and varied character of the
undertaking, the haste with which the work was done, the
defective technical knowledge and small critical ability of
the author, it cannot be surprising that it includes a large
number of mistakes and misunderstandings, and that its
contents are of very unequal value, details that are strange
and wonderful, rather than really important, having often
unduly attracted the writer's attention. Nevertheless, the
work is a mine of inestimable value in the information it
gives us respecting the science and art of the ancient
world; and it is also a splendid monument of human industry.
Even the unevenness of the style is explained by the mosaic-
like character of the work. At one time it is dry and bald
in expression; at another, rhetorically coloured and
impassioned, especially in the carefully elaborated
introductions to the several books. On account of its bulk,
the work was in early times epitomized for more convenient
use. An epitome of the geographical part of Pliny 's
encyclopaedia, belonging to the time of Hadrian, and
enlarged by additions from Pomponius Mela and other authors,
forms the foundation of the works of Solinus and Martianus
Capella. Similarly the Medicina Plinii is an epitome
prepared in the fourth century for the use of travellers.
About two hundred manuscripts of Pliny are in existence,
divided into two general classes-the vetustiores, all more
or less incomplete, but truer to the original, and the
recentiores, which are less fragmentary, but also less
accurate. Of the former the best is the Codex Bambergensis
of the tenth century, containing only bks. xxxii.-xxxvii.
The recentiores are all of the same "family," going back to
a single archetype now lost. See Fels, De Codicibus
Plinianis (Göttingen, 1861).
Editions are those with notes by Barbari (Rome, 1492); by J.
F. Gronovius, 3 vols. (Leyden, 1669); by Hardouin (Paris,
1685); by Franz, 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1778-91); by Sillig,
with critical notes and indices, 8 vols. (Gotha, 1853-55);
by Jan, 6 vols. (Leipzig, 1854-65); 2d ed. by Mayhoff (1870
foll.); and by Detlefsen, 6 vols. (Berlin, 1866-73). There
is a Chrestomathia Pliniana by Urlichs (Berlin, 1857); a
good French translation by Grandsagne with notes by various
scholars, 20 vols. (Paris, 1829-33); and a fair English one
with good index in the Bohn Library (London, 1856). On the
language and style of Pliny , see Wannowski, Pliniana
(Posen, 1847); Grasberger, De Usu Pliniano (Würzburg, 1860);
J. Müller, Der Stil des älten Plinius (Innsbruck, 1883); and
Thüssing (Prague, 1890).
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Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, also known as Pompey /ˈpɒmpi/ or Pompey the Great[1] (Classical Latin abbreviation:
CN·POMPEIVS·CN·F·SEX·N·MAGNVS[2]) (September 29, 106 BC – September 29, 48 BC), was a military and political leader of
the late Roman Republic. He came from a wealthy Italian provincial background, and established himself in the ranks of
Roman nobility by successful leadership in several campaigns. Sulla addressed him by the cognomen Magnus (the Great)
and he was awarded three triumphs.
Pompey joined his rival Marcus Licinius Crassus and his ally and father-in-law Julius Caesar in the military-political
alliance known as the First Triumvirate. After the deaths of Crassus and Julia, Pompey's wife and Caesar's daughter,
Pompey and Caesar contended the leadership of the Roman state in a civil war. Pompey sided with the optimates, the
conservative and aristocratic majority of the Roman Senate. When Caesar defeated him at the battle of Pharsalus he
sought refuge in Egypt, where he was assassinated. His career and defeat are significant in Rome's subsequent
transformation from Republic to Principate and Empire...
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Cn. Pompēius Magnus , the Triumvir, son of No. 9, was born on the 30th of September, B.C. 106, in the consulship of Atilius Serranus
and Servilius Caepio, and was consequently a few months younger than Cicero (who was born on the 3d of January in the same year) and
six years older than Caesar. He fought under his father in 89 against the Italians, when he was only seventeen years of age, and
continued with him till his death two years afterwards. For the next few years the Marian party had possession of Italy; and
accordingly Pompey, who adhered to the aristocratic party, was obliged to keep in the background, and was only saved from an
indictment by the intervention of Carbo. But when it became known, in 84, that Sulla was on the point of returning from Greece to
Italy, Pompey hastened into Picenum, where he raised an army of three legions. Although only twenty-three years of age, Pompey
displayed great military abilities in opposing the Marian generals by whom he was surrounded; and when he succeeded in joining Sulla
in the course of the year (B.C. 83) he was saluted by the latter with the title of Imperator.
During the remainder of the war in Italy Pompey distinguished himself as one of the most successful of Sulla 's generals; and when
the war in Italy was brought to a close, Sulla sent Pompey against the Marian party in Sicily and Africa. Pompey first proceeded to
Sicily, of which he easily made himself master (B.C. 82): here he put Carbo to death. In 81, Pompey crossed over to Africa, where he
defeated Cn. Domitius Ahenorbarbus and the Numidian king Hiarbas, after a hard-fought battle. On his return to Rome in the same year,
he was received with enthusiasm by the people, and was greeted by Sulla with the surname of Magnus , a name which he bore ever
afterwards, and handed down to his children. Pompey, however, not satisfied with this distinction, sued for a triumph, which Sulla at
first refused, but at length, overcome by Pompey's importunity, he allowed him to have his own way. Accordingly, Pompey, who had not
yet held any public office, and was still a simple eques, entered Rome in triumph in September, 81, and before he had completed his
twenty-fifth year.
Pompey continued faithful to the aristocracy after Sulla 's death (B.C. 78), and supported the consul Catulus in resisting the
attempts of his colleague Lepidus to repeal the laws of Sulla ; and when Lepidus had recourse to arms in the following year (B.C.
77), Pompey took an active part in the war against him, and succeeded in driving him out of Italy. The aristocracy, however, now
began to fear the young and successful general; but since Sertorius in Spain had for the last three years successfully opposed
Metellus Pius, one of the ablest of Sulla 's generals,
Coin of Pompey.
and it had become necessary to send the latter some effectual assistance, the Senate, with considerable reluctance, determined to
send Pompey to Spain, with the title of proconsul, and with equal powers to Metellus. Pompey remained in Spain between five and six
years (76-71); but neither he nor Metellus was able to gain any decisive advantage over Sertorius. But when Sertorius was
treacherously murdered by his own officer Perperna in 82, the war was speedily brought to a close. Perperna was easily defeated by
Pompey in the first battle, and the whole of Spain was subdued by the early part of the following year (B.C. 71). Pompey then
returned to Italy at the head of his army. In his march towards Rome he fell in with the remains of the army of Spartacus, which M.
Crassus had previously defeated. Pompey cut to pieces these fugitives, and therefore claimed for himself, in addition to all his
other exploits, the glory of finishing the Servile War.
Pompey was now a candidate for the consulship; and although he was ineligible by law, inasmuch as he was absent from Rome, had not
yet reached the legal age, and had not held any of the lower offices of the State, still his election was certain. His military glory
had charmed the people; and as it was known that the aristocracy looked upon Pompey with jealousy, they ceased to regard him as
belonging to this party, and hoped to obtain, through him, a restoration of the rights and privileges of which they had been deprived
by Sulla. Pompey was accordingly elected consul, along with M. Crassus; and on the 31st of December, B.C. 71, he entered the city a
second time in his triumphal car a simple knight.
In his consulship (B.C. 70), Pompey openly broke with the aristocracy, and became the great popular hero. He proposed and carried a
law, restoring to the tribunes the power of which they had been deprived by Sulla. He also afforded his all-powerful aid to the Lex
Aurelia, proposed by the praetor L. Aurelius Cotta, by which the iudices were to be taken in future from the Senate, knights, and
tribunes of the treasury, instead of from the senators exclusively, as Sulla had ordained. In carrying both these measures Pompey was
strongly supported by Caesar, with whom he was thus brought into close connection.
For the next two years (69 and 68) Pompey remained in Rome. In 67, the tribune A. Gabinius brought forward a bill, proposing to
confer upon Pompey the command of the war against the pirates with extraordinary powers. This bill was opposed by the aristocracy
with the utmost vehemence, but was notwithstanding carried. The pirates were at this time masters of the Mediterranean, and had not
only plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia, but had even made descents upon Italy itself. As soon as Pompey received
the command, he began to make his preparations for the war, and completed them by the end of the winter. His plans were formed with
great skill and judgment, and were crowned with complete success. In forty days he cleared the western sea of pirates, and restored
communication between Spain, Africa, and Italy. He then followed the main body of the pirates to their strongholds on the coast of
Cilicia; and after defeating their fleet, he induced a great part of them, by promises of pardon, to surrender to him. Many of these
he settled at Soli, which was henceforward called Pompeiopolis. The second part of the campaign occupied only forty-nine days, and
the whole war was brought to a conclusion in the course of three months; so that, to adopt the panegyric of Cicero (Pro Leg. Man.
12), "Pompey made his preparations for the war at the end of the winter, entered upon it at the commencement of spring, and finished
it in the middle of the summer." Pompey was employed during the remainder of this year and the beginning of the following in visiting
the cities of Cilicia and Pamphylia, and providing for the government of the newly-conquered districts.
During his absence from Rome, Pompey had been appointed to succeed Lucullus in the command of the war against Mithridates (B.C. 66).
The bill, conferring upon him this command, was proposed by the tribune C. Manilius, and was supported by Cicero, in an oration which
has come down to us (Pro Lege Manilia). Like the Gabinian law, it was opposed by the whole body of the aristocracy, but was carried
triumphantly. The power of Mithridates had been broken by the previous victories of Lucullus, and it was only left to Pompey to bring
the war to a conclusion. On the approach of Pompey, Mithridates retreated towards Armenia, but he was defeated by the Roman general;
and as Tigranes now refused to receive him into his dominions, Mithridates resolved to plunge into the heart of Colchis, and from
thence make his way to his own dominions in the Cimmerian Bosporus. Pompey now turned his arms against Tigranes; but the Armenian
king submitted to him without a contest, and was allowed to conclude a peace with the Republic. In 65 Pompey set out in pursuit of
Mithridates, but he met with much opposition from the Iberians and Albanians; and after advancing as far as the river Phasis (Faz),
he resolved to leave these savage districts. He accordingly retraced his steps, and spent the winter at Pontus, which he reduced to
the form of a Roman province. In 64 he marched into Syria, deposed the king Antiochus Asiaticus, and made that country also a Roman
province. In 63 he advanced farther south, in order to establish the Roman supremacy in Phœnicia, Coele-Syria, and Palestine. The
Jews refused to submit to him, and shut the gates of Jerusalem against him, and it was not till after a siege of three months that
the city was taken. Pompey entered the Holy of Holies, the first time that any human being, except the high priest, had dared to
penetrate into this sacred spot. It was during the war in Palestine that Pompey received intelligence of the death of Mithridates.
(See Mithridates [6].) Pompey spent the next winter in Pontus; and after settling the affairs of Asia, he returned to Italy in 62. He
disbanded his army almost immediately after landing at Brundisium, and thus calmed the apprehensions of many, who feared that, at the
head of his victorious troops, he would seize upon the supreme power. He did not, however, return to Rome till the following year
(B.C. 51), and he entered the city in triumph on the 30th of September. He had just completed his forty-fifth year, and this was the
third time that he had enjoyed the honour of a triumph.
With this triumph the first and most glorious part of Pompey's life may be said to have ended. Hitherto his life had been an almost
uninterrupted succession of military glory. But now he was called upon to play a prominent part in the civil commotions of the
commonwealth, a part for which neither his natural talents nor his previous habits had in the least fitted him. It would seem that,
on his return to Rome, Pompey hardly knew what part to take in the politics of the city. He had been appointed to the command against
the pirates and Mithridates in opposition to the aristocracy, and they still regarded him with jealousy and distrust. At the same
time, he was not disposed to unite himself to the popular party, which had risen into importance during his absence in the East, and
over which Caesar possessed unbounded influence. The object, however, which engaged the immediate attention of Pompey was to obtain
from the Senate a ratification for all his acts in Asia, and an assignment of lands which he had promised to his veterans. The
Senate, however, glad of an opportunity to put an affront upon a man whom they both feared and hated, resolutely refused to sanction
his measures in Asia. This was the unwisest thing the Senate could have done. If they had known their real interests, they would have
sought to win Pompey over to their side, as a counterpoise to the growing and more dangerous influence of Caesar. But their
shortsighted policy threw Pompey into Caesar's arms, and thus sealed the downfall of their party. Caesar promised to obtain for
Pompey the ratification of his acts, and Pompey, on his part, agreed to support Caesar in all his measures. That they might be more
sure of carrying their plans into execution, Caesar prevailed upon Pompey to become reconciled to Crassus, with whom he was at
variance, but who, by his immense wealth, had great influence at Rome. The three agreed to assist one another against their mutual
enemies, and thus was formed the so-called First Triumvirate. This union of the three most powerful men at Rome crushed the
aristocracy for the time. Supported by Pompey and Crassus, Caesar was able in his consulship (B.C. 59) to carry all his measures.
Pompey's acts in Asia were ratified, and Caesar's agrarian law, which divided the rich Campanian land among the poorer citizens,
enabled Pompey to fulfil the promises he had made to his veterans. In order to cement their union more closely, Caesar gave to Pompey
his daughter Iulia in marriage.
Next year (B.C. 58) Caesar went to his province in Gaul, but Pompey remained in Rome.
While Caesar was gaining glory and influence in Gaul, Pompey was gradually losing the confidence of all parties at Rome. The Senate
hated and feared him; the people had deserted him for their favourite Clodius, and he had no other resource left but to strengthen
his connection with Caesar. Thus he came to be regarded as the second man in the State, and was obliged to abandon the proud position
which he had occupied for so many years. According to an arrangement made with Caesar, Pompey and Crassus were consuls for a second
time in 55. Pompey received as his provinces the two Spains, Crassus obtained Syria, while Caesar's government was prolonged for five
years more-namely, from the 1st of January, 53, to the end of the year 49. At the end of his consulship Pompey did not go in person
to his provinces, but sent his legates, L. Afranius and M. Petreius, to govern the Spains, while he himself remained in the
neighbourhood of the city. His object now was to obtain the dictatorship, and to make himself the undisputed master of the Roman
world. Caesar's increasing power and influence had at length made it clear to Pompey that a struggle must take place between them,
sooner or later. The death of his wife Iulia in 54, to whom he was tenderly attached, broke the link which still connected him with
Caesar, and the fall of Crassus in the following year (B.C. 53), in the Parthian expedition, removed the only person who had the
least chance of contesting the supremacy with them. In order to obtain the dictatorship, Pompey secretly encouraged the civil discord
with which the State was torn asunder; and such frightful scenes of anarchy followed the death of Clodius at the beginning of 52 that
the Senate had now no alternative but calling in the assistance of Pompey, who was accordingly made sole consul in 52, and succeeded
in restoring order to the State. Soon afterwards Pompey became reconciled to the aristocracy, and was now regarded as their
acknowledged head.
The history of the Civil War which followed is related in the article Caesar. It is only necessary to mention here that after the
battle of Pharsalia (B.C. 48) Pompey sailed to Egypt, where he hoped to meet with a favourable reception, since he had been the means
of restoring to his kingdom the father of the young Egyptian monarch. The ministers of the latter, however, dreading Caesar's anger
if they received Pompey, and likewise Pompey's resentment if they forbade him to land, resolved to release themselves from their
difficulties by putting him to death. They accordingly sent out a small boat, took Pompey on board, and rowed for the shore. His wife
and friends watched him from the ship, anxious to see in what manner he would be received by the king, who was standing on the edge
of the sea with his troops; but just as the boat reached the shore, and Pompey was in the act of rising from his seat in order to
step on land, he was stabbed in the back by Septimius, who had formerly been one of his centurions, and was now in the service of the
Egyptian monarch. Pompey was killed on the 29th of September, B.C. 48, and had just completed his fifty-eighth year. His head was cut
off, and his body, which was thrown out naked on the shore, was buried by his freedman Philippus, who had accompanied him from the
ship. The head was brought to Caesar when he arrived in Egypt soon afterwards, but he turned away from the sight, shed tears at the
melancholy death of his rival, and put his murderers to death. Pompey's untimely death excites pity; but no one who has well studied
the state of parties at the close of the Roman commonwealth can regret his fall. There is abundant evidence to prove that, had
Pompey's party gained the mastery, a proscription far more terrible than Sulla 's would have taken place, and Italy and the provinces
have been divided as booty among a few profligate and unprincipled nobles. From such horrors the victory of Caesar saved the Roman
world. See Merivale, The Roman Triumvirates (London, 1887); Froude, Caesar (London, 1879); Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, vol. iv. (New
York, 1877); and Baring Gould, The Tragedy of the Caesars, vol. i. (London, 1892).
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Poppaea Sabina (after AD 63 known as Poppaea Augusta Sabina) (30-65) and sometimes referred to as Poppaea Sabina the Younger to
differentiate her from her mother of the same name, was a Roman Empress as the second wife of the Emperor Nero. Prior to this she was
the wife of the future Emperor Otho. The historians of antiquity describe her as a beautiful woman who used intrigues to become
empress...
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A woman of surpassing beauty, but licentious morals. She was
the daughter of T. Ollius, but assumed the name of her
maternal grandfather, Poppaeus Sabinus, who had been consul
A.D. 9. She was first married to Rufius Crispinus, and
afterwards to Otho, who was one of the boon companions of
Nero. The latter soon became enamoured of her; and in order to
get Otho out of the way, Nero sent him to govern the province
of Lusitania (A.D. 58). Poppaea now became the acknowledged
mistress of Nero, over whom she exercised absolute sway.
Anxious to become the wife of the emperor, she persuaded Nero
first to murder his mother Agrippina (A.D. 59), who was
opposed to such a disgraceful union, and next to divorce and
shortly afterwards put to death his innocent and virtuous wife
Octavia (A.D. 62). She then became the wife of Nero. In 65
Poppaea, being pregnant, was killed by a kick from her brutal
husband (Suet. Nero, 35).
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Sextus Aurelius Propertius was a Latin elegiac poet who was born around 50–45 BC in Assisium) and died shortly after 15 BC.[1]
Propertius' surviving work comprises four books of Elegies. He was friends with the poets Gallus and Virgil, and had with them
as his patron Maecenas, and through Maecenas, the emperor Augustus.
Life -
Very little information is known about Propertius outside of his own writing. His praenomen "Sextus" is mentioned by Aelius
Donatus,[2] a few manuscripts list him as "Sextus Propertius", but the rest of his name is unknown. From numerous references in
his poetry[3] it is clear he was born and raised in Umbria; modern Assisi claims for itself the honor of his birthplace. As a
boy his father died and the family lost land as part of a confiscation,[4] probably the same one which reduced Virgil's estates
when Octavian alloted lands to his veterans in 41 BC. Combining this with cryptic references in Ovid[5] implying he was younger
than his contemporary Tibullus, a birthdate in the early 40s seems appropriate...
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A Roman elegiac poet born at Asisium (Assisi), in Umbria (Prop.i. 22, 9, 65-66121-126, and v. 1). The date of his birth is
uncertain. He was somewhat older than Ovid, and was probably born about B.C. 50. He lost his parents at an early age; and, through
the general confiscation of land in 42, was deprived of the greater part of his paternal estate. Still, he possessed enough to
live a typical poet's life at Rome, whither he had proceeded soon after coming of age, about B.C. 34. He there associated with his
patron Maecenas and with other poets, such as Vergil and Ovid. To complete his studies he afterwards went to Athens. When he was
still quite young, the poet's spirit woke within him, and expanded through his attachment to the beautiful and witty Hostia. Under
the name Cynthia, she henceforth was the subject of his love-poems. For five years (B.C. 28-23) this attachment lasted, though
often disturbed by the jealousy of the sensitive poet and the capriciousness of his mistress. When it had come to an end, and even
after Cynthia's death (probably before B.C. 18), the poet could not forget his old passion. He himself died young. He often
expresses forebodings of an early death; there is no indication in his poems that any of them were written later than B.C. 16.
They have come down to us in four books, but some scholars are of opinion that the poet himself had divided them into five, and
that the original second and third books have been united, perhaps through the oversight of friends at the publication of the
last. Propertius himself seems to have only published the first. In the first four books amatory poems preponderate. The fifth
book, the confused order of which may well be referred to the poet's untimely death, deals mainly with subjects taken from Roman
legends and history, in the same way as Ovid subsequently treated them in the Fasti.
Propertius possesses a poetical genius with which his talent is unable to keep pace. Endowed with a nature susceptible of passion
as deep as it was strong, as ardent as it was easily evoked, and possessed of a rich fancy, he strives to express the fulness of
his thoughts and feelings in a manner modelled closely on that of his Greek masters; and yet in his struggle with linguistic and
metrical form, he fails to attain the agreeable in every instance. His expression is often peculiarly harsh and difficult, and his
meaning is frequently obscured by far-fetched allusions to unfamiliar legends, or actual transcripts of them. Herein he follows
the example of his models, the Alexandrian poets, Callimachus and Philetas. Nevertheless he is a great poet, and none of his
countrymen has depicted the fire of passion so truly and so vividly as he. The personality of Propertius seems not to have been
altogether agreeable, but to have been characterized by a certain conceit and youthful bumptiousness; and editors have argued with
some probability that he is the person whom Horace had in mind in depicting the famous bore in the ninth satire of the First Book,
though there are some chronological difficulties in the way of this theory. See Palmer's notes on this satire.
The principal manuscript of Propertius is the Codex Neapolitanus, now at Wolfenbüttel, which dates from the fifteenth century,
though long regarded as older. See the introduction to L. Müller's critical edition (Leipzig, 1880). The editio princeps of
Propertius appeared at Venice in 1472. Propertius is edited by Hertzberg, with Latin notes, 3 vols. (1845); Keil (Leipzig, 1850);
Palmer, with English notes (Dublin, 1880); Paley (1872); and Postgate (London, 1881). There is an English rendering by Cranstoun
(1875). See Jacob, Propertius (Lübeck, 1847); on his style, the Prolegomena in Hertzberg's edition; and on his versification,
Eschenburg, Observationes Criticae in Propertium, pp. 1-28 (Bonn, 1864); also Gruppe, Die röm. Elegie, i. pp. 274 foll.
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Quintus Sertorius (123 BC-72 BC) was a Roman statesman and general, born in Nursia, in Sabine territory, around 124 BC.
His family, the gens Sertoria, was probably of Sabine origin, and was previously undistinguished.[1]
Early Political Career -
After acquiring some reputation in Rome as a jurist and an orator, he began a military career. His first recorded campaign
was under Quintus Servilius Caepio at the Battle of Arausio, where he showed unusual courage. Serving under Gaius Marius
in 102 BC, Sertorius succeeded in spying on the wandering German tribes that had defeated Caepio. After this success, he
fought at the great Battle of Aquae Sextiae (now Aix-en-Provence, France) in which the Teutones were decisively defeated.
In 97 BC, he served in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) as a military tribune under
Titus Didius, winning the Grass Crown.
In 91 he was quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul, where he was in charge of recruiting and training legions for the Social War.
During this time he sustained a wound that cost him the use of one of his eyes. Upon his return to Rome he ran for
tribune, but Lucius Cornelius Sulla thwarted his efforts (for reasons unknown), causing Sertorius to oppose him.
After Sulla forced Marius into exile, and Sulla left Rome to fight Mithridates, violence erupted between the Optimates,
led by the consul Gnaeus Octavius, and the Populares, led by the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna. Sertorius now declared for
Cinna and the Populares. Though he had a very bad opinion of Marius, he consented to Marius' return upon understanding
that Marius came at Cinna's request and not of his own accord. After Octavius surrendered Rome to the forces of Marius,
Cinna, and Sertorius in 87, Sertorius abstained from the proscriptions his fellow commanders engaged in. Sertorius went so
far as to rebuke Marius, and move Cinna to moderation, while annihilating Marius' slave army that had partaken in his
atrocities.
Proconsul in Hispania -
On Sulla's return from the East in 83, and following the subsequent collapse of the Populares power, Sertorius retreated
to Hispania as proconsul, representing the Populares. The Roman officials in Hispania did not recognize his authority, but
Sertorius assumed control as he had an army. Sertorius sought to hold Hispania by sending an army, under Julius Salinator,
to fortify the pass through the Pyrenees; however, Sulla's forces, under the command of Gaius Annius, broke through after
Salinator was killed by treachery.
Having been obliged to withdraw to North Africa, he carried on a campaign in Mauretania, in which he defeated one of
Sulla's generals and captured Tingis (Tangier).
Sertorian War -
The North Africa success won him the fame and admiration of the people of Hispania, particularly that of the Lusitanians
in the west (in modern Portugal), whom Roman generals and proconsuls of Sulla's party had plundered and oppressed. The
Lusitanians then offered Sertorius to be their general, and when arriving to their lands, bringing additional forces from
Africa, he held supreme authority and started invading neighbouring territory.
Brave, noble, and gifted with eloquence, Sertorius was just the man to impress them favourably, and the native warriors,
whom he organized, spoke of him as the "new Hannibal." His skill as a general was extraordinary, as he repeatedly defeated
forces many times his own size. Many Roman refugees and deserters joined him, and with these and his Hispanian volunteers
he completely defeated several of Sulla's generals (Fufidius, Lucius Domitius and Thoranius) and drove Quintus Caecilius
Metellus Pius, who had been specifically sent against him from Rome, out of Lusitania, or Hispania Ulterior as the Romans
called it at the time.
Sertorius owed some of his success to his prodigious ability as a statesman. His goal was to build a stable government in
Hispania with the consent and co-operation of the people, whom he wished to civilize along the lines of the Roman model.
He established a senate of 300 members, drawn from Roman emigrants (probably including some from the highest nobles of
Hispania) and kept a Hispanian bodyguard. For the children of the chief native families he provided a school at Osca
(Huesca), where they received a Roman education and even adopted the dress and education of Roman youths, following the
Roman practice of taking hostages. Late in his campaign, a revolt of the native people arose and Sertorius killed several
of the children that he had sent to school at Osca, and sold many others into slavery.[3]
Although he was strict and severe with his soldiers, he was particularly considerate to the people in general, and made
their burdens as light as possible. It seems clear that he had a peculiar gift for evoking the enthusiasm of the native
tribes, and we can understand well how he was able to use the famous white fawn, a present from one of the natives that
was supposed to communicate to him the advice of the goddess Diana, to his advantage.
For six years he held sway over Hispania. In 77 he was joined by Marcus Perpenna Vento from Rome, with a following of
Roman nobles and a sizeable Roman army. Also that year, Pompey was sent to help Metellus conquer Hispania and finish
Sertorius off. Contemptuously calling Pompey Sulla's pupil, Sertorius proved himself more than a match for his
adversaries: he razed Lauron, a city allied to Rome, after a battle in which Pompey's forces were ambushed and defeated;
he nearly captured Pompey at the battle of Sucro when Pompey decided to fight Sertorius without waiting for Metellus Pius;
and Sertorius utterly defeated the united forces of Metellus and Pompey on one occasion near Saguntum. Pompey wrote to
Rome for reinforcements, without which, he said, he and Metellus Pius would be driven out of Hispania.
Sertorius was in league with the Cilician pirates, who had bases all across the Mediterranean, was negotiating with the
formidable Mithridates VI of Pontus, and was in communication with the insurgent slaves in Italy. But due to jealousies
among the Roman officers who served under him and the Hispanians of higher rank who began to weaken his influence with the
Lusitani tribes, and though he won victories to the last, he was assassinated at a banquet at Perpenna Vento's instigation
in 72 BC. Appian notes Sulla's consistent elimination of enemy commanders by means of treachery. At the time of his death,
he was on the verge of successfully establishing an independent Roman republic in Hispania, which crumbled with the
renewed onslaught of Pompey and Metellus, who crushed Perpenna's army and eliminated the remaining opposition.
See Plutarch's lives of Sertorius and Pompey; Appian, Bell. civ. and Hispanica; the fragments of Sallust; Dio Cassius
xxxvi.
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Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (ca. 35 – ca. 100) was a Roman
rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval
schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing. In English
translation, he is usually referred to as Quintilian, although
the alternate spellings of Quintillian and Quinctilian are
occasionally seen, the latter in older texts...
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A celebrated Roman rhetorician, born about A.D. 35 at Calagurris in Spain. After he had received his training as an orator at Rome, he
returned home about A.D. 59, but again visited Rome in A.D. 68 in the suite of Galba. He there began to practise as an advocate, and
also gave instruction in rhetoric. In this latter capacity he achieved such fame that he was able to open a school of rhetoric in the
reign of Vespasian, and received a salary from the State. After twenty years' work he retired from his public duties in A.D. 90, and
after some time devoted himself to the education of the grandchildren of Domitilla, Domitian's sister, for which he was rewarded by
the emperor with the rank of consul. Though materially prosperous, his happiness was disturbed by the loss of his young wife and his
two sons. He died between A.D. 97 and 100.
Of his works on rhetoric, composed in his later years, we possess the one that is more important, that on the training of an orator
(De Institutione Oratoria) in twelve books. This he wrote in two years; but it was not until after repeated revision that he published
it, just before the death of Domitian in the year 96. He dedicated it to his friend, the orator Victorius Marcellus, that he might use
it for the education of his son Geta. This work gives a complete course of instruction in rhetoric, including all that is necessary
for training in practical elocution, from the preliminary education of boyhood and earliest youth to the time of appearance in public.
It describes a perfect orator, who, according to Quintilian, should be not only skilful in rhetoric, but also of good moral character,
and concludes with practical advice. Especially interesting is the first book, which gives the principles of training and instruction,
and the tenth book, for its criticisms on the Greek and Latin prose authors and poets recommended to the orator for special study.
Many of these criticisms, however, are not original. Quintilian's special model, and his main authority, is Cicero, whose classical
style, as opposed to the style of his own time exemplified in Seneca, he imitates successfully in his work. A collection of school
exercises (Declamationes) which bears his name is probably not by him, but by one of his pupils, though Ritter accepts many of them as
genuine.
The most important MS. of the Institutiones is the Codex Ambrosianus of the eleventh century. Other complete MSS. are much later-of
the fifteenth century-and are full of interpolations. Early editions of Quintilian are those of Gibson (Oxford, 1693), Burmann
(Leyden, 1720), and Gesner (Göttingen, 1738). A great edition is that of Spalding, 4 vols. (Leipzig, 1798-1816), to which a fifth
volume was added by Zumpt (1829), and a sixth containing a lexicon and indices by Bonnell (1834). The chief edition is that of Halm
(Leipzig, 1868), revised by Meister (Prague, 1886). Book X. has been separately edited by Herzog (3d ed., Leipzig, 1833), Schneidewin
(Helmst., 1831); Bonnell and Meister (3d ed., Berlin, 1882); G. T. Krüger and G. Krüger (Leipzig, 1888), and J. E. B. Mayor (Pt. i.,
Camb., 1892). An excellent index is that in the Lemaire edition (Paris, 1821). There is a good German translation by Bossler and Baur,
revised by Meister (Prague, 1886); and an English version by Watson, with notes based on Spalding, and may be found in the Bohn
Classical Library. The Declamationes are edited by Ritter (1884).
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Romulus and Remus are Rome's twin founders in its
traditional foundation myth. They are descendants of the
Trojan prince and refugee Aeneas, and are fathered by the
god Mars or the demi-god Hercules on a royal Vestal Virgin,
Rhea Silvia (also known as Ilia), whose uncle exposes them
to die in the wild. They are found by a she-wolf who suckles
and cares for them. The twins are eventually restored to
their regal birthright, acquire many followers and decide to
found a new city.
Romulus wishes to build the new city on the Palatine Hill;
Remus prefers the Aventine Hill.[2] They agree to determine
the site through augury. Romulus appears to receive the more
favourable signs but each claims the results in his favour.
In the disputes that follow, Remus is killed.[3] Ovid has
Romulus invent the festival of Lemuria to appease Remus'
resentful ghost.[4] Romulus names the new city Rome, after
himself, and goes on to create the Roman Legions and the
Roman Senate. He adds citizens to his new city by abducting
the women of the neighboring Sabine tribes, which results in
the combination of Sabines and Romans as one Roman people.
Rome rapidly expands to become a dominant force, due to
divine favour and the inspired administrative, military and
political leadership of Romulus. In later life Romulus
becomes increasingly autocratic, disappears in mysterious
circumstances and is deified as the god Quirinus, the divine
persona of the Roman people...
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The name of the mythical founder of Rome. According to the popular Roman tradition, recorded in the first book of Livy , he was the
son of Mars and Ilia or Rhea Silvia, daughter of Numitor, and was born at the same birth with Remus. Amulius, who had usurped the
throne of Alba, in defiance of the right of his elder brother Numitor, ordered the infants to be thrown into the Tiber, and their
mother to be buried alive, the doom of a vestal virgin who violated her vow of chastity. The river happened at that time to have
overflowed its banks, so that the two infants were not carried into the middle of the stream, but drifted along the margin, till the
basket which contained them became entangled in the roots of a wild vine at the foot of the Palatine Hill. At this time a she-wolf,
coming down to the river to drink, suckled the infants, and carried them to her den among the thickets hard by. Here they were found
by Faustulus, the king's herdsman, who took them home to his wife Laurentia, by whom they were carefully nursed, and named Romulus
and Remus. The two youths grew up, employed in the labours, the sports, and the perils of the pastoral occupation of their foster-
father. But their royal blood could not be quite concealed. Their superior mien, courage, and abilities soon acquired for them a
decided superiority over their young compeers, and they became leaders of the youthful herdsmen in their contests with robbers or
with rivals. Having quarrelled with the herdsmen of Numitor, whose flocks were accustomed to graze on the neighbouring hill
Aventinus, Remus fell into an ambuscade, and was dragged before Numitor to be punished. While Numitor, struck with the noble bearing
of the youth, and influenced by the secret stirrings of nature within, was hesitating what punishment to inflict, Romulus,
accompanied by Faustulus, hastened to the rescue of Remus. On their arrival at Alba, the secret of their origin was discovered, and
a plan was speedily organized for the expulsion of Amulius and the restoration of their grandfather Numitor to his throne. This was
soon accomplished; but the twin-brothers felt little disposition to remain in a subordinate position at Alba, after the enjoyment of
the rude liberty and power to which they had been accustomed among their native hills. They therefore requested from their
grandfather permission to build a city on the banks of the Tiber, where their lives had been so miraculously preserved. Scarcely had
this permission been granted, when a contest arose between the two brothers respecting the site, the name, and the sovereignty of
the city which they were about to found. Romulus wished it to be built on the Palatine Hill, and to be called by his name; Remus
preferred the Aventine, and his own name. To terminate their dispute amicably, they agreed to refer it to the decision of the gods
by augury. Romulus took his station on the Palatine Hill, Remus on the Aventine. At sunrise Remus saw six vultures, and immediately
after Romulus saw twelve. The superiority was adjudged to Romulus, because he had seen the greater number; against which decision
Remus remonstrated indignantly, on the ground that he had first received an omen. Romulus then proceeded to mark out the boundaries
for the wall of the intended city. This was done by a plough with a brazen ploughshare, drawn by a bull and a heifer, and so
directed that the furrow should fall inward. The plough was lifted and carried over the spaces intended to be left for gates; and in
this manner a square space was marked out, including the Palatine Hill, and a small portion of the land at its base, termed Roma
Quadrata. This took place on the 21st of April, on the day of the festival of Pales, the goddess of shepherds. While the wall was
beginning to rise above the surface, Remus, whose mind was still rankling with his discomfiture, leaped over it, scornfully saying,
"Shall such a wall as that keep your city?" Immediately Romulus, or, as others say, Celer, who had charge of erecting that part of
the wall, struck him dead to the ground with the implement which he held in his hand, exclaiming, "So perish whosoever shall
hereafter overleap these ramparts."
By this event Romulus was left the sole sovereign of the city; yet he felt deep remorse at his brother's fate, buried him
honourably, and, when he sat to administer justice, placed an empty seat by his side, with a sceptre and crown, as if acknowledging
the right of his brother to the possession of equal power. To augment as speedily as possible the number of his subjects, Romulus
set apart, in his new city, a place of refuge, to which any man might flee, and be there protected from his pursuers. By this device
the population increased rapidly in males, but there was a great deficiency in women; for the adjoining States, regarding the
followers of Romulus as little better than a horde of brigands, refused to sanction intermarriages. But the schemes of Romulus were
not to be so frustrated. In honour of the god Consus, he proclaimed games, to which he invited the neighbouring States. Great
numbers came, accompanied by their families, and, at an appointed signal, the Roman youth, rushing suddenly into the midst of the
spectators, snatched up the unmarried women in their arms, and carried them off by force. The outrage was immediately resented, and
Romulus found himself involved in a war with all the neighbouring States. Fortunately for Rome, though those States had sustained a
common injury, they did not unite their forces in the common cause. They fought singly, and were each in turn defeated; Caenina,
Crustumerium, and Antemnae fell successively before the Roman arms. Romulus slew with his own hands Acron, king of Caenina, and bore
off his spoils, dedicating them, as spolia opima, to Iupiter Feretrius. The third part of the lands of the conquered towns was
seized by the victors, and such of the people of these towns as were willing to remove to Rome were received as free citizens. In
the meantime, the Sabines, to avenge the insult which they had sustained, had collected together forces under Titus Tatius, king of
the Quirites. The Romans were unable to meet so strong an army in the field, and withdrew within their walls. They had previously
placed their flocks in what they thought a place of safety, on the Capitoline Hill, which, strong as it was by nature, they had
still further secured by additional fortifications. Tarpeia, the daughter of the commander of that fortress, having fallen into the
hands of the Sabines, agreed to betray the access to the hill for the ornaments they wore upon their arms. At their approach she
opened the gate, and, as they entered, they crushed her to death beneath their shields. From her the cliff of the Capitoline Hill
was called the Tarpeian Rock. The attempt of the Romans to regain this place of strength brought on a general engagement. The combat
was long and doubtful. At one time the Romans were almost driven into the city, which the Sabines were on the point of entering
along with them, when fresh courage was infused into the fugitives in consequence of Romulus vowing a temple to Iupiter Stator, and
by a stream of water which rushed out of the Temple of Ianus and swept away the Sabines from the gate. The struggle was renewed
during several successive days with various fortune and great mutual slaughter. At length the Sabine women who had been carried
away, and who were now reconciled to their fate, rushed with loud outcries between the combatants, imploring their husbands and
their fathers to spare on each side those who were now equally dear. Both parties paused; a conference began, a peace was concluded,
and a treaty framed, by which the two nations were united into one, and Romulus and Tatius became the joint sovereigns of the united
people. But, though united, each nation continued to be governed by its own king and Senate. During the double rule of Romulus and
Tatius a war was undertaken against the Latin town of Cameria, which was reduced and made a Roman colony, and its people were
admitted into the Roman State, as had been done with those whom Romulus previously subdued. Tatius was soon afterwards slain by the
people of Laurentum, because he had refused to do them justice against his kinsmen, who had violated the laws of nations by
insulting their ambassadors.
The death of Tatius left Romulus sole monarch of Rome. He was soon engaged in a war with Fidenae, a Tuscan settlement on the banks
of the Tiber. This people he likewise overcame, and placed in the city a Roman colony. This war, extending the Roman frontier, led
to a hostile collision with Veii, in which he was also successful, and deprived Veii, at that time one of the most powerful cities
of Etruria, of a large portion of its territories, though he found that the city itself was too strong to be taken. The reign of
Romulus now drew near its close. One day, while holding a review of his army, on a plain near Lake Capra, the sky was suddenly
overcast with gloom and a tempest of thunder and lightning arose. The people fled in dismay; and when the storm abated, Romulus,
over whose head it had raged most fiercely, was nowhere to be seen. A rumour was circulated that during the tempest he had been
carried to heaven by his father, the god Mars. This opinion was speedily confirmed by the report of Iulius Proculus, who declared
that, as he was returning by night from Alba to Rome, Romulus appeared before him in a form of more than mortal majesty, and bade
him go and tell the Romans that Rome was destined by the gods to be the chief city of the earth; that human power should never be
able to withstand her people; and that he himself would be their guardian god Quirinus ( Romulus; Livy, i. 4). The traditional date
of the translation of Romulus to heaven is B.C. 716. For a criticism of the legend and its relation to Roman history, see Lewis, An
Inquiry into the Credibility of Ancient Roman History (1855); Ihne, Early Rome, Engl. trans. (N. Y. 1878); and Niebuhr's History of
Rome, vol. i. Engl. edition (1859). In defence of the historical value of the legend, see Ampère, Histoire Romaine à Rome (Paris,
1871).
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Gaius Sallustius Crispus, generally known simply as Sallust, (86-34 BC), a Roman historian, belonged to a well-known plebeian family,
and was born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines. Throughout his career Sallust always stood by his principle as a popularis,
an opposer of Pompey's party and the old aristocracy of Rome.
Life and career -
After an ill-spent youth, Sallust entered public life and won election as Quaestor in 55 and one of the tribunes of the people in 52,
the year in which the followers of Milo killed Clodius in a street brawl. Sallust then supported the following prosecution of Milo.
He also had hostilities with the famous orator Cicero.
From the beginning of his public career, Sallust operated as a decided partisan of Caesar, to whom he owed such political advancement
as he attained. In 50 the censor Appius Claudius Pulcher removed him from the Senate on the grounds of gross immorality (probably
really because of his friendship with Caesar). In the following year, no doubt through Caesar's influence, he was reinstated.
In 46 he served as a praetor and accompanied Caesar in his African campaign, which ended in the decisive defeat of the remains of the
Pompeian war party at Thapsus. As a reward for his services, Sallust gained appointment as governor of the province of Africa Nova.
In this capacity he committed such oppression and extortion that only the influence of Caesar enabled him to escape condemnation. On
his return to Rome he purchased and began laying out in great splendour the famous gardens on the Quirinal known as the Horti
Sallustiani or Gardens of Sallust. These gardens would later belong to the emperors.
Sallust then retired from public life and devoted himself to historical literature, and further developing his Gardens of Sallust,
upon which he spent much of his accumulated wealth.
Works -
Sallust's account of the Catiline conspiracy (De coniuratione Catilinae or Bellum Catilinae) and of the Jugurthine War (Bellum
Iugurthinum) have come down to us complete, together with fragments of his larger and most important work (Historiae), a history of
Rome from 78-67 BC, intended as a continuation of Cornelius Sisenna's work.
The Conspiracy of Catiline -
The Conspiracy of Catiline (Sallust's first published work) contains the history of the memorable year 63. Sallust adopts the usually
accepted view of Catiline, and describes him as the deliberate foe of law, order and morality, and does not give a comprehensive
explanation of his views and intentions. (Note that Catiline had supported the party of Sulla, which Sallust had opposed.) Mommsen's
suggestion-that Sallust particularly wished to clear his patron (Caesar) of all complicity in the conspiracy-may have contained some
truth.
In writing about the conspiracy of Catiline, Sallust's tone, style, and descriptions of aristocratic behavior show him as deeply
troubled by the moral decline of Rome. While he inveighs against Catiline's depraved character and vicious actions, he does not fail
to state that the man had many noble traits, indeed all that a Roman man needed to succeed. In particular, Sallust shows Catiline as
deeply courageous in his final battle.
This subject gave Sallust the opportunity of showing off his rhetoric at the expense of the old Roman aristocracy, whose degeneracy
he delighted to paint in the blackest colours.
Jugurthine War -
Sallust's Jugurthine War is a brief monograph recording the war in Numidia c.112 B.C. Its true value lies in the introduction of
Marius and Sulla to the Roman political scene and the beginning of their rivalry. Sallust's time as governor of Africa Nova ought to
have let the author develop a solid geographical and ethnographical background to the war, however, this is not evident in the
monograph despite a diversion on the subject because Sallust's priority in the "Jugurthine War", as with the "Catiline Conspiracy",
is to use history as a vehicle for his judgement on the slow destruction of Roman morality and politics.
[edit]Other works
The extant fragments of the Histories (some discovered in 1886) show sufficiently well the political partisan, who took a keen
pleasure in describing the reaction against Sulla's policy and legislation after the dictator's death. Historians regret the loss of
the work, as it must have thrown much light on a very eventful period, embracing the war against Sertorius (died 72 BC), the
campaigns of Lucullus against Mithradates VI of Pontus (75 - 66 BC), and the victories of Pompey in the East (66 - 62 BC).
Two letters (Duae epistolae de republica ordinanda), letters of political counsel and advice addressed to Caesar, and an attack upon
Cicero (Invectiva or Declamatio in Ciceronem), frequently attributed to Sallust, are thought by modern scholars to have probably come
from the pen of the rhetorician Marcus Porcius Latro, also the supposed author of a counter-invective attributed to Cicero.[1]
Significance -
On the whole, antiquity looked favourably on Sallust as an historian. Tacitus speaks highly of him (Annals, iii. 30); and Quintilian
does not hesitate to put him on a level with Thucydides (x.1 ), and declares that he is a greater historian than Livy (ii.5 ).
Sallust struck out for himself practically a new line in literature, his predecessors having functioned as little better than mere
dry-as-dust chroniclers, whereas he endeavoured to explain the connection and meaning of events and successfully delineated
character. The contrast between his early life and the high moral tone adopted by him in his writings has frequently made him a
subject of reproach, but history gives no reason why he should not have reformed.
In any case, his knowledge of his own former weaknesses may have led him to take a pessimistic view of the morality of his fellow-
men, and to judge them severely. He took as his model Thucydides, whom he imitated in his truthfulness and impartiality, in the
introduction of philosophizing reflections and speeches, and in the brevity of his style, sometimes bordering upon obscurity. Some
readers have ridiculed[citation needed] his fondness for old words and phrases (in which he imitated his contemporary Cato the
younger) as an affectation, but this very affectation and his rhetorical exaggerations made Sallust a favourite author in the 2nd
century and later.
Nietzsche, in Twilight of the Idols (Section 13.1) credits Sallust for his epigrammatic style: "My sense of style, for the epigram as
a style, was awakened almost instantly when I came into contact with Sallust." and praises him for being "compact, severe, with as
much substance as possible, a cold sarcasm against 'beautiful words' and 'beautiful sentiments'."
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A famous Roman historian, belonging to a plebeian family. He was born B.C. 86, at Amiternum, in the country of the Sabines. He was quaestor
about 59, and tribune of the plebs in 52, the year in which Clodius was killed by Milo. In his tribunate he joined the popular party, and
took an active part in opposing Milo. It is said that he had been caught by Milo in the act of adultery with his wife Fausta, the daughter
of the dictator Sulla ; that he had received a beating from the husband; and that he had been only let off on payment of a sum of money. In
50 Sallust was expelled from the Senate by the censors, probably because he belonged to Caesar's party, though some give as the ground of
his ejection from the Senate the act of adultery already mentioned. In the Civil War he followed Caesar's fortunes. In 47 we find him
praetor elect, by obtaining which dignity he was restored to his rank. He nearly lost his life in a mutiny of some of Caesar's troops in
Campania, who had been led thither to pass over into Africa. He accompanied Caesar in his African war (B.C. 46), and was left by Caesar as
governor of Numidia, in which capacity he is charged with having oppressed the people, and enriched himself by unjust means. He was accused
of maladministration before Caesar, but it does not appear that he was brought to trial. The charge is somewhat confirmed by the fact of his
becoming immensely rich, as was shown by the expensive gardens which he formed (horti Sallustiani) on the Quirinalis. He retired into
privacy after he returned from Africa, and he passed quietly through the troublesome period after Caesar's death. He died in the year 34,
about four years before the battle of Actium. The story of his marrying Cicero's wife, Terentia, ought to be rejected.
It was probably not till after his return from Africa that Sallust wrote his historical works. (a) The Catilina, or Bellum Catilinarium, is
a history of the conspiracy of Catiline during the consulship of Cicero, 63. The introduction to this history, which some critics admire, is
only a feeble and rhetorical attempt to act the philosopher and moralist. The history, however, is valuable. Sallust was a living spectator
of the events which he describes, and considering that he was not a friend of Cicero, and was a partisan of Caesar, he wrote with fairness.
The speeches which he has inserted
Bust of Sallust. (St. Petersburg.)
in his history are certainly his own composition; but we may assume that Caesar's speech was extant, and that he gave the substance of it.
(b) The Iugurtha, or Bellum Iugurthinum, contains the history of the war of the Romans against Iugurtha, king of Numidia, which began in
111, and continued until 106. It is probable that Sallust was led to write this work from having resided in Africa, and that he collected
some materials there. He cites the Punic Books of King Hiempsal, as authority for his general geographical description (Iug. 17). The
Jugurthine War has a philosophical introduction of the same stamp as that to the Catilina. As a history of the campaign, the Jugurthine War
is of no value: there is a total neglect of geographical precision, and apparently not a very strict regard to chronology. (c) Sallustius
also wrote Historiarum Libri Quinque, which were dedicated to Lucullus, a son of L. Licinius Lucullus. The work is supposed to have
comprised the period from the consulship of M. Aemilius Lepidus and Q. Lutatius Catulus (B.C. 78), the year of Sulla 's death, to the
consulship of L. Vulcatius Tullus and M. Aemilius Lepidus (B.C. 66), the year in which Cicero was praetor. This work is lost, with the
exception of fragments which have been collected and arranged. They contain, among other things, several orations and letters. Some
fragments belonging to the third book, and relating to the war with Spartacus, have been published from a Vatican MS. in the present
century, and a number of others were found in 1886 by Hauler in an Orleans palimpsest. (d) Duae Epistolae de Re Publica Ordinanda, which
appear to be addressed to Caesar at the time when he was engaged in his Spanish campaign (B.C. 49) against Petreius and Afranius, and are
attributed to Sallust; but the opinions of critics on their authenticity are divided. (e) The Declamatio in Sallustium, which is attributed
to Cicero, is generally admitted to be the work of some rhetorician, the matter of which is the well-known hostility between the orator and
the historian. The same opinion is generally maintained as to the Declamatio in Ciceronem, which is attributed to
Some of the Roman writers considered that Sallustius imitated the style of Thucydides (Quint.x. 1), and he has himself greatly influenced
the style of Tacitus. His language is generally concise and perspicuous: perhaps his love of brevity may have caused the ambiguity that is
sometimes found in his sentences. He also affected archaic words. Though he has considerable merit as a writer, his art is always apparent.
He had no pretensions to great research or precision about facts. His reflections have often something of the same artificial and
constrained character as his expressions. One may judge that his object was to obtain distinction as a writer; that style was what he
thought of more than matter. He has, however, probably the merit of being the first Roman who wrote what is usually called history. He was
not above his contemporaries as a politician; he was a party man, and there are no indications of any comprehensive views, which had a whole
nation for their object. He hated the nobility, and depicted their vices in a spirit of bitter exaggeration.
There are many MSS. of Sallust, especially at Paris. These Codices Parisini, of the tenth and eleventh centuries (P, P1, P2), are the best,
all being distinguished by a lengthy lacuna after Iug. 103, supplied from a second "family" of MSS. written later, and represented by
several codices at Munich. Remains of the orations and letters of Sallust are preserved in two MSS. of the tenth century-one at Berne, and
one in the Vatican. These give also annotations by an unknown grammarian.
There are separate editions of the Catilina by Cook (1884); Turner (1887); Eussner (1887), and Herbermann (New York, 1890); of the Iugurtha
by Herzog (Leipzig, 1840); Schmalz (Gotha, 1866), and Brook (London, 1885). The fragments of his Historiae are given in Jordan's edition of
the Sallust (1887); and separately edited by Maurenbrecher (fasc. i. and ii., Leipzig, 1891-93). Complete editions of Sallust are those of
Gerlach (Basel, 1832), Kritz (1828, 1856), Dietsch (1859, 1864), Jordan (Berlin, 1876, 1887), and with English notes by Merivale (1852),
Long (1860, revised by Frazer, 1890), and Capes (1884). There are lexicons to Sallust by Eichert (Hanover, 1864) and Mollweide (Strassburg,
1887). A good English translation is that of Pollard (1882). On the style, see Constans, De Sermone Sallustiano (Paris, 1880); and in
general the monographs by Vogel (Mainz, 1857), Jäger (Salzburg, 1884), and Rambeau (Burg, 1879).
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Gaius Mucius Scaevola was a noble and probably mythical
Roman youth, famous for his bravery.
When the Etruscan king Lars Porsenna held Rome under siege,
Gaius Mucius famously sneaked into the Etruscan camp and
attempted to murder Porsenna. His plot failed because he
misindentified Porsenna and killed the wrong man. Mucius was
captured. He famously declared to Porsenna: "I am Gaius
Mucius, a citizen of Rome. I came here as an enemy to kill
my enemy, and I am as ready to die as I am to kill. We
Romans act bravely and, when adversity strikes, we suffer
bravely." He also declared that he was one of three hundred
other Romans willing to give their own life to kill
Porsenna.(Ab Urbe Condita, II.12)
Porsenna, fearful and angry, ordered Mucius to be cast into
the flames. Mucius stoically accepted this punishment,
preempting Porsenna by thrusting his hand into that same
fire and giving no sign of pain. Impressed by the youth's
courage, Porsenna freed Mucius.
Because of his maimed right hand, Mucius was forever after
known as Scaevola ("lefty" or "left-handed"). (Ab Urbe
Condita, II.13)
See Livy, Ab Urbe Condita (II.12-13) for the full story of
Scaevola.
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Gaius Mucius Scaevŏla. When King Porsena was besieging Rome,
G. Mucius went out of the city with the intention of killing
him, but by mistake stabbed the king's secretary instead of
Porsena himself. The king in his passion and alarm ordered him
to be burned alive, upon which Mucius thrust his right hand
into a fire which was already lighted for a sacrifice, and
held it there without flinching. The king, amazed at his
firmness, ordered him to be removed from the altar, and bade
him go away free and uninjured. To make some return for his
generous behaviour, Mucius told him that there were three
hundred of the first youths of Rome who had agreed with one
another to kill the king; that the lot fell on him to make the
first attempt, and that the rest would do the same when their
turn came. Porsena being alarmed for his life, which he could
not secure against so many desperate men, made proposals of
peace to the Romans, and evacuated the territory. Mucius
received the name of Scaevola, or "left-handed," from the loss
of his right hand (Livy, ii. 12 and 13).
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Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (235–183 BC), also known as Scipio Africanus and Scipio the Elder, was a general in the
Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. He was best known for defeating Hannibal at the final battle of the
Second Punic War at Zama, a feat that earned him the agnomen Africanus, the nickname "the Roman Hannibal", as well as
recognition as one of the finest commanders in military history. An earlier great display of his tactical abilities had
come already at the Battle of Ilipa...
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P. Cornelius Scipio, son of No. 6, was consul, with Ti.
Sempronius Longus , in 218, the first year of the Second
Punic War. He sailed with an army to Gaul, in order to
encounter Hannibal before crossing the Alps; but, finding
that Hannibal had crossed the Rhône, and had got the start
of him by a three days' march, he resolved to sail back to
Italy and await Hannibal's arrival in Cisalpine Gaul. But as
the Romans had an army of twenty-five thousand men in
Cisalpine Gaul, under the command of two praetors, Scipio
sent into Spain the army which he had brought with him,
under the command of his brother, Cn. Scipio. On his return
to Italy, Scipio took the command of the army in Cisalpine
Gaul, and hastened to meet Hannibal. An engagement took
place between the cavalry and light-armed troops of the two
armies. The Romans were defeated; the consul himself
received a severe wound, and was only saved from death by
the courage of his young son Publius, the future conqueror
of Hannibal. Scipio now retreated across the Ticinus,
crossed the Po also, first took up his quarters at
Placentia, and subsequently withdrew to the hills on the
left bank of the Trebia, where he was joined by the other
consul, Sempronius Longus. The latter resolved upon a
battle, in opposition to the advice of his colleague. The
result was the complete defeat of the Roman army, which was
obliged to take refuge within the walls of Placentia. In the
following year (217 B.C.), Scipio, whose imperium had been
prolonged, crossed over into Spain. He and his brother
Gneius continued in Spain until their death in 211, and did
the most important service for their country by preventing
reinforcements being sent to Hannibal from Spain. In 215
they transferred the war from the Ebro to the Guadalquivir
and won two great victories at Illiturgis and Intibilis.
They fortified an important harbour at Tarraco and regained
Saguntum, and by adroit policy induced Syphax to turn
against the Carthaginians in Africa; but in 212, having to
confront three armies under Hasdrubal Barca, Hasdrubal
Gisgo, and Mago, they enlisted 20,000 Celtiberians and
divided their armies. This was a fatal step. The Spaniards
were untrustworthy, and the armies of the Scipios were
defeated separately and both the brothers were slain by the
Carthaginians (Polyb. iii.; Livy, xii.-xxv.; Annib. 5-8;
Hisp. 14-16).
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Flavius Claudius Julianus (331/332[1] – 26 June 363), commonly known as Julian, Julian the Apostate or Julian the Philosopher, was
Roman Emperor from 355 to 363. He is also a noted philosopher and Greek writer.[2] A member of the Constantinian dynasty, he was
made Caesar by Constantius II in 355 and took command of the western provinces. During his reign he campaigned successfully against
the Alamanni and Franks. Most notable was his crushing victory over the Alamanni in 357 at the Battle of Argentoratum - despite
being outnumbered. In 360 he was acclaimed Augustus by his soldiers, sparking a civil war between Julian and Constantius. However,
Constantius died before the two could face each other in battle, naming Julian as his rightful successor. In 363, Julian embarked on
an ambitious campaign against the Sassanid Empire. Though initially successful, Julian was mortally wounded in battle and died
shortly after...
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Gaius Julius Caesar[2] (13 July 100 BC[3] – 15 March 44
BC)[4] was a Roman general and statesman. He played a
critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic
into the Roman Empire.
During the late 60s and into the 50s BC, Caesar entered into
a political alliance with Crassus and Pompey that was to
dominate Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to
amass power for themselves through populist tactics were
opposed within the Roman Senate by a conservative elite,
among them Cato the Younger, with the sometime support of
Cicero. Caesar's conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world
to the North Sea, and in 55 BC he conducted the first Roman
invasion of Britain. These achievements granted him
unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse Pompey's.
The balance of power was further upset by the death of
Crassus. Political realignments in Rome finally led to a
stand-off between Caesar and Pompey, the latter having taken
up the cause of the Senate. With the order that sent his
legions across the Rubicon, Caesar began a civil war in 49
BC from which he emerged as the unrivaled leader of the
Roman world.
After assuming control of government, he began extensive
reforms of Roman society and government. He centralised the
bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed
"dictator in perpetuity". A group of senators, led by Marcus
Junius Brutus, assassinated the dictator on the Ides of
March (15 March) 44 BC, hoping to restore the constitutional
government of the Republic. However, the result was a series
of civil wars, which ultimately led to the establishment of
the permanent Roman Empire by Caesar's adopted heir Octavius
(later known as Augustus).
Much of Caesar's life is known from his own accounts of his
military campaigns, and other contemporary sources, mainly
the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical
writings of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by
Suetonius and Plutarch are also major sources...
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, or, as the name is written in English, Julius Caesar, was born on the 12th of July, in B.C. 102 or 100. The latter date rests
upon the statement of several ancient authorities, but Mommsen has shown that the earlier date is more probably correct. The
Caesar family was of patrician stock. It belonged to the proud gens of the Iulii, who traced their ancestry back to the very
beginning of Roman history. In the century between B.C. 160 and 60, several Caesars held public offices, at least four being
honoured with the consulship.
Of the youth and education of Iulius Caesar little is known excepting that he was under the instruction of the distinguished
teacher of grammar and rhetoric, M. Antonius Gnipho , who for a time taught in his home. Though allied by descent with the
aristocracy, he was brought into relation with the popular party through the marriage of his aunt Iulia with the great leader
Marius. In B.C. 83, he himself married Cornelia, the daughter of Marius's most ardent supporter, Cinna. This vexed Sulla , who,
regaining the ascendency at Rome the following year, ordered Caesar to divorce her. Unlike Pompey and Piso, who put away their
wives at Sulla 's bidding, Caesar boldly refused. Sulla confiscated his property, and revoked the priesthood of Iupiter, which
had been conferred upon him through the influence of Marius. As his life was now in danger, he went into hiding, hotly pursued
from place to place by Sulla 's emissaries. After a time his friends, aided by the Vestal Virgins, succeeded in securing pardon
for him from Sulla , who is said to have granted it with the remark that Caesar would some time be the ruin of the aristocracy,
for in him there was many a Marius. Soon afterwards, desirous of gaining the military experience considered necessary for a
young Roman of rank, he joined the staff of M. Minucius Thermus, who was besieging Mytilené. Here he saved the life of a
fellow-soldier, displaying so great bravery that he was honoured with a civic crown. After Mytilené fell he entered the service
of P. Servilius in Cilicia; but immediately on hearing of the death of Sulla , in 78, he returned to Rome.
The following year Caesar introduced himself to public notice by bringing a charge of provincial extortion against Gnaeus
Dolabella, who had been proconsul of Macedonia. Though unsuccessful, in 76 he was invited to accuse Antonius of similar
misconduct in Greece. Antonius also was acquitted, but the young prosecutor gained great popularity and a considerable
reputation for oratory by his pleas. He now started for Rhodes, to pursue the study of oratory under Molo. Near Miletus he was
captured by pirates, and was detained on the island of Pharmacusa until he could get together a ransom of fifty talents (over
$55,000). Having been set at liberty, he procured ships, captured the pirates, took them to Pergamus, and crucified them, thus
carrying out a threat which he had jestingly pronounced when with them. He spent a short time at Rhodes, and then passed over
to Asia, where he rendered gallant service against an army of Mithridates. In the winter of 74-73, he returned to Rome, having
been chosen to fill a vacancy in the college of pontifices. He now threw himself into political life with an energy that
yielded to no opposition and a reckless liberality that hesitated at no expenditure. He was affable to every one, and no
applicant for aid went away empty-handed. He soon exhausted his inheritance, and became deeply involved in debt; but his
popularity was unbounded. Having taken a stand in opposition to the Sullan constitution and the aristocracy, he received the
offices in the gift of the people in regular succession. In 67, he was quaestor, serving under Antistius Vetus in Further
Spain. In 65, he was curule aedile, with M. Bibulus as colleague. Extravagant expenditures upon games and buildings raised his
popularity to the highest pitch. He increased the power and influence of the popular party in many ways, but by no single act
did he kindle the enthusiasm of the populace more than by privately restoring the trophies of Marius, which had been destroyed
by Sulla , and replacing them by night on the Capitol. Marius's veterans crowded around them with tears and shouting. The
Senate, notwithstanding the formal denunciation of Marius as a public enemy, was obliged to yield to the popular feeling and
leave them in the place of honour.
Caesar was charged with complicity in both the Catilinarian conspiracies, but evidence is wanting. In 62, he was praetor,
carrying himself with great firmness and discretion amid scenes of violence. The following year he governed the province of
Further Spain with distinction, both as a civil administrator and as a general. He subdued several tribes and captured the city
of Brigantium, in the extreme northwestern part. At the expiration of his year of office he came back to Rome with ample means
to satisfy his creditors. In 60, he was chosen consul for 59, the aristocracy making every effort to secure the election of
Bibulus as his colleague to offset his influence. About this time he brought about a reconciliation between Pompey and Marcus
Crassus, entering with them into the coalition known as the First Triumvirate. These ties were strengthened further by the
marriage of his daughter Julia to Pompey. During his consulship he was influential in promoting the interests of Pompey and
Crassus; at the same time he kept his standing with the people, and was especially serviceable to the important body of
equites. Instead of the usual proconsular command for one year, he easily obtained the governorship of Cisalpine Gaul,
Illyricum, and Transalpine Gaul, of which only the southeastern portion had been subdued, for five years, together with the
control of four legions. During the next nine years (58-50), Caesar was engaged in the conquest of Transalpine Gaul. Summers
were devoted to military operations; but when possible he spent a part of the winter in Cisalpine Gaul, in close communication
with his friends at Rome. In 56, he again reconciled Pompey and Crassus, who met with him at Luca; in 55, his command was
continued for five years longer. The conquest of Gaul was no easy matter, both from the advancement of its civilization and the
character of the country (see Gallia); but Caesar accomplished it, in a series of campaigns which, for variety and skill of
tactics as well as unremitting energy of movement, are unsurpassed in the annals of warfare. He twice bridged the Rhine and
invaded Germany; twice also he crossed over to Britain, reducing the tribes along the southeast coast to nominal subjection. By
the year 50, Gaul was completely conquered, and well on the way towards complete organization as a Roman province.
Coin of Iulius Caesar as Dictator.
The death of Iulia, Pompey's wife and Caesar's daughter, in 54, and that of Crassus a year later in the East, broke the common
bond between the two great military leaders and put an end to the compact of the triumvirate. Pompey, viewing with jealousy and
alarm the victorious career of his younger rival, entered into an alliance with the aristocratic party, and endeavoured to
check the increasing power of Caesar by means of senatorial enactments. In his interest the Senate, early in B.C. 50, passed a
decree that each of the commanders should give up a legion for the Parthian War. As Pompey had lent one of his to Caesar in 53,
this was now demanded back. Although the intent of the whole matter was clearly to weaken Caesar, he gave up Pompey's legion
and one of his own as directed; but the troops, instead of being despatched to the East, were placed in camp at Capua. It
became clearer every day that Caesar's friends were powerless to obtain for him the recognition and privileges to which he was
justly entitled; that the senatorial party and Pompey would scruple at nothing to gain the advantage over him. While his
commission prevented him from entering Italy, and no dispensation from it was granted, Pompey was permitted to administer an
important command in Spain through lieutenants, and at the same time remained at Rome. The climax was reached early in January,
B.C. 49, when the Senate, amid great uproar, decreed that Caesar should disband his army by a certain date, under penalty of
being considered a public enemy if he failed to do so; and that the magistrates should take measures to provide for the
security of the State. The tribunes M. Antonius and Q. Cassius, who had in vain interposed their veto, were obliged to flee,
and took refuge with Caesar, calling upon him to defend the inviolable sanctity of their office. War was now inevitable.
With the vigour and despatch characteristic of his previous military operations, Caesar at once crossed the river Rubicon, the
southern boundary of his province. Within three months he was master of the whole of Italy, Pompey and the more zealous
adherents of the aristocratic party having fled to Greece. He now set out for Spain, and soon dispersed the forces of Pompey
there, meanwhile gaining possession of Sicily and Sardinia also, through his lieutenants Curio and Valerius. In Africa and
Illyricum his officers were less successful; but on his way back from Spain he forced the surrender of Massilia, which in his
absence had withstood a siege at the hands of Trebonius and Decimus Brutus. By this time Pompey had gathered a large army in
Greece, and had also a powerful fleet at his service. Nothing daunted, Caesar crossed the Adriatic in January, 48, and with a
far inferior force tried to blockade his opponent at Dyrrachium. Being unsuccessful, and also reduced to straits for supplies,
he withdrew into Thessaly. Pompey followed, over-confident. The decisive battle was fought on the plain of Pharsalus, in
Thessaly, August 9th, B.C. 48. Pompey had 47,000 infantry and 7000 cavalry, Caesar barely 22,000 infantry and 1000 cavalry. But
superior generalship and discipline, and the courage of despair, won the day against greater numbers. Pompey fled to Egypt,
where he was immediately murdered. When the news of the victory reached Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator for a year, and
other offices also were conferred upon him, so that, under the forms of the old constitution, he possessed absolute authority.
Having followed Pompey to Egypt, Caesar was there for a time in great danger on account of the disturbance known as the
Alexandrine War, which arose from a dispute regarding the succession. He placed Cleopatra on the throne, and in the spring of
47 proceeded to Pontus, where he defeated Pharnaces, a son of Mithridates, near Zela, announcing the victory at Rome in the
famous despatch, Veni, vidi, vici, "I came, I saw, I conquered." Early in 46, he crossed over to Africa, crushing the remnants
of the senatorial forces there at the battle of Thapsus, April 6. Returning to Rome, where his supremacy was no longer
disputed, he treated his former opponents with unlooked-for clemency, and inaugurated several salutary reforms, among which not
the least important was the rearrangement of the calendar. The sons of Pompey gathered an army in Spain, which he defeated at
the battle of Munda, March 17th, B.C. 45. During the ensuing months, Caesar's powers as a civil administrator had full scope.
His projects, few of which were destined to be realized, were characterized by statesmanship of a high order, which has come to
be the more admired the better it has been understood. But he was not beyond the reach of malice and envy. A conspiracy was
formed against him; the leaders of it were Marcus Brutus and Cassius. The conspirators were actuated by different motives-some,
no doubt, by personal jealousy and hatred; others by a patriotic desire to restore the old republican constitution; a few,
perhaps, by ambitious designs upon the spoils of State. On the 15th of March, B.C. 44, as Caesar was entering the hall
connected with Pompey's theatre to attend a meeting of the Senate, he was set upon, and fell pierced by twenty-three wounds.
Caesar holds a unique place in the history not merely of Rome, but of the world. In his time the government of Rome had been
found wholly inadequate to meet the administrative demands of a great empire. More and more the military became paramount to
the civil power in the State, and the old-time balance of political parties gave place to violent strifes between successful
generals. The perpetuation of the Roman government demanded centralization of authority. Cherishing the ambition to become the
great political leader of his generation, Caesar became supreme, not by usurpation, but by the natural exercise of
extraordinary executive abilities under political conditions which admitted of no alternative between anarchy and absolutism.
He appears to have had a truer insight into the needs of his country than any of his contemporaries. His genius was not, as
often represented, merely destructive, but was constructive as well. After his death, Rome had no peace or prosperity till
political authority was again concentrated in the hands of Augustus. But this many-sided man was great not merely as a
statesman. As a general he is ranked in the same class with Alexander, Hannibal, and Napoleon; as an orator he was reckoned in
his day second only to Cicero; and as a writer he has long since received a place among the world's greatest masters. Tall,
with fair complexion and expressive black eyes, sensitive in regard to his appearance and neat to the verge of effeminacy,
gracious in address and Epicurean in both tastes and beliefs, in external characteristics he might have passed for a man of the
world, at home in the gay society of a luxurious capital. But in ambition, in energy, in the ability to form plans and to bring
things to pass, he belied all appearances, and has probably made a deeper impression upon humanity than any other man that has
ever lived.
With the exception of a few fragments, Caesar's speeches have perished. A like fate has befallen his poems, most of which were
composed in early life, and his treatise on grammar, in two books. Among other writings that were published was a tract written
in opposition to Cicero's panegyric on Cato , in two books (see Anticatones); a treatise on astronomy, and a collection of
witticisms. Only his invaluable "Memoirs" are extant-"On the Gallic War" (De Bello Gallico), in seven books, and "On the Civil
War" (De Bello Civili), in three books, the former published probably in B.C. 51. These works are written in a simple, concise,
straightforward style, remarkably free from military technicalities of the sort to trouble the reader. They were no doubt
designed to justify the author in the eyes of his countrymen, but their credibility on the whole is not thereby seriously
impaired. An eighth book was added to the Gallic War by Aulus Hirtius; and unknown authors extended the Civil War by narratives
concerning the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars.
Bibliography.-The chief sources for the life of Caesar are his own writings and the works of Cicero (particularly the Letters),
Sallust's Catiline, the biographies by Plutarch and Suetonius, and the treatises on Roman history by Velleius Paterculus,
Appian, and Dio Cassius. The ancient authorities are examined with much painstaking by Drumann, in his Geschichte Roms (vol.
iii.); worthy of mention, also, is the extended treatment of Caesar in Mommsen's History of Rome (vol. iv. of the English
translation), in Duruy's History of Rome (vol. iii.), and in Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire (vols. i., ii.).
Special works are: Napoleon III., Histoire de Jules César (2 vols., with valuable atlas, Paris, 1865; English translation, New
York, 1865); Delorme, Cäsar und seine Zeitgenossen (deutsch, bearbeitet von Doehler, Leipzig, 1873); Froude, Caesar: a Sketch
(New York, 1884); and Fowler, Julius Caesar and the Organization of the Roman Empire (New York, 1892). For the history of
Caesar's campaigns: Rüstow, Heerwesen und Kriegführung Cäsars (Nordhausen, 1862); F. de Saulcy, Les Campagnes de Jules-César
dans les Gaules (Paris, 1865); A. von Göler, Caesars gallischer Krieg und Theile seines Bürgerkrieges (2d ed., Freiburg and
Tübingen, 1880, reprinted 1884); Stoffel, Histoire de Jules César: Guerre civile (2 vols., with atlas of twenty-four plates,
Paris, 1887); Judson, Caesar's Army (Boston, 1888); and Fröhlich, Das Kriegswesen Cäsars (Zürich, 1891). Useful, also, in this
connection are: Rüstow, Atlas zu Caesars gallischem Kriege (Stuttgart, 1868); A. von Kampen, XV. ad Caesaris de Bello Gallico
Commentarios Tabulae (Gotha, 1879); Jal, La Flotte de César (Paris, 1862); and especially Desjardins, Géographie historique et
administratrive de la Gaule romaine (4 vols., Paris, 1876-93). For Caesar's writings, see Fallue, Analyse raisonnée des
Commentaires de Jules César (Paris, 1862); and Trollope, The Commentaries of Caesar (Philadelphia, 1880). For the extant
portraits of him, see Bernoulli, Römische Ikonographie (vol. i., pp. 145-181).
The MSS. upon which the text of Caesar's Commentaries is based fall into two classes, known as α and β. The α group seems to be
more faithful to the original form, but contains only the Gallic War; the best representatives are: a MS. of the ninth or tenth
century at Amsterdam (A), three of the tenth century (B, C at Paris, R in the Vatican), and one of the eleventh century (M,
also at Paris). The MSS. of the β class include also the Civil War with the continuations, the best being a Paris MS. of the
eleventh or twelfth century (T), a Vatican MS. of the twelfth century (V), and one of the thirteenth century, at Vienna.
Critical editions of Caesar's works are by Nipperdey (Leipzig, 1847) and Dübner (2 vols., Paris, 1867); convenient text-
editions by Nipperdey (4th reprint, 1884); Dinter (3 parts, Leipzig, 1864-76; 2d ed. of Gallic War, 1884), and Hoffmann (2d
ed., Vienna, 1888); critical editions of the Gallic War by Frigell (Upsala, 1861), Holder (with useful index, Freiburg, 1882),
and Kübler (vol. i., Leipzig, 1893). Among the numerous annotated editions are those by Kraner (Berlin; de Bel. Gal., 15te
verbesserte Aufl., von W. Ditten berger, 1890; de Bel. Civ., 10te umgearbeitete Aufl. von Hofmann Fr., 1890), Doberenz
(Leipzig, umgearbeitet von Dinter, de Bel. Gal., 9te Aufl. 1890-92; de Bel. Civ., 5te Aufl., 1884), Rheinhard (Stuttgart; de
Bel. Gal., 7te Aufl., herausg. von S. Herzog, 1892>), Moberly (Oxford; Gallic War, 2d ed., 1878; Civil War, 1880), and Peskett
(Cambridge; Gallic War, 5 vols., 1878-82; Civil War, Book I. 1890), Allen and Greenough (Boston; Gallic War, 1887), and Kelsey
(Boston; Gallic War, 7th ed., 1894). Of the several lexicons to Caesar, Meusel's Lexicon Caesarianum (Berlin, 1887-93) and the
Lexicon Caesarianum by Menge and Preuss (Leipzig, 1890) are the best. A brief bibliography of the more recent literature
dealing with Caesar's works is given in Teuffel's History of Roman Literature. 195, 196 (Eng. tr. by Warr, 1892).
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Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis, known in English as Juvenal, was a Roman poet active in the late 1st and early 2nd century AD, author of the
Satires. The details of the author's life are unclear, although references within his text to known persons of the late 1st and early 2nd
centuries AD fix his terminus post quem (earliest date of composition).
In accord with the vitriolic manner of Lucilius – the originator of the genre of Roman satire – and within a poetic tradition that also
included Horace and Persius, Juvenal wrote at least 16 poems in dactylic hexameter covering an encyclopedic range of topics across the
Roman world. While the Satires are a vital source for the study of ancient Rome from a vast number of perspectives, their hyperbolic,
comedic mode of expression makes the use of statements found within them as simple fact problematic, to say the least. At first glance the
Satires could be read as a brutal critique of (Pagan) Rome, perhaps ensuring their survival in Christian monastic scriptoria, a bottleneck
in preservation when the large majority of ancient texts were lost...
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The fourth in order of time and of literary development of the great writers of Roman satire, his predecessors being Lucilius, Horace, and
Persius. Of his life there are known but few particulars. His ancient biographers relate that he was either the son or foster-son of a rich
freedman, and was born at Aquinum (cf. Juv.iii. 319) at a date that can not be determined, but which may be approximately given as between
A.D. 57 and 67. He is said to have studied rhetoric, and began writing satire not earlier than A.D. 100, for in his first satire (i. 49) he
mentions the exile of Marius Priscus, which took place in that year. He lived a simple life at his country estate near Tibur (xi. 65). He
tells us himself that he visited Egypt at some period of his life; and according to an inscription dedicated by him to Ceres Helvina, found
at Aquinum, he held at various times the offices of tribune of a cohort, duumvir of Aquinum, and flamen. (C. I. L. x. 5382). Tradition
explains his military office and his visit to Egypt as having been in reality a form of exile for having attacked the imperial favourite,
Paris, in his satires (cf. Sidon. Apoll. viii. 270). Another tradition makes Britain to have been his place of exile. Of the date and place
of his death, nothing is known; but he must have died later than A.D. 127, as he mentions Aemilius Iunius (xv. 27). He was a friend of
Martial, who speaks of him in friendly terms (vii. 24 and 91; xii. 18).
There remain to us sixteen satires of Juvenal, the last of which is probably a fragment, and is by some regarded as spurious. All are
written in dactylic hexameters. They represent the final development of satire among the Romans, and answer the modern definition of
satiric composition, being passionate, scornful, and filled with the language of indignant denunciation and bitter invective. His subject
is not, as with Horace, the foibles and venial follies of the age, but those darker vices whose prevalence taints the history of the times
in which he wrote. His tone is, therefore, not that of the indulgent man of the world, but of the stern censor who hates the hideous sins
that he looks upon, and scourges them with a whip of scorpions. Yet there is much of the rhetorician's exaggeration in his invective, and
it may be questioned whether the passion is not partly simulated. Moreover, the painful minuteness with which he draws the details of
abnormal vice, and the excessive crudity of his language in at least two of the satires (the Second and Sixth) seem inconsistent with the
professed morality of the writer, and excite a strong suspicion of pruriency. He is at his best in the Third and Tenth, in which he touches
the less loathsome faults of contemporary Rome, and where one finds here and there a noble bit of poetry. It is these two satires that Dr.
Samuel Johnson paraphrased in English in his two poems, London and The Vanity of Human Riches, with a fire and force and epigrammatic
terseness of language that are in no respect inferior to the original. Juvenal is very modern in his mental attitude as well as in his
phrasing. An English scholar has recently declared that we are to see in him the first instances in literature of American humour-the
humour that derives its effect from bringing together unexpectedly two ludicrously inappropriate ideas, or in applying to the most solemn
subjects the familiar language of every-day life. In this, Juvenal has been hailed as the prototype of Hosea Biglow and Mark Twain; and his
"waxing over the knees of the gods" and his offering "the sacred sausages of a little white pig" have perhaps to many obscured the other
passages of great nobility and beauty that are not far to seek. Of pregnant phrases and epigrammatic sentences, he has made some striking
contributions to literature. "Probitas laudatur et alget - facit indignatio versum-res angusta domi - scribendi cacoethes - stemmata quid
faciunt? - Cantabit vacuus coram latrone viator - Orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano - Maxima debetur puero rererentia" - are
perhaps the most famous of his many famous epigrams.
The best MS. of Juvenal is the Codex Pithoeanus of the ninth century, preserved at Montpellier in France. The other MSS. are enumerated by
Jahn in his edition. The editio princeps of Juvenal appeared at Rome in 1470, but undated. Standard editions with notes are those of
Ruperti (2d ed. Leipzig, 1819); Lemaire (Paris, 1823); Weber (Weimar, 1825); Heinrich, with scholia (Bonn, 1839); Jahn (Berlin, 1851)
revised by Bücheler (Berlin, 1886); Friedländer, 2 vols. (1895); of thirteen satires with English notes, Macleane and Long (2d ed. London,
1867); Simcox (2d ed. London, 1873); Hardy (London, 1883); Pearson and Strong, with good introduction (Oxford, 1887); but especially by J.
E. B. Mayor (4th ed. of vol. i. London, 1886; 3d ed. of vol. ii. 1881); of satires i. and ii. by Nash (Boston, 1893). There is a spirited
verse translation by Gifford (London, 1817; reprinted in the Bohn Library); and a prose by D. Lewis, with text and notes (2d ed. London,
1882); by Strong and Lesper (London, 1882). On Juvenal, see Widal, Juvénal et ses Satires (Paris, 1869); and au article by Boissier in the
Revue des Deux Mondes for June, 1870. On the coincidences between Juvenal and Martial, see a monograph in the introduction to Pearson and
Strong's edition. See also the article Satira.
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Gaius Laelius, general and statesman, was a friend of Scipio Africanus, whom he accompanied on his Iberian campaign (210 BC - 206 BC;
the Roman Hispania, comprising modern Spain and Portugal). His command of the Roman fleet in the attack on New Carthage and command of
the Roman-Numidian cavalry at Zama contributed to Scipio's victories.
Background -
According to some Roman historians, including Polybius (Book 10), Laelius was a friend of Scipio from childhood; however, his family
background is obscure. Livy suggested that he was not from a rich family, since he wanted command of the campaign against Antiochus
the Great in 190 BC to repair his family fortunes.[citation needed]
Polybius suggests that Laelius was a companion of Scipio from their earliest days in the army together, since Laelius was apparently a
witness of Scipio's rescue of his father in a skirmish that was probably the Battle of Ticinus in late 218 BC.[1]
Laelius certainly accompanied Scipio on various expeditions from 210 BC to 201 BC but received no official position from the Senate
until about 202 BC when he was finally made quaestor. This lack of recognition may have been due to his relatively low social status
and/or family's lack of wealth and political influence.[2][3]
Military career: Laelius in Hispania (210 BC-206 BC) -
In the Iberian campaign lasting from 210 BC to about 206 BC, Laelius was a loyal second-in-command; the only man to whom Scipio
confided his plans to take Iberia. He commanded the fleet of thirty ships in the assault on Cartagena (New Carthage) in 209 BC.
Laelius was in charge of some important hostages after the capture of New Carthage, and he was dispatched, along with those hostages,
by Scipio to Rome in a quinquereme with the news of this important victory. The Senate gave Laelius further orders for Scipio, which
Laelius conveyed back to Scipio while the troops were still in their winter quarters at Tarraco. The time was therefore around early
208 BC.
According to Polybius, Laelius then commanded the left wing of the army, attacking Hasdrubal's right wing, at the Battle of Baecula
(Bailen) in 208 BC, where Scipio inflicted a costly defeat on Hasdrubal who then retreated to northern Iberia and Italy. The next few
years were spent fighting off Mago and the Carthaginian fleet, with the Carthaginians finally withdrawing in 206 BC.
The Romans were also troubled by rebellions among the soldiers and insurrections among the local tribes from about 207 BC when Scipio
fell ill.[4] Laelius's role during these insurrections is not clear as to whether he attempted to put down the rebellions and
insurrections, or was absent. Livy refers to two other Roman commanders Silanus and Lucius Cornelius Scipio (younger brother of
Scipio) defeating insurgents in Hispania. Nor is Laelius's role clear in the decisive Battle of Ilipa (206 BC) is not clear.
Laelius in Africa (204-202 BC) -
In Scipio's consulship year (205 BC), Laelius went with him to his designated province Sicily, whence he conducted an expedition or
raid to Africa while Scipio was readying his troops and supplies for a full-scale invasion. The purpose of this expedition was to
detach two Carthaginian allies - the Berber (or Massaesylian) prince Syphax and the Numidian prince Massinissa - from their
commitments, both believed to be on the verge of revolt against their Carthaginian overlords. Both princes were apparently won over,
but Syphax broke his alliance with Scipio, and joined the Carthaginians when he was offered a marriage alliance with a famous
Carthaginian beauty. Subsequently, Syphax drove his bride's former fiance, Massinissa, who remained loyal to Scipio, out of his own
territories.
In about 204 BC, Scipio was ready to invade Africa. After several skirmishes, in which Scipio and Laelius set fire to the Carthaginian
camp [5] the Romans nevertheless failed to detach Syphax from his marital and political alliance with the Carthaginians; nor, was a
complete victory possible over the Carthaginian army, with Scipio fearing for his fleet.
Finally, in 203 BC, Laelius defeated the Massaesylian prince Syphax, Laelius captured the city of Cirta at this time, and took Syphax
alive. He then conducted to Rome the captured prince and his son Vermina and some other leading men.[6]
At Zama (202), Laelius rendered considerable service in command of the cavalry, which was again placed originally on the left wing
with Massinissa on the right wing;[7] without the cavalry to intervene at a crucial time and falling upon the Carthaginians from the
rear, Scipio may well have been defeated.[8] Laelius was finally made quaestor only after the decisive victory in 202 BC, which was
his first public office.
Political career -
In 197 he was plebeian aedile and in 196 BC praetor of Sicily, both times apparently with the aid of his former commander and old
friend. Scipio's influence however did not serve to win Laelius the consulship in 192 BC.[9] Finally, in 190, he was elected consul
along with Scipio's younger brother Scipio Asiaticus but failed to win the campaign against Antiochus III the Great which would have
enrichened him. One version has Laelius himself nobly offering the Senate the choice instead of the traditional drawing of lots to
decide the allocation of provinces. When his friend Scipio Africanus announced that, if his brother Lucius was chosen to lead the
campaign against Antiochus, he would accompany his brother as a legate, the decision was inevitable - Lucius would be preferred.
Laelius's decision, if this version is correct, was a triumph of friendship, but not for his personal finances.
He was given Gaul as his province, and was employed in organizing the recently conquered territory in Cisalpine Gaul. Placentia and
Cremona were repopulated.
Further history -
Laelius's wife is not known, but circa 188 BC, he fathered a legitimate son who would become consul in 140 BC - Gaius Laelius Sapiens.
Like other superannuated Roman generals, Laelius later served on embassies to King Perseus of Macedon (174-173 BC) and to Transalpine
Gaul (170 BC).[10]
It was also in 160 BC, when the aged Laelius (probably then in his mid-seventies) met the author Polybius in Rome[11] during his last
years, and gave him much first-hand information about Scipio Africanus.[12] Polybius was a client of Scipio's brother-in-law Aemilius
Paullus (who died suddenly in the same year 160 BC), and became a friend to both his sons, notably Scipio Aemilianus (Africanus's
adoptive grandson).
Laelius appears to have died some years after 160 BC, but his year of death is not mentioned by Livy nor by Polybius.
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The friend of Scipio Africanus the elder. He fought under the
latter in almost all his campaigns. He was consul B.C. 190.
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Livia Drusilla, after AD 14 called Julia Augusta (Classical
Latin: LIVIA•DRVSILLA, LIVIA•AVGVSTA[1]) (58 BC-AD 29 ) was a
Roman empress as the third wife of the Emperor Augustus and
his adviser. She was the mother of the Emperor Tiberius,
paternal great-grandmother of the Emperor Caligula, paternal
grandmother of the Emperor Claudius, and maternal great-great
grandmother of the Emperor Nero. She was deified by Claudius
who acknowledged her title of Augusta...
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Livia Drusilla, the daughter of Livius Drusus Claudianus. She was married first to Claudius Nero, and afterwards to
Augustus, who compelled her husband to divorce her in B.C. 38. She had already borne her husband one son, the future
emperor Tiberius, and at the time of her marriage with Augustus was six months pregnant with another, who subsequently
received the name of Drusus. She never had any children by Augustus, but she retained his affection till his death. On
the accession of her son Tiberius to the throne, she at first attempted to obtain an equal share in the government;
but this the jealous temper of Tiberius would not brook, and he commanded her to cease meddling in public affairs.
From that time he showed towards her only hatred, refusing even to visit her when she was dying. She died in A.D. 29,
at the age of 82 or 86.
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Titus Livius (59 BC – AD 17), known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history
of Rome and the Roman people, Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the
period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC through the reign of
Augustus in Livy's own time. He was on familiar terms with the Julio-Claudian family, advising Augustus'
grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius, as a young man not long before 14 AD in a letter to take up the
writing of history.[1] Livy and Augustus' wife, Livia, were from the same clan in different locations,
although not related by blood.
Life -
According to Jerome and numerous other sources, Livy was a native of Patavium, the modern Padua.[2] He
belonged to the Livia gens, or family, but no agnomen has survived. His works show that he was educated in
oratory and Greek, which is an indicator of rank, although the Livii were of plebeian origin. Patavium did not
become a Roman municipium until 49 BC when Livy was ten years old. The Patavians were enrolled in the
Fabii,[3] but perhaps not Romans who already had a good name, as Livy kept his and without agnomen. Whether
the fact that the emperor Augustus' much loved and respected wife, Livia, was born into the Roman branch of
the Livia gens, had anything to do with Augustus' tolerance of Livy's republican views is not known.
Various authors testify that Livy married and had children. Quintilian gives a fragment of a letter from Livy
to his son.[4] The same son became a writer considered an authority by Pliny the Elder in Books V and VI of
Natural History. Seneca the Elder mentions a son-in-law, Lucius Magius.[5] Two epitaphs from Padua are
considered relevant: CIL V 2975 commemorates Titus Livius, son of Gaius, his two sons: Titus Livius Priscus
and Titus Livius Longus, as well as Livy's wife, Cassia;[6] and CIL V 2865, marking the resting place of a
freedman of Livia Quarta, daughter of Titus Livius. Evidently the Livii of Padua continued to reside there and
one must presume that after sojourns elsewhere they came home to die.
At some time early in his career Livy moved to Rome, probably for his education. A few references in Book I
suggest he was at Rome at or prior to 27 BC, when he began work on his History of Rome.[7][8] It would have
been in Rome also that he had or overheard a conversation with Augustus, who did not acquire that title until
27 BC.[9] In that year, if born in 59 BC, Livy was 32.
Works -
Livy's only surviving work is the "History of Rome" (Ab Urbe Condita), which was his career from an age in
middle life, probably 32, until he left Rome for Padua in old age, probably after the death of Augustus in the
reign of Tiberius. When he began this work he was already past his youth; presumably, events in his life prior
to that time had led to his intense activity as a historian. Seneca the Younger gives brief mention that he
was also known as an orator and philosopher and had written some treatises in those fields from a historical
point of view.[10]
Reception -
In Roman Empire -
Livy's History of Rome was in demand from the publication of the first packet. Livy became so famous that a
man from Cadiz travelled to Rome just to see him, and once he had seen, returned home.[11] The popularity of
the work continued through the entire classical period. A number of Roman authors used Livy, including
Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, Eutropius, Festus, Florus, Granius Licinianus and Orosius. Julius Obsequens used
Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his De Prodigiis, an account of supernatural events in Rome,
from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius.
Livy wrote during the reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and consuls
claiming to be defending the Roman Republic, such as Pompey. Patavium had been pro-Pompey. To clarify his
status, the victor of the civil war, Octavian Caesar, had wanted to take the title Romulus (the first king of
Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of Augustus. He did not abolish the republic de facto but
adapted its institutions into the empire.
Livy's enthusiasm for the republic is evident from the first pentade of his work, and yet the Julio-Claudian
family (the imperial family) were as much fans of Livy as anyone. He could not have been an advocate of any
sort of sedition in favor of restoring the republic; he would have been put on trial for treason and executed,
as many had been and would be. He must have been viewed as a harmless and relevant advocate of the ancient
morality, which was a known public stance of the citizens of Patavium. His relationship to Augustus is defined
primarily by a passage from Tacitus[12] in which Cremutius Cordus is put on trial for his life for offenses no
worse than Livy's and defends himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows:
"I am said to have praised Brutus and Cassius, whose careers many have described and no one mentioned without
eulogy. Titus Livius, pre-eminently famous for eloquence and truthfulness, extolled Cneius Pompeius in such a
panegyric that Augustus called him Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle to their friendship.
To avoid conviction, while waiting for a verdict Cordus committed suicide by self-starvation. His worst fears
were realized in absentia: his books were sentenced to be burned by the aediles, but they performed the task
without zeal and many escaped. Livy's reasons for returning to Padua after the death of Augustus (if he did)
are unclear, but the circumstances of Tiberius' reign certainly allow for speculation.
Later -
During the Middle Ages interest in Livy fell off.[13] Due to the length of the work the literate class were
already reading summaries rather than the work itself, which was tedious to copy, expensive, and required a
lot of storage space. It must have been during this period, if not before, that MSS began to be lost without
replacement.
The Renaissance was a time of intense revival; the population discovered that Livy was being lost and large
amounts of money changed hands in the rush to collect Livy manuscripts. The poet Beccadelli sold a country
home for the money to purchase one manuscript copied by Poggio.[14] Petrarch and Pope Nicholas V launched a
search for the now missing books. Laurentius Valla published an emended text initiating the field of Livy
scholarship. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork
treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli's work on republics, the Discourses on Livy is presented as a
commentary on the History of Rome. Respect for Livy rose to lofty heights.
After a few hundred years of Livy being studied by the youth of every Western population, moderns have
developed their own views of Livy and his place in the ancient world, which were not current in ancient times.
For example, one text on western civilization pronounces: "Livy was the prose counterpart of Vergil", as both
have been standard in the study of Golden Age Latin literature.[15] Golden Age Latin was not known as such in
classical times and the ancient reader could choose from a vastly larger bibliography; but in fact, private
reading was a privilege of the literate few, who had the wealth to buy manuscripts or have them copied and had
the time for library research. Public readings of works, however, were common and were the main way in which
an author became known.
Dates -
The authority supplying information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is Eusebius of
Caesaria, an early Christian-era bishop. One of his works was a summary of world history in ancient Greek,
termed the Chronikon, dating from the early 4th century. This work was lost except for fragments (mainly
excerpts), but not before it had been translated in whole and in part by various authors such as St. Jerome.
The entire work survives in Armenian. St. Jerome wrote in Latin. Fragments in Syriac exist.[16]
Eusebius' work consists of two books, the Chronographia, a summary of history in annalist form, and the
Chronikoi Kanones, tables of years and events. St. Jerome translated the tables into Latin as the Chronicon,
probably adding some information of his own from unknown sources. Livy's dates appear in Jerome's Chronicon.
The main problem with the information given in the MSS is that between them they often give different dates
for the same events or different events, do not include the same material entirely and reformat what they do
include. A date may be in AUC or in Olympiads or in some other form, such as age. These variations may have
occurred through scribal error or scribal license. Some material has been inserted under the aegis of
Eusebius.
The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on Livy seldom care
to linger. As a result standard information in a standard rendition is used, which gives the impression of a
standard set of dates for Livy. There are no such dates. A typical presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year
of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1
respectively.[2] All sources use the same first Olympiad, 776/775-773/772 BC by the modern calendar. By a
complex formula (made so by the 0 reference point not falling on the border of an Olympiad) these codes
correspond to 59 BC for the birth, 17 AD for the death. In another manuscript the birth is in 180.4, or 57
BC.[17]
Jerome says that Livy was born the same year as Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus and died the same year as
Ovid.[2] Messala, however, was born earlier, in 64 BC, and Ovid's death, usually taken to be the same year as
Livy's, is more uncertain. As an alternative view, Ronald Syme argues for 64 BC-12 AD as a range for Livy,
setting the death of Ovid at 12.[18] A death date of 12, however, removes Livy from Augustus' best years and
makes him depart for Padua without the good reason of the second emperor, Tiberius, being not as tolerant of
his republicanism. The contradiction remains.
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Titus. One of the greatest and certainly the most popular of
the Roman writers of history. He was born at Patavium (B.C.
59), of good family, and, after being carefully educated,
betook himself early (before B.C. 31) to Rome, where he soon
became acquainted with the most distinguished men of the
day. Even Augustus entertained friendly relations towards
him in spite of his openly expressed republican convictions,
for which he called him a partisan of Pompey. He does not
seem to have taken public office, but to have lived
exclusively for literature. He was esteemed by his
contemporaries so highly that a Spaniard is said to have
travelled from Gades (Cadiz) to Rome merely to see him
(Pliny , Epist. ii. 3). He died in his native town in A.D.
17. He must have begun his great historical work between
B.C. 27 and 25; it can only have been completed shortly
before his death, as he did not publish the first twenty-one
books until after the death of Augustus (A.D. 14). It
recounts the history of Rome in 142 books, extending from
the foundation of the city (whence the title Ab Urbe Condita
Libri) to the death of Drusus (A.D. 9). His own death must
have prevented its continuation to the death of Augustus, as
he doubtless had proposed. He published the work, called by
himself Annales (xliii. 13), from time to time, in separate
parts, arranging his material-at least for the first ninety
books-as far as possible in decades (portions consisting of
ten books), and half-decades; the division into decades was,
however, first carried through in the fifth century,
probably for convenience of handling so vast a series of
books. There still remain only the first decade (to B.C.
293), the third, fourth, and half of the fifth decade (218-
167); and of the remainder, with the exception of a fairly
large portion of the ninety-first book, only inconsiderable
fragments. We also possess from an unknown pen, epitomes
(periochae) of all the books except 136 and 137, and a
scanty extract from the account of the portents (prodigia),
which appeared in B.C. 249 and following year. This is by a
certain Iulius Obsequens, and perhaps dates from the fourth
century.
Livy 's importance rests more on the magnitude of his
patriotic undertaking and the charm of his style than on his
acquisitions as a scientific historian. He is, in fact, best
regarded as a remarkable story-teller, who possessed a
diction almost perfect in its way, and an unusual power of
graphic narrative. For writing history, however, he had no
special training, and his knowledge of Roman law and of the
Roman military system was but slight. In selecting his
authorities, also, he showed little discrimination, basing
his judgment of them on a priori assumptions. Thus he
follows Valerius Antias in the first decade with no mistrust
(cf. vii. 36; ix. 27, 37, 43), but later denounces him as a
falsifier (xxvi. 49; xxx. 19; xxxiii. 10, etc.). He does,
however, use Polybius, besides Licinius Macer ,
Quadrigarius, and Caelius Antipater, but often draws
different portions of his narrative from conflicting
accounts, so that there are frequent inconsistencies to be
noticed. It is evident that he had never read the Leges
Regiae or even many important laws of later times. His
purpose, however, was not at all to write a critical
history, but rather, by a lively and brilliant narrative, to
rekindle the patriotic spirit among his countrymen and to
inspire them with a desire to emulate the deeds of their
heroic ancestors. From this standpoint, his history deserves
the highest praise, and justly won for him the name of "the
Roman Herodotus." The only criticism of any account that has
come down to us is that of Asinius Pollio recorded by
Quintilian (i. 5, 56 and viii. 1, 3), which charges the
historian with displaying in his writings a certain
Patavinity (Patavinitas, from Patavium, Padua, Livy 's
birthplace). Just what this criticism was meant to imply is
not clearly known. It may have been intended to characterize
the style as being more florid than was consistent with the
reserve of a Roman gentleman, or it may refer to the
presence of provincialisms, which we are not now able to
detect as such. It may, as some think, have marked the
enthusiasm of the writer as opposed to the polished and
self-contained urbanitas of the metropolis. On this point,
see Wiedemann, De Patavinitate Livii (Görlitz, 1848-54); and
Moritz Haupt, Opuscula, ii. 69.
Of Livy's history, the first decade (books one to ten) is
entire. It embraces the period from the foundation of the
city to the year B.C. 294, when the subjugation of the
Samnites may be said to have been completed. The second
decade (books eleven to twenty) is altogether lost. It
embraced the period from 294 to 219, comprising an account,
among other matters, of the invasion of Pyrrhus and of the
First Punic War. The third decade (books twenty-one to
thirty) is entire. It embraces the period from 219 to 201,
comprehending the whole of the Second Punic War. The fourth
decade (books thirty-one to forty) is entire, and also one
half of the fifth (books forty-one to forty-five). These
fifteen books embrace the period from 201 to 167, and
develop the progress of the Roman arms in Cisalpine Gaul, in
Macedonia, Greece, and Asia, ending with the triumph of
Aemilius Paulus. Of the other books nothing remains except
inconsiderable fragments, the most notable being a few
chapters of the ninety-first book, concerning the fortunes
of Sertorius. The composition of so vast a work necessarily
occupied many years; and we find indications which throw
some light upon the epochs when different sections were
composed. Thus, in the first book (ch. 19), it is stated
that the temple of Ianus had been closed twice only since
the reign of Numa-for the first time in the consulship of T.
Manlius (B.C. 235), a few years after the termination of the
First Punic War; for the second time by Augustus Caesar,
after the battle of Actium, in 29. But we know that it was
shut again by Augustus, after the conquest of the
Cantabrians, in 25; and hence it is evident that the first
book must have been written between the years 29 and 25.
Moreover, since the last book contained an account of the
death of Drusus, it is evident that the task must have been
spread over seventeen years, and probably occupied a much
longer time.
The discovery of the lost books of Livy has been a dream of
scholars for many centuries, and may yet be realized. In the
sixteenth century a complete Livy was reported to be in
existence in a monastery in Denmark, where two travellers
independently professed to have seen it; but inquiry failed
to verify the claim.
Among the most famous manuscripts of Livy now in existence
are a Codex Mediceus and a Co dex Parisinus, each of the
eleventh century. Portions of bks. iii.-vi. are preserved in
a very old palimpsest at Verona. The third decade is
preserved in a MS. now in Paris (the Codex Puteaneus) of the
eighth century, and in a Mediceus of the eleventh century.
The fourth decade is known from a Codex Moguntinus
(Mayence), now lost, and from a MS. at Bamberg. What is
preserved of the fifth decade is in a sixth-century MS. at
Vienna.
The editio princeps of Livy appeared at Rome about 1469
(bks. xxxiii. and xli.-xlv. omitted). The first critical
edition was that of F. Gronovius (Leyden, 1645). Great
editions are those of Drakenborch with variorum notes and
supplements (7 vols. Amsterdam, 1738-46; reprinted at
Stuttgart, 1820-28, and edited by Bekker and Raschig,
Berlin, 1829 foll.); Madvig, Ussing, and Luchs, not yet
finished (Berlin, 1888 foll.); and Weissenborn and Müller,
with German notes (Berlin, 1867- 1888). Good editions of
separate portions are the following: Bk. i., by Seeley
(Oxford, 1876), Purser (Dublin, 1881), Stephenson (London,
1886); bk. iv., Stephenson (London, 1890); bk. v., Whibley
(London, 1890), Prendeville, 13th ed. (London, 1890); bks.
v.-vii., Cluer and Matheson (London, 1881); bks. vii.-viii.,
Luterbacher (Leipzig, 1890); bks. xxi.-xxii., Lord (Boston,
1891); bks. i., xxi.-xxii., Westcott (Boston, 1891); bks.
xxi.-xxv., Harant (Paris, 1886); bks. xxvi.-xxx., Riemann
(Paris, 1889).
On Livy 's language, see Riemann, Études sur la Langue et la
Grammaire de Tite Live (Paris, 1884). There is a vast
lexicon to Livy , preparing by Fügner, of which in 1894 six
parts had appeared. On the sources of Livy 's history, see
Lachmann, De Fontibus Historiarum T. Livii (Göttingen,
1821); H. Peter, Hist. Reliquiae, i. 89, 198, 225; and
Kieserling, De Rerum Romanarum Scriptoribus Quibus T. Livius
Usus Est (Berlin, 1858).
There is a translation of the whole of Livy into Elizabethan
English by Philemon Holland (London, 1600); of bks. xxi.-
xxv., by Church and Brodribb (2d ed. London, 1890); and of
the whole into German by Klaiber and Teuffel, in 6 vols. (2d
ed. Stuttgart, 1854-56). See Historia.
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Lucius Aurelius Verus (15 December 130 – 169), born as Lucius Ceionius Commodus, known simply as Lucius Verus, was Roman co-emperor
with Marcus Aurelius (121–180), from 161 until his death.
Early life and career
Lucius Verus was the first born son to Avidia Plautia and Lucius Aelius Verus Caesar, the first adopted son and heir of Roman Emperor
Hadrian (76–138). He was born and raised in Rome. Verus had another brother Gaius Avidius Ceionius Commodus and two sisters Ceionia
Fabia and Ceionia Plautia. His maternal grandparents were the Roman Senator Gaius Avidius Nigrinus and the unattested noblewoman
Ignota Plautia. Although his adoptive paternal grandparents were the Roman Emperor Hadrian and Roman Empress Vibia Sabina, his
biological paternal grandparents were the consul Lucius Ceionius Commodus and noblewoman Aelia or Fundania Plautia.
When his father died in early 138, Hadrian chose Antoninus Pius (86–161) as his successor. Antoninus was adopted by Hadrian on the
condition that Verus and Hadrian’s great-nephew Marcus Aurelius was to be adopted by Antoninus as his sons and heirs.
As a prince and future emperor Verus, received careful education from the famous "grammaticus" Marcus Cornelius Fronto. He was
reported to have been an excellent student, fond of writing poetry and delivering speeches. Verus started his political career as a
quaestor in 153, became consul in 154, and in 161 was consul again with Marcus Aurelius as his senior partner...
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The colleague of M. Aurelius in the Empire, A.D. 161-169. He
was born in 130, and his original name was L. Ceionius
Commodus, was adopted by Hadrian in 136; and on the death of
his father in 138, he was, in pursuance of the command of
Hadrian, adopted, along with M. Aurelius, by M. Antoninus. On
the death of Antoninus in 161, Verus succeeded him as emperor
in conjunction with Marcus Aurelius. As to the events of his
rule see Aurelius. He died in A.D. 169.
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Titus Lucretius Carus (ca. 99 BC – ca. 55 BC) was a Roman poet and philosopher. His only known work is the epic philosophical poem
on Epicureanism De rerum natura, translated into English as On the Nature of Things or "On the Nature of the Universe".
Life of Lucretius -
Very little is known about Lucretius's life; the only certain fact is that he was either a friend or a client of Gaius Memmius, to
whom he dedicated De Rerum Natura.
Another piece of information is found in a letter Cicero wrote to his brother Quintus in February 54 BCE. Cicero writes: "The
poems of Lucretius are as you write: they exhibit many flashes of genius, and yet show great mastership."[1] Apparently, by
February 54 BCE both Cicero and his brother had read De Rerum Natura. However, internal evidence from the poem suggests that it
was published without a final revision, possibly due to its author's untimely death. If this is true, Lucretius must have been
dead by February 54 BCE...
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A Roman poet and philosopher who was born probably in B.C. 98 or 96; the year is uncertain. Of his birthplace and parentage nothing is
known. St. Jerome is authority for the statement that he was made insane by a love-philter, and finally committed suicide, having
composed some books in the intervals of his madness. According to Donatus, he died on the same day that Vergil assumed the toga virilis-
October 15, B.C. 55.
Lucretius left but one work, the De Rerum Natura, a didactic poem in six books containing in all nearly 7500 hexameter lines. The
purpose of the poem is to set forth the Epicurean system of philosophy, particularly those portions dealing with the origin of the world
and the operations of natural forces. The poet's aim in writing was, as he tells us, to free men's minds from the baneful influence of
superstition and of the belief in the hereafter, to which he attributed the greater portion of the fears and troubles of life. He
endeavoured to explain how, without the direction or intervention of supernatural agencies in any degree, all natural phenomena may be
accounted for. In Book I, he lays down as fundamental truths the propositions that nothing can come from nothing, and that to nothing
nought returns. The universe is made up of matter and void, or space. It has no centre, for matter exists in infinite quantity, and
space is without limit. Matter is composed of atoms, which are inconceivably minute, perfectly solid, and indestructible. Book II. is
devoted to an elaborate discussion of the atoms, treating of their movements, shapes, and combinations. Sensation and feeling are
declared to be an accident of atomic combination, a result of the coming together of atoms of certain shapes in certain ways. The
subject of the third book is the mind and soul, which, according to the poet, are inseparably united and of material nature, being
composed of the finest and roundest atoms. Many reasons are brought forward to prove that the soul perishes at the same time with the
body. Book IV. deals with the phenomena of sense-perception. From the surface of all objects thin films of matter are continually flying
off, preserving the general outline of that from which they come. These impinge upon our senses, and perception is an immediate result.
Yet in the adaptation of the senses to their functions there is no evidence of design, no sign of creative intelligence. The fifth book
sets forth the perishable nature of the world, its formation from a fortuitous concourse of atoms, the origin of life by spontaneous
generation, the preservation of animal life in accordance with the law of the survival of the fittest, and the development of man in
civilization out of a condition of brutish savagery. In Book VI. the poet attempts to explain the natural phenomena which seem most
terrible and inexplicable, particularly thunder and lightning, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, the changes of the Nile, and the power
of the magnet. The poem ends abruptly with a description of the plague at Athens, and was evidently given to the world before it had
received the final revision of the author.
In the matter of the poem Lucretius followed closely the teachings of Epicurus, whom he revered as guide and master. With a truly Roman
spirit he laid more emphasis upon the reign of law in the universe than his teacher; but he made no contribution in the way of doctrine
to the Epicurean system. Whether he intended to bring his work to a close with a presentation of the ethical views of Epicurus it is
impossible to determine; but numerous references show that in these, also, the poet was fully in sympathy with his master. The form of
the De Rerum Natura was perhaps suggested by that of the poem of Empedocles, On Nature. The thought and manner of expression reveal the
influence of several Greek poets besides Empedocles (notably Homer and Euripides), and of the early Roman poets (particularly Ennius),
as well as of Cicero's Aratea. Yet the poem throughout bears the stamp of a marked individuality. Believing deeply himself in the
mission of Epicureanism as a cure-all for human ills, Lucretius proclaimed its teachings with an almost religious fervor. Previous to
his time this system of philosophy had received only scanty treatment in Latin, that, too, in barbarous prose. From the multitude of its
technical details and the absence of a supernatural element, it seemed incapable of poetic handling. Nevertheless, Lucretius succeeded
not only in presenting the main features of Epicurean physics and psychology with admirable clearness, but even in clothing them with a
highly poetic form. There are, indeed, passages of unequal merit, and now and then the lack of the poet's finishing touches becomes
unpleasantly apparent; yet from beginning to end the poem carries the reader along with a kind of epic movement and interest. It
possesses a unity and continuity inconsistent with the tradition that it was composed "in lucid intervals;" still it is not impossible
that the story of the poet's insanity and selfdestruction may reflect some tragic event of his life. The legend of the madness of
Lucretius was elaborated by Tennyson in a well-known poem.
The De Rerum Natura ranks not only as one of the finest poems in the Latin language, but also as undoubtedly the greatest didactic poem
of all literature. It is masterly in its grasp and handling of the subject-matter, elevated in tone, and finely poetic in expression and
suggestion. As an earnest attempt to adapt Epicureanism to the needs of the Roman life, the De Rerum Natura- apart from its value and
inspiration as literature -is of especial interest at the present time, when atomic materialism under a new form is again challenging
the attention of the philosophic world. Its doctrines form a curious and instructive parallel to those of the advocates of materialistic
evolution, and sometimes foreshadow in a striking manner the conclusions of modern science.
The existing manuscripts of Lucretius are all derived from a single archetype, which has long since disappeared. From this at least
three copies were made. One of these, a beautiful folio of the ninth century, is now at Leyden (called A by Munro). Another was the
parent of a quarto MS. of the tenth century (B), also at Leyden, and of two others of which there are considerable fragments at
Copenhagen and Vienna. The third copy was taken by Poggio to Italy in the fifteenth century, and became the ancestor of the numerous
Italian MSS. of the De Rerum Natura. The editio princeps of the poem was published about 1473 by Ferandus of Brescia. The most important
of the early editions are the first Aldus (1500), edited by Avancius, the Jiunta (1512) by Candidus , and those by Lambinus (Paris,
1563; 2d ed. 1565; 3d ed. 1570, often reprinted). Recent editions are those by Lachmann (Berlin, 1850; 4th ed. of the text, 1871; of the
commentary, 1882), Bernays (text, Leipzig, 1852), Bockemüller (text with commentary, 2 vols., Stade, 1873-74), Kelsey (text of Munro,
with notes to Books I., III., and V., Boston, 1884), but especially by H. A. J. Munro (text, commentary, translation; 4th ed. 3 vols.,
London, 1886). For the poet's philosophy, see Masson, The Atomic Theory of Lucretius contrasted with Modern Doctrines of Atoms and
Evolution (London, 1884); Woltjer, Lucretii Philosophia cum Fontibus Comparata (Groningen, 1877); Bruns, Lucrez-Studien (Freiburg,
1884); Royer, Les Arguments du Matérialisme dans Lucrèce (Paris, 1883); Lange, History of Materialism, vol. i. For his language, see
Holtze, Syntaxis Lucretianae Lineamenta (Leipzig, 1868); Städler, De Sermone Lucretiano (Jena, 1869); Kühn, Quaestiones Lucr.
Grammaticae et Metricae (Breslau, 1869); Kraetsch, De Abundanti Dicendi Genere Lucretiano (Berlin, 1881). For his rank as a poet, see
Sellar's Roman Poets of the Republic (3d ed. 1889); Martha, Le Poème de Lucrèce-Morale, Religion, Science (Paris, 4th ed. 1885).
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Lucius Licinius Lucullus (c.118-57 B.C.), was an optimas
politician of the late Roman Republic, closely connected
with Sulla Felix. In the culmination of over twenty years of
almost continuous military and government service, he became
the main conqueror of the eastern kingdoms in the course of
the Third Mithridatic War, exhibiting extraordinary
generalship abilities in diverse situations, most famously
during the siege of Cyzicus, 73-2 BC, and at the battle of
Tigranocerta in Armenian Arzanene, 69 BC. His command style
received unusually favourable attention from ancient
military experts, and his campaigns appear to have been
studied as exemplary of skillful generalship.[1]
Lucullus returned to Rome from the east with so much
captured booty that the whole could not be fully accounted,
and poured enormous sums into private building, husbandry
and even aquaculture projects which shocked and amazed his
contemporaries by their magnitude. He also patronized the
arts and sciences lavishly, transforming his hereditary
estate in the Tusculan highlands into a hotel-and-library
complex for scholars and philosophers. He built the horti
Lucullani on the Pincian Hill in Rome, the famous gardens of
Lucullus, and in general became a cultural revolutionary in
the deployment of imperial wealth. He died during the winter
of 57-56 B.C.[2] and was buried at the family estate near
Tusculum.
The sober and witty philosopher-historian, Lucius Aelius
Tubero the Stoic, labelled him "Xerxes in a toga".[3] After
his great personal foe Pompey heard this, he came up with
what he considered a very clever joke of his own, calling
Lucullus "Xerxes in a dress"...
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A Roman celebrated as the conqueror of Mithridates. He fought on the side of Sulla in the Civil Wars with the Marian
party, was praetor B.C. 77, and consul in 74. In the latter year he received the conduct of the war against
Mithridates, which he carried on for eight years with great success (see Mithridates), but being unable to bring the
war to a conclusion in consequence of the mutinous disposition of his troops, he was superseded in the command by
Acilius Glabrio, B.C. 67. Glabrio, however, never took the command; but in the following year (B.C. 66) Lucullus had
to resign the command to Pompey, who had been appointed by the Manilian law to supersede both him and Glabrio. On his
return to Rome, Lucullus devoted himself to a life of indolence and luxury, and lived in a style of extraordinary
magnificence. He died in B.C. 57 or 56. He was the first to introduce cherries into Italy, which he had brought with
him from Cerasus in Pontus.
The name of Lucullus became and has continued proverbial for extravagant and studied luxury. His gardens in the
suburbs of the city were extraordinary for their splendour; his villas at Tusculum and Naples were laid out with such
lavish disregard of expense in constructing fishponds (piscinae), cutting through hills and rocks, and throwing out
moles into the sea, that Pompey called him, in derision, "the Roman Xerxes." His domestic service was on a scale of
equal magnificence. A single dinner cost him $10,000.
Lucullus was not, however, a mere sensualist. He collected a fine library, which was open to the public; he enjoyed
the conversation of philosophers and scholars, and himself wrote a work on the history of the Marsic War, composed in
Greek. He was also the patron of the poet Archias, the friend of Cicero. His life was written by Plutarch, and in it
may be found many curious anecdotes of this very remarkable and interesting man.
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Gaius Cilnius Maecenas (13 April 70 BC – ? October 8 BC) was
a confidant and political advisor to Octavian (who was to
become the first Emperor of Rome as Caesar Augustus) as well
as an important patron for the new generation of Augustan
poets. During the reign of Augustus, Maecenas served as a
quasi-culture minister to the Emperor.
His name has become a byword for a wealthy, generous and
enlightened patron of the arts.
Biography
Expressions in Propertius[1] seem to imply that Maecenas had
taken some part in the campaigns of Mutina, Philippi and
Perusia. He prided himself on his ancient Etruscan lineage,
and claimed descent from the princely house of the Cilnii,
who excited the jealousy of their townsmen by their
preponderant wealth and influence at Arretium in the 4th
century BC.[2] Horace makes reference to this in his address
to Maecenas at the opening of his first books of Odes with
the expression "atavis edite regibus" (descendant of kings).
Tacitus[3] refers to him as "Cilnius Maecenas"; it is
possible that "Cilnius" was his mother's nomen - or that
Maecenas was in fact a cognomen...
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A famous statesman, courtier, and patron of literature of
the Augustan Age at Rome. The date of his birth is
uncertain, but is to be placed between the years B.C. 73 and
63, on the 13th of April (Hor. Carm. iv. 11). His family was
of Etruscan origin-a great subject of boasting in a society
where Etruscomania was as great a fad as is Anglomania in
certain American communities to-day-and was even traced to
Porsena, so that we find Augustus addressing him in his
somewhat ironical style as berylle Porsenae (Macrob. Sat.
ii. 4).
He received a careful education, and was well versed in both
Greek and Roman literature, to which he himself contributed
in verse as well as prose. He is thought to have been with
Octavius in Apollonia at the time of the assassination of
Iulius Caesar, perhaps as the director of his studies; and
from this time his name appears continually in conjunction
with that of the future emperor. He assisted in arranging a
marriage between Augustus and Scribonia, the daughter of
Libo, and negotiated the peace of Brundisium by which Antony
and Augustus were temporarily reconciled, and which led to
the marriage of Antony with Octavia, the sister of Augustus
(Dio Cass. xlviii. 16; B. C. v. 64). In B.C. 36 he
accompanied Augustus to Sicily in the campaign against
Sextus Pompeius, from which he was twice sent back to Rome
to suppress revolts that had there broken out. So well did
he discharge the task that he was soon after placed in
charge first of Rome and then of the administration of all
Italy. In this capacity he crushed out the dangerous
conspiracy of the younger Lepidus, which contained the germs
of a disastrous civil war; and in every way he so justified
the confidence reposed in him as to have received from
Augustus his seal and a commission to act with Agrippa as
the personal representative of the young Caesar in all
negotiations with the Senate.
After the establishment of the Empire he continued for a
long time to exercise a supreme influence in the counsels of
Augustus. By his advice, against that of Agrippa, Augustus
decided not to restore the Republic (Dio Cass. lii. 14); and
it was Maecenas who brought about the marriage of Iulia, the
daughter of Augustus, with Agrippa. The influence of
Maecenas over his master continued undiminished until about
the year B.C. 18, when by his own choice the former withdrew
from any active participation in matters of State. This
withdrawal was coincident with a coolness that arose between
the two men, which rendered their personal intercourse one
of much restraint, and which, though it has been often
explained as due to the predominance of Agrippa in the
favour of the emperor, is much more certainly to be ascribed
to the seduction by Augustus of Terentia, the wife of
Maecenas. This woman, beautiful and accomplished, was the
object of her husband's passionate love, and to a nature
such as his-sensitive, ardent, and honourable-the thought of
her continued infidelity was not to be endured with the
complaisant toleration that so many Roman husbands appear to
have exhibited. The city was filled with the pasquinades in
which the wits of the day jeered at the progress of this
amour. Even Augustus, who was remarkably thick-skinned, is
said by Tacitus to have made a journey to Gaul on one
occasion (B.C. 16) to escape the shower of epigrams, jests,
and lampoons, and it is easy to surmise what torture they
must have inflicted upon the statesman who felt himself to
be at once injured and made a public laughing-stock. (See
Dio Cass. liv. 19; lv. 7; Suet. Aug. 68, in which last
passage the Terentilla alluded to in Antony's indecent
letter is undoubtedly Terentia.) Maecenas died in B.C. 8,
leaving no children.
Maecenas is best known as the fosterer of literature and
literary men, so much so that his very name has passed into
all languages as a generic term for a munificent patron of
letters. His enormous fortune (Tac. Ann. xiv. 53, 55) made
it possible for him to give a princely protection and
support to poets, wits, and, in fact, to all the virtuosi of
distinction, who were received with magnificent hospitality
at his mansion on the Esquiline, with its beautiful gardens,
in which he spent nearly all the year, visiting the country
but seldom
(Tac. Ann. xiv. 53). So lavish was his entertainment that
it became open to the charge of being too indiscriminate, so
that Augustus called his table mensa parasitica (Vit.
Horat.). It must be recollected, however, that he drew the
line very sharply between his general hospitality and his
private friendship, which last was reserved for the select
few, such as Vergil and Horace, who were possessed of the
fine culture and delicate feeling so essential to familiar
intercourse among gentlemen.
Much of the personal eccentricity which Maecenas exhibited
must be ascribed to the condition of his health. He suffered
for many years from insomnia and nervous prostration, and
resorted to many devices to secure sleep, listening to soft
music and to the plash in his house of artificial
waterfalls; and his luxurious indolence was perhaps only the
self-indulgence of an invalid, seeking distraction from the
thought of his own condition. His passionate clinging to
life is best expressed in a short verse of his that has come
down to us in the pages of Seneca, and whose frantic
eagerness is at once pathetic and repulsive:
"Debilem facito manu
Debilem pede, coxa;
Tuber adstrue gibberum
Lubricos quate dentes:
Vita dum superest, bene est.
Hanc mihi vel acuta
Si sedeam cruce sustine."
The life of Maecenas has been many times written: in Latin
by Meibom (Leyden, 1653), Lion (Göttingen, 1846); in Italian
by Cenni (Rome, 1684), Dini (Venice, 1704), Santa Viola
(Rome, 1816); in German by Bennemann (Leipzig, 1744),
Frandsen (Altona, 1843); in French by Richer (Paris, 1746);
and in English by Schomberg (London, 1766). See, also,
Weber's Horaz (Jena, 1844); Friedländer, Sittengeschichte
Roms (iii. 389). His poetical fragments are collected in the
Fragmenta Poetarum Romanorum by Bährens (Leipzig, 1886). See
also Harder, Fragmente des Mäcenas (Berlin, 1889); and the
article Horatius.
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Magnus Maximus (ca. 335–August 28, 388), also known as
Maximianus and Macsen Wledig in Welsh, was Western Roman
Emperor of from 383 to 388. As commander of Britain, he
usurped the throne from emperor Gratian in 383. However,
through negotiation with Theodosius I the following year he
was made emperor in Britannia and Gaul - while Gratian's
brother Valentinian II retained Italy, Pannonia, Hispania, and
Africa. Nevertheless Maximus' ambitions led him to invade
Italy in 387, leading to his defeat by Theodosius at the
Battle of the Save in 388. His defeat marked the end of real
imperial activity in northern Gaul and Britain...
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A Roman emperor, A.D. 383-388, in Gaul, Britain, and Spain,
was a native of Spain. He was proclaimed emperor by the
legions in Britain in 383, and forthwith crossed over to Gaul
to oppose Gratian, who was defeated by Maximus, and was
shortly afterwards put to death. Theodosius found it expedient
to recognize Maximus as emperor of Gaul, Britain, and Spain,
in order to secure Valentinian in the possession of Italy.
Maximus, however, aspired to the undivided empire of the West,
and accordingly, in 387, he invaded Italy at the head of a
formidable army. Valentinian was unable to resist him, and
fled to Theodosius in the East. Theodosius forthwith prepared
to avenge his colleague. In 388 he forced his way through the
Noric Alps, which had been guarded by the troops of Maximus,
and shortly afterwards took the city of Aquileia by storm and
there put Maximus to death. Victor, the son of Maximus, was
defeated and slain in Gaul by Arbogastes, the general of
Theodosius.
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Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor, (88 BC – May 40 BC) was a Roman senator and consul. He was a member of the distinguished Claudius
family. He was a friend to Roman senator Cicero, and an early opponent of Julius Caesar.
Descent and family -
He was a direct descendant of consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus. His father was also named Marcus, and his mother was named Junia.
Marcellus married in an arranged ceremony Octavia Minor, a great-niece of Julius Caesar and sister of Octavian. They had three
children: two daughters, both named Claudia Marcella, and a son, Marcus, born in Rome.
Opposition to Julius Caesar -
In 54 BC, Octavia's great-uncle Julius Caesar was said to be anxious for Octavia to divorce Marcellus so that she could marry
Pompey, his rival and son-in-law who had just lost his wife Julia (Caesar's daughter, and thus Octavia's cousin once removed).
However, Pompey apparently declined the proposal and Octavia's husband continued to oppose Julius Caesar, culminating in the
crucial year of his consulship in 50 BC when he tried to recall Julius Caesar from his ten-year governorship in Gaul two years
early, without his army, in an attempt to save the Roman Republic. Failing this, he called unsuccessfully upon Caesar to resign.
He also obstructed Caesar from standing for a second consulship in absentia, insisting that he should return to Rome to stand,
thereby forgoing the protection of his armies in Gaul. When Caesar finally invaded Italy in 49 BC, Marcellus, unlike his brother
and nephew, did not take up arms against him. Caesar subsequently pardoned him.
Later years -
In 47 BC he was able to intercede with Caesar for his cousin and namesake Gaius Claudius Marcellus Maior, also a former consul (49
BC), then living in exile. He died in May 40 BC. Five months later, his widow married Mark Antony. The Roman general Publius
Quinctilius Varus and his two sisters were grandchildren from his first marriage.
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M. Claudius Marcellus, consul B.C. 51 and a bitter enemy of
Caesar. In B.C. 46 he was pardoned by Caesar on the
intercession of the Senate; whereupon Cicero returned thanks
to Caesar in the oration Pro Marcello, which has come down to
us. Marcellus, who was then living at Mitylené, set out on his
return; but he was murdered at the Piraeus by one of his own
attendants, P. Magius Chilo.
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Gaius Marius[1] (157 BC–January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman
general and statesman. He was elected consul an
unprecedented seven times during his career. He was also
noted for his dramatic reforms of Roman armies, authorizing
recruitment of landless citizens, eliminated the manipular
military formations, and reorganizing the structure of the
legions into separate cohorts. Life -
Early career -
Marius was born in 157 BC in the town of Arpinum in southern
Latium. The town had been conquered by the Romans in the
late fourth century BC and was given Roman citizenship
without voting rights. Only in 188 BC did the town receive
full citizenship. Although Plutarch claims that Marius'
father was a laborer, this is almost certainly false since
Marius had connections with the nobility in Rome, he ran for
local office in Arpinum, and he had marriage relations with
the local nobility in Arpinum, which all combine to indicate
that he was born into a locally important family of
equestrian status.[2] The problems he faced in his early
career in Rome show the difficulties that faced a "new man"
(novus homo)...
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Gaius, a distinguished Roman general and statesman, who was
born near Arpinum in B.C. 157 of an obscure family in humble
circumstances. His father's name was C. Marius, and his
mother's Fulcinia; and his parents, as well as Marius
himself, were clients of the noble plebeian house of the
Herennii. So indigent, indeed, is the family represented to
have been, that young Marius is said to have worked as a
common peasant for wages, before he entered the ranks of the
Roman army. (Cf. Juv. viii. 246.) The meanness of his origin
has probably been somewhat exaggerated; but, at all events,
he distinguished himself so much by his valour at the siege
of Numantia in Spain (B.C. 134) as to attract the notice of
Scipio Africanus, who is said to have foretold his future
greatness. His name does not occur again for fifteen years;
but in 119 he was elected tribune of the plebs, when he was
thirty-eight years of age. In this office he came forward as
a popular leader, and proposed a law to give greater freedom
to the people at the elections; and when the Senate
attempted to overawe him, he commanded one of his officers
to carry the consul Metellus to prison.
Marius now became a marked man, and the aristocracy opposed
him with all their might. He lost his election to the
aedileship, and with difficulty obtained the praetorship;
but he acquired influence and importance by his marriage
with Iulia, the sister of C. Iulius Caesar, who was the
father of the future ruler of Rome. In 109 Marius crossed
over into Africa as lieutenant of the consul Q. Metellus.
Here, in the war against Iugurtha, the military genius of
Marius had ample opportunity of displaying itself, and he
was soon regarded as the most distinguished officer in the
army. He also ingratiated himself with the soldiers, who
praised him in the highest terms in their letters to their
friends at Rome. His popularity became so great that he
resolved to return to Rome, and become at once a candidate
for the consulship; but it was with great difficulty that he
obtained from Metellus permission to leave Africa. On his
arrival at Rome he was elected consul with an enthusiasm
which bore down all opposition before it; and he received
from the people the province of Numidia and the conduct of
the war against Iugurtha (B.C. 107). On his return to
Numidia he carried on the war with great vigour; and in the
following year (B.C. 106) Iugurtha was surrendered to him by
the treachery of Bocchus, king of Mauretania. (See
Iugurtha.) Marius sent his quaestor Sulla to receive the
Numidian king from Bocchus. This circumstance sowed the
seeds of the personal hatred which afterwards existed
between Marius and Sulla , since the enemies of Marius
claimed for Sulla the merit of bringing the war to a close
by obtaining possession of the person of Iugurtha.
Meantime Italy was threatened by a vast horde of barbarians,
who had migrated from the north of Germany. The two leading
nations of which they consisted were called Cimbri and
Teutoni, the former of whom are supposed to have been Celts,
and the latter Gauls. To these two great races were added
the Ambrones, and some of the Swiss tribes, such as the
Tigurini. The whole host is said to have contained three
hundred thousand fighting men, besides a much larger number
of women and children. They had defeated one Roman army
after another, and it appeared that nothing could check
their progress. The utmost alarm prevailed throughout Italy;
all party quarrels were hushed. Every one felt that Marius
was the only man capable of saving the State, and he was
accordingly elected consul a second time during his absence
in Africa. Marius entered Rome in triumph on the first of
January, 104, the first day of his second consulship.
Meanwhile, the threatened danger was for a while averted.
Instead of crossing the Alps, the Cimbri marched into Spain,
which they ravaged for the next two or three years. But as
the return of the barbarians was constantly expected, Marius
was elected consul a third time in 103, and a fourth time in
102. In the latter of these years the Cimbri returned into
Gaul. The barbarians now divided their forces. The Cimbri
marched round the northern foot of the Alps, in order to
enter Italy by the northeast, crossing the Tyrolese Alps by
the defiles of Tridentum (Trent). The Teutoni and Ambrones,
on the other hand, marched against Marius, who had taken up
a position in a fortified camp on the Rhône. The decisive
battle was fought near Aquae Sextiae (Aix). The carnage was
dreadful. The whole nation was annihilated, for those who
did not fall in the battle put an end to their own lives.
The Cimbri, meantime, had forced their way into Italy.
Marius was elected consul a fifth time (B.C. 101), and
joined the proconsul Catulus in the north of Italy. The two
generals gained a great victory over the enemy on a plain
called the Campi Raudii, near Vercellae (Vercelli). The
Cimbri met with the same fate as the Teutoni; the whole
nation was destroyed. Marius was received at Rome with
unprecedented honours. He was hailed as the saviour of the
State; his name was coupled with the gods in the libations
and at banquets, and he received the title of third founder
of Rome.
Hitherto the career of Marius had been a glorious one; but
the remainder of his life is full of
Gaius Marius. (Duruy.)
horrors, and brings out the worst features of his character.
In order to secure the consulship the sixth time, he entered
into close connection with two of the worst demagogues that
ever appeared at Rome, Saturninus and Glaucia. He gained his
object, and was consul a sixth time in 100. In this year he
drove into exile his old enemy Metellus; and shortly
afterwards, when Saturninus and Glaucia took up arms against
the State, Marius crushed the insurrection by command of the
Senate. (See Saturninus.) His conduct in this affair was
greatly blamed by the people, who looked upon him as a
traitor to his former friends. For the next few years Marius
took little part in public affairs. He possessed none of the
qualifications which were necessary to maintain influence in
the State during a time of peace, being an unlettered
soldier, rude in manners, and arrogant in conduct. The
Social War again called him into active service (B.C. 90).
He served as legate of the consul P. Rutilius Lupus; and
after the latter had fallen in battle, he defeated the Marsi
in two successive engagements. Marius was now sixtyseven,
and his body had grown stout and unwieldy; but he was still
as greedy of honour and distinction as he had ever been. He
had set his heart upon obtaining the command of the war
against Mithridates, which the Senate bestowed upon the
consul Sulla at the end of the Social War (B.C. 88). In
order to gain his object, Marius allied himself to the
tribune, P. Sulpicius Rufus, who brought forward a law for
distributing the Italian allies, who had just obtained the
Roman franchise, among all the Roman tribes. As those new
citizens greatly exceeded the old citizens in number, they
would of course be able to carry whatever they pleased in
the Comitia. The law was carried, notwithstanding the
violent opposition of the consuls; and the tribes, in which
the new citizens now had the majority, appointed Marius to
the command of the war against Mithridates. Sulla fled to
his army, which was stationed at Nola; and when Marius sent
thither two military tribunes, to take the command of the
troops, Sulla not only refused to surrender the command, but
marched upon Rome at the head of his army. Marius was now
obliged to take to flight. After wandering along the coast
of Latium, and encountering terrible sufferings and
privations, which he bore with unflinching fortitude, he was
at length taken prisoner in the marshes formed by the river
Liris, near Minturnae. The magistrates of this place
resolved to put him to death, in accordance with a command
which Sulla had sent to all the towns in Italy. A Gallic or
Cimbrian soldier undertook to carry their sentence into
effect, and with a drawn sword entered the apartment where
Marius was confined. The part of the room in which Marius
lay was in the shade; and to the frightened barbarian the
eyes of Marius seemed to dart out fire, and from the
darkness a terrible voice exclaimed, "Man, durst thou murder
C. Marius?" The barbarian immediately threw down his sword,
and rushed out of the house. Straightway there was a
revulsion of feeling among the inhabitants of Minturnae.
They got ready a ship, and placed Marius on board. He
reached Africa in safety, and landed at Carthage; but he had
scarcely put his foot on shore before the Roman governor
sent an officer to bid him leave the country. This last blow
almost unmanned Marius; his only reply was, "Tell the
praetor that you have seen C. Marius a fugitive sitting on
the ruins of Carthage." Soon afterwards Marius was joined by
his son, and they took refuge in the island of Cercina.
During this time a revolution had taken place at Rome, in
consequence of which Marius was enabled to return to Italy.
The consul Cinna (B.C. 87), who belonged to the Marian
party, had been driven out of Rome by his colleague
Octavius, and had subsequently been deprived by the Senate
of the consulate. Cinna collected an army, and resolved to
recover his honours by force of arms. As soon as Marius
heard of these changes he left Africa, and joined Cinna in
Italy. Marius and Cinna now laid siege to Rome. The failure
of provisions compelled the Senate to yield, and Marius and
Cinna entered Rome as conquerors. The most frightful scenes
followed. The guards of Marius stabbed every one whom he did
not salute, and the streets ran with the blood of the
noblest of the Roman aristocracy. Among the victims of his
vengeance were the great orator M. Antonius and his former
colleague Q. Catulus. Without going through the form of an
election, Marius and Cinna named themselves consuls for the
following year (B.C. 86). But he did not long enjoy the
honour: he was now in his seventyfirst year; his body was
worn out by the fatigues and sufferings he had recently
undergone; and eighteen days after his assumption of the
consulate he died of an attack of pleurisy. See Plutarch's
life of Marius; Beesly, The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla (N.
Y. 1878); and Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, vol. iii.
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Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial) (March 1, between 38 and 41 AD - between 102 and 104 AD), was a Latin poet from
Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula) best known for his twelve books of Epigrams, published in Rome between AD 86 and 103, during the reigns of
the emperors Domitian, Nerva and Trajan. In these short, witty poems he cheerfully satirises city life and the scandalous activities of his
acquaintances, and romanticises his provincial upbringing. He wrote a total of 1,561, of which 1,235 are in elegiac couplets. He is
considered to be the creator of the modern epigram...
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M. Valerius, a writer of Latin epigrams, was born at
Bilbilis in Spain, in the third year of Claudius, A.D. 43.
He came to Rome in the thirteenth year of Nero, 66; and
after residing in the metropolis thirty-five years, he
returned to the place of his birth, in the third year of
Trajan, 100. He lived there for upwards of three years at
least, on the property of his wife, a lady named Marcella,
whom he seems to have married after his return to Bilbilis.
His death cannot have taken place before 104. His fame was
extended, and his books were eagerly sought for not only in
the city, but also in Gaul, Germany, and Britain; he secured
the patronage of the emperors Titus and Domitian, obtained
by his influence the freedom of the State for several of his
friends, and received for himself, although apparently
without family, the privileges accorded to those who were
the fathers of three children (ius trium liberorum),
together with the rank of tribune and the rights of the
equestrian order. His circumstances appear to have been easy
during his residence at Rome, for he had a mansion in the
city, whose situation he describes, and a suburban villa
near Nomentum, to which he frequently alludes with pride.
The extant works of Martial consist of a collection of short
poems, all included under the general appellation
Epigrammata, upwards of 1500 in number, divided into
fourteen books. Those which form the last two books, usually
distinguished respectively as Xenia and Apophoreta,
amounting to 350, consist of couplets, descriptive of a vast
variety of small objects, chiefly articles of food or
clothing, such as were usually sent as presents among
friends during the Saturnalia and on other festive
occasions. In addition to the above, nearly all the printed
copies include thirty-three epigrams, forming a book apart
from the rest, which has been commonly known as Liber de
Spectaculis, because the contents relate to the shows
exhibited by Titus and Domitian; but there is no ancient
authority for the title. The different books were collected
and published by the author, sometimes singly and sometimes
several at one time. The Liber de Spectaculis and the first
nine books of the regular series involve a great number of
historical allusions, extending from the games of Titus
(A.D. 80) down to the return of Domitian from the Sarmatian
expedition, in January, 94. All these books were composed at
Rome, except the Third, which was written during a tour in
Gallia Togata. The Tenth Book was published twice: the first
edition was given hastily to the world; the second, that
which we now read (x. 2), celebrates the arrival of Trajan
at Rome, after his accession to the throne (A.D. 99). The
Eleventh Book seems to have been published at Rome, early in
100, and at the close of the year he returned to Bilbilis.
After keeping silence for three years (xii. prooem.), the
Twelfth Book was despatched from Bilbilis to Rome (xii. 3,
18), and must therefore be assigned to 104. Books xiii. and
xiv., Xenia and Apophoreta, were written chiefly under
Domitian, although the composition may have been spread over
the holidays of many years. It is well known that the word
epigram (ἐπίγραμμα), which originally denoted simply "an
inscription," was, in process of time, applied to any brief
metrical effusion, whatever the subject might be, or
whatever the form under which it was presented. Martial,
however, first placed the epigram upon the narrow basis
which it now occupies, and from his time the term has been
in a great measure restricted to denote a short poem, in
which all the thoughts and expressions converge to one sharp
point, which forms the termination of the piece. See
Epigramma.
Martial's epigrams are distinguished by singular fertility
of imagination, prodigious flow of wit, and delicate
felicity of language; and from no source do we derive more
copious information on the national customs and social
habits of the Romans during the first century of the Empire.
But, however much we may admire the genius of the author, we
can feel no respect for one whose fulsome servility towards
the great is equalled only by the frightful obscenity of
much that he has written-an obscenity scarcely conceivable
in modern times. He himself seems to feel a certain shame
for so pandering to the corrupt tastes of his rich and
dissolute patrons, and in one epigram he tries to draw the
line between his life and his writings. "My Muse is wanton,
but my life is pure" (i. 4, 8); and in the prose dedication
to the First Book he explains that he is only following out
the traditions of this form of literature; but these are
excuses which, to many minds, only heighten the enormity of
his offence.
The principal value of Martial's epigrams is in the insight
they give us into the daily life of the times, since they
abound in personal details, and are an indispensable
contribution towards the Culturgeschichte of Ancient Rome.
In modern literature they have been continually imitated and
translated, but rarely equalled except now and then by the
French.
The MSS. fall into three "families," of which the typical
representatives are a Paris Codex (T) of the ninth century,
a Codex Palatinus (P) of the fifteenth century, and an
Edinburgh Codex (E) of the tenth century. See the critical
account in the editions of Schneidewin and Friedländer. The
best texts are those of Schneidewin (Grimma, 1842),
Friedländer, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1886), with a list of words;
Gilbert (Leipzig, 1886). Friedländer's edition contains
explanatory notes, but the best commentary on the subject-
matter is his Sittengeschichte Roms, 3 vols (6th ed.
Leipzig, 1888- 1890). Editions of selected epigrams with
English notes are those of Paley and Stone (London, 1881);
Sellar and Ramsay (Edinburgh, 1884); Stephenson (2d ed.
London, 1888); and one (announced) by C. Knapp (N. Y. 1895).
See Brandt, De Martialis Poetae Vita (Berlin, 1853); Van
Stockum, De Martialis Vita et Scriptis (The Hague, 1884);
and on his language, etc., Pankstadt, De Martiale Catulli
Imitatore (Halle, 1876); Zingerle, Martials Ovidstudien
(Innsbruck, 1877); and Stephani, De Martiale Verborum
Novatore (Breslau, 1889).
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Gaius Valerius Galerius Maximinus (c. 20 November 270 – July
or August 313), commonly known as Maximinus Daia or
Maximinus II, was Roman Emperor from 308 to 313. He was born
of peasant stock to the half sister of the emperor Galerius
near their family lands around Felix Romuliana; a rural area
now in the Danubian region of Moesia.
He rose to high distinction after he had joined the army,
and in 305 he was adopted by his maternal uncle Galerius and
raised to the rank of caesar, with the government of Syria
and Egypt. In 308, after the elevation of Licinius to
Augustus, Maximinus and Constantine were declared filii
Augustorum ("sons of the Augusti"), but Maximinus probably
started styling himself after Augustus during a campaign
against the Sassanids in 310. On the death of Galerius, in
311, Maximinus divided the Eastern Empire between Licinius
and himself. When Licinius and Constantine began to make
common cause with one another, Maximinus entered into a
secret alliance with the usurper Caesar Maxentius, who
controlled Italy. He came to an open rupture with Licinius
in 313, he summoned an army of 70,000 men, but still
sustained a crushing defeat at the Battle of Tzirallum, in
the neighbourhood of Heraclea Pontica, on the April 30, and
fled, first to Nicomedia and afterwards to Tarsus, where he
died the following August. His death was variously ascribed
"to despair, to poison, and to the divine justice".[1]
Maximinus has a bad name in Christian annals, as having
renewed persecution after the publication of the toleration
edict of Galerius (see Edict of Toleration by Galerius).
Eusebius of Caesarea[2], for example, writes that Maximinus
conceived an "insane passion" for a Christian girl of
Alexandria, who was of noble birth noted for her wealth,
education, and virginity – Saint Catherine of Alexandria.
When the girl refused his advances, he exiled her and seized
all of her wealth and assets.[3]
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A Roman emperor (305-314), originally called Daza, and
subsequently Galerius Valerius Maximīnus. He was the nephew of
Galerius by a sister, and in early life followed the
occupation of a shepherd in his native Illyria. Having entered
the army, he rose to the highest rank in the service; and upon
the abdication of Diocletian in 305, he was adopted by
Galerius and received the title of Caesar. In 308 Galerius
gave him the title of Augustus, and on the death of the
latter, in 311, Maximinus and Licinius divided the East
between them. In 313 Maximinus attacked the dominions of
Licinius, who had gone to Milan for the purpose of receiving
in marriage the sister of Constantine. He was, however,
defeated by Licinius near Heraclea, and fled to Tarsus, where
he soon after died. Maximinus possessed no military talents.
He owed his elevation to his family connection. He surpassed
all his contemporaries in the profligacy of his private life,
in the general cruelty of his administration, and in the
furious hatred with which he persecuted the Christians. An
account of the two Maximini is given by Iulius Capitolinus in
the Augusta Historia.
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Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus (c. 173 – 238), commonly known as
Maximinus Thrax[1] or Maximinus I, was Roman Emperor from 235
to 238.
Maximinus is described by several ancient sources, though none
are contemporary except Herodian's Roman History. Maximinus
was the first emperor to never set foot in Rome. He was the
first of the so-called barracks emperors of the 3rd century;
his rule is often considered to mark the beginning of the
Crisis of the Third Century...
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Gaius Iulius Verus. A Roman emperor who reigned from A.D. 235 to 238. He was born in a village on the confines of Thrace, of
barbarian parentage, his father being a Goth, and his mother a German from the tribe of the Alani. Brought up as a shepherd,
he attracted the attention of Septimius Severus by his gigantic stature and marvellous feats of strength, and was permitted
to enter the army. He eventually rose to the highest rank in the service; and on the murder of Alexander Severus by the
mutinous troops in Gaul (235 A.D.) he was proclaimed emperor. He immediately bestowed the title of Caesar on his son Maximus.
During the three years of his reign he carried on war against the Germans with success, but his government was characterized
by a degree of oppression and sanguinary excess hitherto unexampled. The Roman world became at length tired of this monster.
The Senate and the provinces gladly acknowledged the two Gordiani, who had been proclaimed emperors in Africa, and after
their death the Senate itself proclaimed Maximus and Balbinus emperors (238 A.D.). As soon as Maximinus heard of the
elevation of the Gordians, he hastened from his winter-quarters at Sirmium. Having crossed the Alps he laid siege to
Aquileia, and was there slain by his own soldiers along with his son Maximus in April. The most extraordinary tales are
related of the physical powers of Maximinus, which seem to have been almost incredible. His height exceeded eight feet. The
circumference of his thumb was equal to that of a woman's wrist, so that the bracelet of his wife served him for a ring. It
is said that he was able single-handed to drag a loaded wagon, could with his fist knock out the teeth, and with a kick break
the leg of a horse; while his appetite was such that in one day he could eat forty pounds of meat and drink an amphora of
wine.
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Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus[1] (15 December 37
– 9 June 68),[2] born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, and
commonly known as Nero, was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68. He
was the last emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was
adopted by his great-uncle Claudius to become his heir and
successor. He succeeded to the throne in 54 following
Claudius' death.
During his reign, Nero focused much of his attention on
diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the
empire. He ordered the building of theaters and promoted
athletic games. His reign included a successful war and
negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire, the suppression
of a revolt in Britain, and the beginning of the First
Roman–Jewish War.
In 64, most of Rome was destroyed in the Great Fire of Rome.
In 68, the rebellion of Vindex in Gaul and later the
acclamation of Galba in Hispania drove Nero from the throne.
Facing assassination, he committed suicide on 9 June 68.[3]
Nero's rule is often associated with tyranny and
extravagance.[4] He is known for a number of executions,
including those of his mother[5] and stepbrother.
He is also infamously known as the emperor who "fiddled
while Rome burned",[6] and as an early persecutor of
Christians. This view is based upon the main surviving
sources for Nero's reign - Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius
Dio. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable
light.[7] Some sources, though, including some mentioned
above, portray him as an emperor who was popular with the
common Roman people, especially in the East.[8]
The study of Nero is problematic as some modern historians
question the reliability of ancient sources when reporting
on Nero's tyrannical acts...
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Claudius Caesar. The sixth of the Roman emperors, born at
Antium, in Latium, A.D. 37, nine months after the death of
Tiberius. He was the son of Domitius Ahenobarbus and
Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus, and was originally
named Lucius Domitius. After the death of Ahenobarbus, and a
second husband, Crispus Passienus, Agrippina married her
uncle, the emperor Claudius, who gave his daughter Octavia
in marriage to her son Lucius, and subsequently adopted him
with the formal sanction of a lex Curiata.
The education of Nero was carefully attended to in his
youth. He was placed under the care of the philosopher
Seneca, and appears to have applied himself with
considerable perseverance to study. He is said to have made
great progress in Greek, of which he gave a specimen in his
sixteenth year, by pleading in that tongue the rights of the
Rhodians, and of the inhabitants of Ilium (Suet. Nero, 7;
Tac. Ann. xii. 58). At the death of Claudius (A.D. 54),
while Agrippina, by flatteries and lamentations, detained
Britannicus, the son of Claudius and Messalina, within the
palace, Nero, presenting himself before the gates, was
lifted by the guard-in-waiting into the covered chariot used
for the purpose of carrying in procession an elected
emperor, and was followed by a multitude of the people,
under the illusion that it was Britannicus. He entered the
camp, promised a donative to the cohorts, was saluted
emperor, and pronounced before the Senate, in honour of
Claudius, a panegyric composed by his preceptor Seneca.
Coin of Nero.
Agrippina soon endeavoured to obtain the chief management of
public affairs; and her vindictive and cruel temper would
have hurried Nero, at the commencement of his reign, into
acts of violence and bloodshed, if her influence had not
been counteracted by Seneca and Burrus, to whom Nero had
intrusted the government of the State. Through their
counsels the first five years of Nero's reign were
distinguished by justice and clemency; and an anecdote is
related of him, that, having on one occasion to sign an
order for the execution of a malefactor, he exclaimed,
"Would that I could not write!" (Suet. Nero, 10). He
discouraged public informers, refused the statues of gold
and silver which were offered him by the Senate and people,
and used every art to ingratiate himself with the latter.
But his mother was enraged to find that her power over him
became weaker every day, and that he constantly disregarded
her advice and refused her requests. His neglect of his wife
Octavia, and his criminal love of Acté, a woman of low
birth, still farther widened the breach between him and his
mother. She frequently addressed him in the most
contemptuous language; reminded him that he owed his
elevation solely to her, and threatened that she would
inform the soldiers of the manner in which Claudius had met
his end, and would call upon them to support the claims of
Britannicus, the son of the late emperor. The threats of his
mother only served to hasten the death of Britannicus, whose
murder forms the commencement of that long catalogue of
crimes which afterwards disgraced the reign of Nero. But
while the management of public affairs appears, from the
testimony of most historians, to have been wisely conducted
by Burrus and Seneca, Nero indulged in private in
dissipation and profligacy. He was accustomed, in company
with other young men of his own age, to sally into the
streets of Rome at night, in order to rob and maltreat
passengers, and even to break into private houses and carry
off the property of their owners. But these extravagances
were comparatively harmless; his love for Poppaea, whom he
had seduced from Otho, led him into more serious crimes.
Poppaea, who was ambitious of sharing the imperial throne,
perceived that she could not hope to attain her object while
Agrippina was alive, and, accordingly, induced Nero to
consent to the murder of his mother. The entreaties of
Poppaea appear to have been supported by the advice of
Burrus and Seneca; and the philosopher did not hesitate to
justify the murder of a mother by her son (Tac. Ann. xiv.
11; Quint.viii. 5).
In the eighth year of his reign, Nero lost his best
counsellor, Burrus; and Seneca had the wisdom to withdraw
from the court, where his presence had become disliked, and
where his enormous wealth was calculated to excite the envy
even of the emperor. About the same time Nero divorced
Octavia and married Poppaea, and soon after put to death the
former on a false accusation of adultery and treason. In the
tenth year of his reign (A.D. 64) Rome was almost destroyed
by fire. Of the fourteen districts into which the city was
divided, four only remained entire. The fire originated at
that part of the Circus which was contiguous to the Palatine
and Coelian Hills, and raged with the greatest fury for six
days and seven nights; and, after it was thought to have
been extinguished, it burst forth again, and continued for
two days longer. Nero appears to have acted on this occasion
with the greatest liberality and kindness; the city was
supplied with provisions at a very moderate price; and the
imperial gardens were thrown open to the sufferers, and
buildings erected for their accommodation. But these acts of
humanity and benevolence were insufficient to screen him
from the popular suspicion. It was generally believed that
he had set fire to the city himself, and some even reported
that he had ascended the top of a high tower in order to
witness the conflagration, where he amused himself with
singing the "Destruction of Troy." From many circumstances,
however, it appears improbable that Nero was guilty of this
crime. His guilt, indeed, is asserted by Suetonius ( Nero,
38) and Dio Cassius (lxii. 17), but Tacitus admits that he
was not able to prove the truth of the accusation ( Ann. xv.
38). In order, however, to remove the suspicions of the
people, Nero spread a report that the Christians were the
authors of the fire, and numbers of them, accordingly, were
seized and put to death. Their execution served as an
amusement to the people. Some were covered with skins of
wild beasts, and were torn to pieces by dogs; others were
crucified; and several were smeared with pitch and other
combustible materials, and burned in the imperial gardens in
the night: "Whence," says the historian, "pity arose
Nero. (Bust in the Louvre.)
for the guilty (though they deserved the severest
punishments), since they were put to death, not for the
public good, but to gratify the cruelty of a single man"
(Tac. Ann. xv. 44).
In the following year (A.D. 65) a powerful conspiracy was
formed for the purpose of placing Piso upon the throne, but
it was discovered by Nero, and the principal conspirators
were put to death. Among others who suffered on this
occasion were Lucan and Seneca; but the guilt of the latter
is doubtful. (See Seneca.) In the same year Poppaea died, in
consequence of a kick which she received from her husband
while she was in an advanced state of pregnancy. A long list
of victims is to be found in the pages of the annalists. The
distinguished general Domitius Corbulo, Thrasea Paetus, and
Barea Soranus are among these.
During the latter part of his reign, Nero was principally
engaged in amateur theatricals, and in contending for the
prizes at the public games. He had previously appeared as an
actor on the Roman stage; and he now visited in succession
the chief cities of Greece, and received no less than 1800
crowns for his victories in the public Grecian games. He
also began the canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, but
ordered the work to be stopped (Dio Cass. lxiii. 6 foll.),
leaving its completion to our own times (1893). On his
return to Italy he entered Naples and Rome as a conqueror,
and was received with triumphal honours. But while he was
engaged in these extravagances, Vindex, who commanded the
legions in Gaul, declared against his authority; and his
example was speedily followed by Galba, who commanded in
Spain. The praetorian cohorts espoused the cause of Galba,
and the Senate pronounced sentence of death against Nero,
who had fled from Rome as soon as he heard of the revolt of
the Praetorian Guards. Nero, however, anticipated the
execution of the sentence which had been passed against him,
by requesting one of his attendants to put him to death,
after making an ineffectual attempt to do so with his own
hands. He died A.D. 68, in the thirty-second year of his
age, and the fourteenth of his reign. See the chapter in
Baring-Gould's Tragedy of the Caesars, vol. ii. (1892).
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Marcus Cocceius Nerva (8 November 30 – 25 January 98),
commonly known as Nerva, was Roman Emperor from 96 to 98.
Nerva became emperor at the age of sixty-five, after a
lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the rulers of
the Flavian dynasty. Under Nero, he was a member of the
imperial entourage and played a vital part in exposing the
Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Later, as a loyalist to the
Flavians, he attained consulships in 71 and 90 during the
reigns of Vespasian and Domitian respectively.
On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated in a palace
conspiracy involving members of the Praetorian Guard and
several of his freedmen. On the same day, Nerva was declared
emperor by the Roman Senate. As the new ruler of the Roman
Empire, he vowed to restore liberties which had been
curtailed during the autocratic government of Domitian.
However, Nerva's brief reign was marred by financial
difficulties and his inability to assert his authority over
the Roman army. A revolt by the Praetorian Guard in October
97 essentially forced him to adopt an heir. After some
deliberation Nerva adopted Trajan, a young and popular
general, as his successor. After barely fifteen months in
office, Nerva died of natural causes on 27 January 98. Upon
his death he was succeeded and deified by Trajan.
Although much of his life remains obscure, Nerva was
considered a wise and moderate emperor by ancient
historians. Recent historians have revised this assessment,
characterizing Nerva as a well-intentioned but ultimately
weak ruler, whose reign brought the Roman Empire to the
brink of civil war. Nerva's greatest success was his ability
to ensure a peaceful transition of power after his death,
thus founding the Nerva-Antonine dynasty...
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Marcus Coccēius. The thirteenth Roman emperor, was born at Narnia, in Umbria, A.D. 27 according to Eutropius (viii. 1), or A.D. 32 according to
Dio Cassius (lxviii. 4). His family originally came from Crete; but several of his ancestors rose to the highest honours of the Roman State. His
grandfather, Cocceius Nerva, who was consul A.D. 22, and a great favourite of the emperor Tiberius, was one of the most celebrated jurists of his
age. Nerva is first mentioned in history as a favourite of Nero, who bestowed upon him triumphal honours, A.D. 66, when he was praetor elect. The
poetry of Nerva , which is mentioned with praise by Pliny and Martial, appears to have recommended him to Nero; and he was employed in offices of
trust and honour during the reigns of Vespasian and Titus, though he incurred the suspicion of Domitian, who banished him to Tarentum. On the
assassination of Domitian, A.D. 96, Nerva succeeded to the sovereign power, through the influence of Petronius Secundus, commander of the
praetorian cohorts, and of Parthenius, the chamberlain of the palace.
The mild and equitable administration of Nerva is acknowledged and praised by all ancient writers, and forms a striking contrast to the bloody
reign of his predecessor. He discouraged informers, recalled the exiles from banishment, relieved the people from some oppressive taxes, and
tolerated the Christians. Many instances of his liberality and clemency are recorded by the younger Pliny ; he allowed no senator to be put to
death during his reign; and he practised the greatest economy, in order to relieve the wants of the poorer citizens. But his impartial
administration of justice met with little favour from the Praetorian Guard,
which had been allowed by Domitian to indulge in excesses of every kind. Enraged at the loss of their benefactor and favourite, they compelled
Nerva to deliver into their hands Parthenius and their own commander Petronius, both of whom they put to death. The excesses of his guards
convinced Nerva that the government of the Roman Empire required greater energy both of body and mind than he possessed, and he accordingly
adopted Trajan as his successor, and associated him with himself in the sovereignty. Nerva died A.D. 98, after a reign of sixteen months and nine
days. His life is sketched by Suetonius.
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Numa Pompilius (753-673 BC; king of Rome, 717-673 BC) was
the second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus
Life and Reign -
Plutarch tells that Numa was the youngest of Pomponius' four
sons, born on the day of Rome's founding (traditionally, 21
April 753 BC). He lived a severe life of discipline and
banished all luxury from his home. Titus Tatius, king of the
Sabines and a colleague of Romulus, married his only
daughter, Tatia, to Numa. After 13 years of marriage, Tatia
died, precipitating Numa's retirement to the country.
According to Livy, Numa resided at Cures immediately before
being elected king.[1]
Livy refers to and discredits the story that Numa was
instructed in philosophy by Pythagoras.[2]
Plutarch reports that some authors credited him with only a
single daughter, Pompilia, others also gave him five sons,
Pompo (or Pomponius), Pinus, Calpus, Mamercus and Numa, from
whom the noble families of the Pomponii, Pinarii, Calpurnii,
Aemilii, and Pompilii respectively traced their descent.
Other writers believed that this was merely a flattery
invented to curry favour with those families. Pompilia,
whose mother is variously identified as Numa's first wife
Tatia or his second wife Lucretia, supposedly married a
certain Marcius and by him gave birth to the future king,
Ancus Marcius.
After the death of Romulus, there was an interregnum of one
year in which each of the Senators enjoyed the royal power
in rotation. In 717 BC Numa was elected by the Roman Senate
to be the next king.
According to Plutarch, he at first refused, however his
father and kinsmen persuaded him to accept. Livy recounts
how Numa, after being summoned by the Senate from Cures,
requested an augur to divine the opinion of the gods on the
prospect of his kingship. Jupiter was consulted and the
omens were favourable.[3]
One of Numa's first acts was the construction of a temple of
Janus as an indicator of peace and war. The temple was
constructed at the foot of the Argiletum, a road in the
city. After securing peace with Rome's neighbours, the doors
of the temples were shut.[4]
Numa was later celebrated for his natural wisdom and piety;
legend says the nymph Egeria taught him to be a wise
legislator. According to Livy, Numa pretended that he held
nightly consultations with the goddess Egeria on the proper
manner of instituting sacred rites for the city.[5] Wishing
to show his favour, the god Jupiter caused a shield to fall
from the sky on the Palatine Hill, which had letters of
prophecy written on it, and in which the fate of Rome as a
city was tied up. Recognizing the importance of this sacred
shield, King Numa had eleven matching shields made. These
shields were the ancilia, the sacred shields of Jupiter,
which were carried each year in a procession by the Salii
priests. He established the office and duties of Pontifex
Maximus and instituted the flamines of Jupiter, Mars and
Quirinus. Numa also brought the Vestal Virgins to Rome from
Alba Longa.[6]
By tradition, Numa promulgated a calendar reform that
adjusted the solar and lunar years, introducing the months
of January and February.[7]
In other Roman institutions established by Numa, Plutarch
thought he detected a Laconian influence, attributing the
connection to the Sabine culture of Numa, for "Numa was
descended of the Sabines, who declare themselves to be a
colony of the Lacedaemonians."
Numa was credited with dividing the immediate territory of
Rome into pagi and establishing the traditional occupational
guilds of Rome:
"So, distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and
trades, he formed the companies of musicians, goldsmiths,
carpenters, dyers, shoemakers, skinners, braziers, and
potters; and all other handicraftsmen he composed and
reduced into a single company, appointing every one their
proper courts, councils, and religious observances."
(Plutarch)
Plutarch, in like manner, tells of the early religion of the
Romans, that it was imageless and spiritual. He says Numa
"forbade the Romans to represent the deity in the form
either of man or of beast. Nor was there among them formerly
any image or statue of the Divine Being; during the first
one hundred and seventy years they built temples, indeed,
and other sacred domes, but placed in them no figure of any
kind; persuaded that it is impious to represent things
Divine by what is perishable, and that we can have no
conception of God but by the understanding".
Numa Pompilius died in 673 BC of old age. He was succeeded
by Tullus Hostilius.
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The second king of Rome, whose name belongs to legend rather than to history. He was a native of Cures, in the Sabine
country, and was elected king one year after the death of Romulus, when the people became tired of the interregnum of
the Senate. He was renowned for his wisdom and his piety; and it was generally believed that he had derived his
knowledge from Pythagoras. His reign was long and peaceful, and he devoted his chief care to the establishment of
religion among his rude subjects. He was instructed by the Camena Egeria, who visited him in a grove near Rome, and
who honoured him with her love. He was revered by the Romans as the author of their whole religious worship. It was he
who first appointed the pontiffs, the augurs, the flamens, the virgins of Vesta, and the Salii. He founded the Temple
of Ianus, which remained always shut during his reign. The length of his reign is stated differently. Livy makes it
forty-three years; Polybius and Cicero, thirty-nine years. The sacred books of Numa, in which he prescribed all the
religious rites and ceremonies, were said to have been buried near him in a separate tomb, and to have been discovered
by accident, 500 years afterwards, in B.C. 181. They were carried to the city-praetor Petilius, and were found to
consist of twelve or seven books in Latin on ecclesiastical law and the same number of books in Greek on philosophy;
the latter were burned by the command of the Senate, but the former were carefully preserved. The story of the
discovery of these books is evidently a forgery; and the books, which were ascribed to Numa, and which were extant at
a later time, were evidently nothing more than works containing an account of the ceremonial of the Roman religion.
See Plutarch, Numa; Dionys. ii. 58.
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Varius Avitus Bassianus[1] (ca. 203 – March 11, 222),
commonly known as Elagabalus or Heliogabalus, was Roman
Emperor from 218 to 222. A member of the Severan Dynasty, he
was Syrian on his mother's side, the son of Julia Soaemias
and Sextus Varius Marcellus. Early in his early youth he
served as a priest of the god El-Gabal at his hometown,
Emesa. Upon becoming emperor he took the name Marcus
Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, and was called Elagabalus only
a long time after his death.
In 217, the emperor Caracalla was assassinated and replaced
by his Praetorian prefect, Marcus Opellius Macrinus.
Caracalla's maternal aunt, Julia Maesa, successfully
instigated a revolt among the Third Legion to have her
eldest grandson, Elagabalus, declared as emperor in his
place. Macrinus was defeated on June 8, 218, at the Battle
of Antioch, upon which Elagabalus, barely fourteen years
old, ascended to the imperial power and began a reign that
was marred by infamous controversies.
During his rule, Elagabalus showed a disregard for Roman
religious traditions and sexual taboos. He replaced the
traditional head of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter, with a
lesser god, Deus Sol Invictus, and forced leading members of
Rome's government to participate in religious rites
celebrating this deity, which he personally led. Elagabalus
was married as many as five times, lavished favors on
courtiers popularly assumed to have been his homosexual
lovers, and was reported to have prostituted himself in the
imperial palace. His reputed behaviour infuriated the
Praetorian Guard, the Senate and the common people alike.
Amidst growing opposition, Elagabalus, only 18 years old,
was assassinated and replaced by his cousin Alexander
Severus on March 11, 222, in a plot formed by his
grandmother, Julia Maesa, and disgruntled members of the
Praetorian Guard. Elagabalus developed a reputation among
his contemporaries for extreme eccentricity, decadence, and
zealotry which was likely exaggerated by his successors and
political rivals.[2] This likely propaganda was passed on
and, as a result, he was one of the most reviled Roman
emperors to early historians. For example, Edward Gibbon
wrote that Elagabalus "abandoned himself to the grossest
pleasures and ungoverned fury."[3] "The name Elagabalus is
branded in history above all others" because of his
"unspeakably disgusting life," wrote B.G. Niebuhr...
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M. Aurelius Antonīnus, a Roman emperor. He was the grandson
of Maesa, sister to the empress Iulia, the wife of Septimius
Severus. Maesa had two daughters, Soaemias or Semiamira, the
mother of the subject of this
Elagabalus. (Bust in the Capitol, Rome.)
article, and Mammaea, mother of Alexander Severus. The true
name of Elagabalus was Varius Avitus Bassianus, and he was
reported to have been the illegitimate son of Caracalla. He
was born at Antioch, A.D. 204. Maesa took care of his
infancy, and placed him, when five years of age, in the
temple of the Sun at Emesa, to be educated as a priest; and
through her influence he was made, while yet a boy, high-
priest of the Sun. That divinity was called in Syria
Elagabal, whence the young Varius assumed the name of
Elagabalus. After the death of Caracalla and the elevation
of Macrinus, the latter having incurred by his severity the
dislike of the soldiers, Maesa availed herself of this
feeling to induce the officers to rise in favour of her
grandson, whom she presented to them as the son of the
murdered Caracalla. Elagabalus, who was then in his
fifteenth year, was proclaimed emperor by the legion
stationed at Emesa. Having put himself at their head, he was
attacked by Macrinus, who at first had the advantage; but he
and his mother Soaemias, with great spirit, brought the
soldiers again to the charge and defeated Macrinus, who was
overtaken in his flight and put to death, A.D. 218.
Elagabalus, having entered Antioch, wrote a letter to the
Senate, professing to take for his model Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus, a name revered at Rome; and he also assumed that
emperor's name. The Senate acknowledged him, and he set out
for Rome, but delayed for several months on his way amid
festivities and amusements, and at last stopped at Nicomedia
for the winter. In the following year he arrived at Rome and
began a career of debauchery, extravagance, and cruelty
which lasted the remaining three years of his reign, and the
disgusting details of which are given by Lampridius,
Herodian, and Dio Cassius. He surrounded himself with
gladiators, actors, and other base favourites, who made an
unworthy use of their influence. He married several wives,
among others a Vestal. The imperial palace became a scene of
debauch and open prostitution. Elagabalus, being attached to
the superstitions of the East, raised a temple on the
Palatine Hill to the Syrian god whose name he bore, and
plundered the temples of the Roman gods to enrich his own.
He put to death many senators, and established a senate of
women, under the presidency of his mother, Soaemias, which
body decided all questions relative to women's dresses, and
to visits, precedence, and amusements. He wore his
pontifical vest as high-priest of the Sun, with a rich tiara
on his head. His grandmother Maesa, seeing his folly,
thought of conciliating the Romans by associating with him,
as Caesar, his younger cousin, Alexander Severus, who soon
became a favourite with the people. Elagabalus, who had
consented to the association, became afterwards jealous of
his cousin and wished to deprive him of his honours, but he
could not obtain the consent of the Senate. His next measure
was to spread the report of Alexander's death, which
produced an insurrection among the praetorians; and
Elagabalus, having repaired to the camp to quell the mutiny,
was murdered, together with his mother and his favourites,
and his body was thrown into the Tiber, A.D. 222. He was
succeeded by Alexander Severus. Elagabalus was eighteen
years of age at the time of his death, and had reigned three
years, nine months, and four days (Lamprid. Elagab.;
Herodian, v. 3 foll.; Dio Cass. lxxviii. 31 foll.; lxxix. 1
foll.).
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Epictetus (Greek: Ἐπίκτητος; AD 55–AD 135) was a Greek Stoic
philosopher. He was born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia
(present day Pamukkale, Turkey), and lived in Rome until
banishment when he went to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece
where he lived the rest of his life. His teachings were noted
down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses.
Philosophy, he taught, is a way of life and not just a
theoretical discipline. To Epictetus, all external events are
determined by fate, and are thus beyond our control, but we
can accept whatever happens calmly and dispassionately.
Individuals, however, are responsible for their own actions,
which they can examine and control through rigorous self-
discipline. Suffering arises from trying to control what is
uncontrollable, or from neglecting what is within our power.
As part of the universal city that is the universe, human
beings have a duty to care for all fellow humans. The person
who followed these precepts would achieve happiness...
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(Ἐπίκτητος). An eminent Stoic philosopher, born in a
servile condition at Hierapolis in Phrygia, about A.D. 50.
The names of his parents are unknown; neither do we know how
he came to be brought to Rome. But in that city he was for
some time a slave to Epaphroditus, a freedman of Nero, who
had been one of his body-guard. An anecdote related by
Origen, which illustrates the fortitude of Epictetus, would
also show, if it were true, that Epaphroditus was a most
cruel master. Epictetus, when his master was twisting his
leg one day, smiled and quietly said, "You will break it";
and when he did break it, only observed, "Did I not tell you
that you would do so?" It is not known how or when Epictetus
managed to effect his freedom, but he could not have been
still a slave when he left Rome in consequence of an edict
against philosophers. This event, the only one in his life
the date of which can be assigned, took place, as has been
said, in the year A.D. 89, being the eighth year of
Domitian's reign. Epictetus then retired to Nicopolis in
Epirus, and it is a question whether he ever returned to
Rome. The chief ground for believing that he did is a
statement of Spartianus (Hadr. 16), that Epictetus lived on
terms of intimacy with the emperor Hadrian; while it is
agreed, on the other hand, that there is no good evidence of
any of his discourses having been delivered at Rome, but
that they contain frequent mention of Nicopolis. This
argument, however, is hardly sufficient to overthrow the
express testimony of Spartianus. It is not known when he
died. Suidas says that he lived till the reign of Marcus
Aurelius, yet the authority of Aulus Gellius is strong on
the other side. He, writing during the reign of the first
Antonine, speaks of Epictetus, in two places, as being dead
(Noct. Att. ii. 18; xvii. 19).
Epictetus led a life of exemplary contentment, simplicity,
and virtue, practising in all particulars the morality which
he taught. He lived for a long while in a small hut, with no
other furniture than a bed and a lamp, and without an
attendant; until he benevolently adopted a child whom a
friend had been compelled by poverty to expose, and hired a
nurse for its sake. A teacher of the Stoic philosophy, he
was the chief of those who lived during the period of the
Roman Empire. His lessons were principally, if not solely,
directed to practical morality. His favourite maxim, and
that into which he resolved all practical morality, was
"bear and forbear," ἀνέχου καὶ ἀπέχου. He appears to have
differed from the Stoics on the subject of suicide. We are
told by Arrian, in his Preface to the Discourses, that he
was a powerful and inspiring lecturer; and, according to
Origen (c. Cels. 7, ad init.), his style was superior to
that of Plato. It is a proof of the estimation in which
Epictetus was held, that, on his death, his lamp was
purchased by some aspirant after philosophy more eager than
wise for 3000 drachmas, or over $500. Though it is said by
Suidas that Epictetus wrote much, there is good reason to
believe that he himself wrote nothing. His Διατριβαί were
taken down by his pupil Arrian, and published after his
death in eight books, of which four remain. The same Arrian
compiled the Enchiridion or "manual," an abstract of the
teaching of his master, and wrote a life of Epictetus, which
is lost. Some fragments have been preserved, however, by
Stobaeus. Simplicius has also left a commentary on his
doctrine in the Eclectic manner. The best edition of the
remains of Epictetus is still that of Schweighäuser, 5 vols.
(Leipzig, 1800). The text and a Latin translation by Dübner
(1840) may be recommended. The best English translations are
those of Higginson, with a sketch of Epictetus (Boston,
1865); Long (London, 1877); and Rolleston (1881). See the
popular work of Canon Farrar, Seekers after God (1863).
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Flavius Eutropius was an Ancient Roman Pagan historian who
flourished in the latter half of the 4th century. He held
the office of secretary (magister memoriae) at
Constantinople, accompanied the Emperor Julian (361–363) on
his expedition against the Persians (363), and was alive
during the reign of Valens (364–378), to whom he dedicates
his Breviarium historiae Romanae and where his history ends.
The Breviarium historiae Romanae is a complete compendium,
in ten books, of Roman history from the foundation of the
city to the accession of Valens. It was compiled with
considerable care from the best accessible authorities, and
is written generally with impartiality, and in a clear and
simple style. Although the Latin in some instances differs
from that of the purest models, the work was for a long time
a favorite elementary school-book. Its independent value is
small, but it sometimes fills a gap left by the more
authoritative records. For the early parts of his work,
Eutropius depended upon an epitome of Livy; for the later
parts, he used the now lost Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte. The
Breviarium was enlarged and continued down to the time of
Justinian by Paulus Diaconus; the work of the latter was in
turn enlarged by Landolfus Sagax (c. 1000), and taken down
to the time of the emperor Leo the Armenian (813–820) in the
Historia Miscella.
Of the Greek translations by Paeanius (around 380) and
Capito Lycius (6th century), the version of the former is
extant in an almost complete state. The best edition of
Eutropius is by H. Droysen (1879), containing the Greek
version and the enlarged editions of Paulus Diaconus and
Landolfus. There are numerous English editions and
translations.
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A Latin historian of the fourth century. He bore arms under
Julian in his expedition against the Parthians, as he
himself informs us (x. 16), and is thought to have risen to
senatorial rank. Suidas makes him of Italian origin, while
some modern writers, on the other hand, advance the
hypothesis that he was a native of Gaul, and was perhaps
identical with the Eutropius to whom some of the letters of
Symmachus are addressed. The manuscripts give him the title
of Vir Cl., which may stand for either Vir Clarissimus or
Vir Consularis, but which in either sense indicates an
advancement to some of the highest offices in the State. He
wrote several works, of which the only one remaining is an
abridgment of Roman history (Breviarium ab Urbe Condita), in
ten books. It is a brief and dry outline, without either
elegance or ornament, yet containing certain facts which are
nowhere else mentioned. The work commences with the
foundation of the city, and is carried on to the death of
Jovian, A.D. 364. At the close of this work Eutropius
announces his intention of continuing the narrative in a
more elevated style, inasmuch as he will have to treat of
great personages still living. It does not appear that he
ever carried this plan into execution. The best editions are
those of Grosse (Halle, 1813), Hartel (Berlin, 1872), and of
Droysen (Berlin, 1878). There is a lexicon to Eutropius by
Eichert (Breslau, 1850). On his style see Sorn, Die
Sprachgebrauch des Eutropius, pt. i. (Halle in Austria,
1888), pt. ii. (Laibach, 1889). The Breviarium was
translated into Greek by one Paeanius, whose version is
still in great part extant, and is edited in Droysen's
edition of Eutropius. See Duncker, De Paeanio Eutropii
Interprete (Greiffenberg, 1880).
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Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus Cunctator (ca. 280 BC–203
BC), was a Roman politician and general, born in Rome around
280 BC and died in Rome in 203 BC. He was Roman Consul five
times (233 BC, 228 BC, 215 BC, 214 BC and 209 BC) and was
twice Dictator in 221 and again in 217 BC. He reached the
office of Roman Censor in 230 BC. His agnomen Cunctator (akin
to the English noun cunctation) means "delayer" in Latin, and
refers to his tactics in deploying the troops during the
Second Punic War. His cognomen Verrucosus means "warty", a
reference to a wart above his upper lip...
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Q. Maxĭmus Verrucōsus, the celebrated opponent of Hannibal.
He is said to have been called Verrucosus from a wart on his
lip, verruca being the Latin name for "a wart." In his first
consulship he triumphed over the Ligurians. After the
victory of Hannibal at Lake Trasimenus (B.C. 217), he was
named prodictator by the unanimous voice of the people, and
was intrusted with the preservation of the Republic. The
system which he adopted to check the advance of Hannibal is
well known. By a succession of skilful movements, marches,
and countermarches, always choosing good defensive
positions, he harassed his antagonist, who could never draw
him into places favourable for his attack, while Fabius
watched every opportunity of availing himself of any error
or neglect on the part of the Carthaginians. This mode of
warfare, which was new to the Romans, acquired for Fabius
the name of Cunctātor or "delayer," and was censured by the
young, the rash, and the ignorant; but it was probably the
means of saving Rome from ruin. Minucius, who shared with
Fabius the command of the army, having imprudently engaged
Hannibal, was saved from total destruction by the timely
assistance of the dictator. In the following year, however,
B.C. 216, Fabius being recalled to Rome, the command of the
army was intrusted to the consul Terentius Varro, who rushed
imprudently to battle, and the defeat at Cannae made
manifest the wisdom of the dictator's previous caution.
Fabius was chosen consul the next year, and was again
employed in keeping Hannibal in check. In B.C. 210, being
consul for the fifth time, he retook Tarentum by stratagem,
after which he narrowly escaped being caught himself in a
snare by Hannibal near Metapontum (Livy, xxvii. 15 foll.).
When, some years after, the question was discussed in the
Senate, of sending Scipio with an army into Africa, Fabius
opposed it, saying that Italy ought first to be rid of
Hannibal. Fabius died some time after at a very advanced
age.
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Gaius Flaminius Nepos was a politician and consul of the Roman Republic in the 3rd century BC. He was the greatest
popular leader to challenge the authority of the Senate before the Gracchi a century later.
In the aftermath of the First Punic War, Flaminius, a novus homo, was the leader of a reform movement which sought to
reorganize state land in Italy. As tribune of the plebs in 232 BC, he passed a plebiscite which divided the land
south of Ariminum, which had been conquered from the Gauls decades before, and gave it to poor families whose farms
had fallen into ruin during the war. The Senate was opposed to this and he did not consult them, contrary to the
constitution and tradition.
Flaminius was governor of Sicily in 227. Meanwhile, the reorganization of the land contributed to a renewed attack on
Roman territory by the Gauls, whom the Romans finally defeated at the Battle of Telamon in 224. In 223 Flaminius was
elected consul for the first time, and with Publius Furius Philus he forced the Gauls to submit to Rome, creating the
province of Cisalpine Gaul.
In 221 Flaminius was magister equitum to Marcus Minucius Rufus, then in 220 chosen as censor along with Lucius
Aemilius Papus. During his term he arranged for the Via Flaminia to be built from Rome to Ariminum, established
colonies at Cremona and Placentia, reorganized the Centuriate Assembly to give the poorer classes more voting power,
and built the Circus Flaminius on the Campus Martius. In 218, while serving in the Senate, he was the only senator to
support the Lex Claudia, which prohibited senators from participating in overseas trade.
In 217, during the invasion of Italy by Hannibal, he was re-elected consul with Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, in what was
considered a rebuke of the Senate's prosecution of the war. Flaminius raised new legions and marched north to meet
Hannibal, but was ambushed at Lake Trasimene. The army was destroyed and Flaminius was killed in 27 April 217 B.C.
His supporters in the Senate began to lose power to the more aristocratic factions, and the Romans feared Hannibal
would besiege their city. The Senate appointed as dictator Fabius Maximus.
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Gaius, consul for the first time in B.C. 223, when he gained a victory over the Insubrian Gauls; and censor in 220,
when he executed two great works which bore his name-viz., the Circus Flaminius and the Via Flaminia. In his second
consulship (217 B.C.) he was defeated and slain by Hannibal, at the battle of the Lake Trasimenus (Livy, xxi. 57;
63; id. xxii., etc.; Polyb. ii. 32, etc.).
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Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus (c. 260 - April or May
311), commonly known as Galerius, was Roman Emperor from 305
to 311. During his reign he campaigned, aided by Diocletian,
against the Sassanid Empire, sacking their capital Ctesiphon
in 299.
Early life
Galerius was born on a small farm estate, on the site where
he later built his palace, Felix Romuliana.[5] His father
was a Thracian and his mother Romula was a Dacian woman, who
left Dacia because of the Carpians' attacks.[10] He
originally followed his father's occupation, that of a
herdsman, where he got his surname of Armentarius (Latin:
armentum, herd). He served with distinction as a soldier
under Emperors Aurelian and Probus, and in 293 at the
establishment of the Tetrarchy, was designated Caesar along
with Constantius Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's
daughter Valeria (later known as Galeria Valeria), and at
the same time being entrusted with the care of the Illyrian
provinces. Soon after his appointment, Galerius would be
dispatched to Egypt to fight the rebellious cities Busiris
and Coptos...
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Galerius Maximiānus, usually called Galerius, Roman emperor,
A.D. 305-311. He was first made Caesar by Diocletian, whose
daughter he had married; and upon the abdication of Diocletian
and Maximianus (305 A.D.), he became Augustus or emperor. He
died in 311, of the disgusting disease known in modern times
by the name of morbus pediculosus. He was a cruel persecutor
of the Christians.
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Aelia Galla Placidia (392 – November 27, 450), daughter of the Roman Emperor Theodosius I, was
the consort of Ataulf king of the Goths and after his death the Empress consort of Constantius
III, Western Roman Emperor. Family -
Placidia was the daughter of Roman Emperor Theodosius I and his second wife Galla.[1] Her older
brother Gratian died young. Her mother died in childbirth in 394, giving birth to John, who
died with their mother.[2] Placidia was a younger, paternal half-sister of Emperors Arcadius
and Honorius. Her older half-sister Pulcheria predeceased her parents as mentioned in the
writings of Gregory of Nyssa, placing the death of Pulcheria prior to the death of Aelia
Flaccilla, first wife of Theodosius I, in 385.[3] Her paternal grandparents were Count
Theodosius and his wife Thermantia, as mentioned in the "Historia Romana" by Paul the Deacon.
Her maternal grandparents were Valentinian I and his second wife Justina, as mentioned by
Jordanes...
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Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus[1] (c. 218 – 268), commonly known as Gallienus, was Roman Emperor with his father
Valerian from 253 to 260, and alone from 260 to 268. He took control of the empire at a time when it was undergoing
great crisis. His record in dealing with those crises is mixed, as he won a number of military victories but was
unable to keep much of his realm from seceding.
Life -
Rise to power
Based on the testimony of John Malalas and the Epitome de Caesaribus that Gallienus was about 50 years old at the
time of his death, it is generally considered he was born around 218, son of Valerian and Mariniana, a woman possibly
of senatorial rank and possibly a daughter of Egnatius Victor Marinianus, and brother of Valerianus Minor.[2]
Inscriptions on coins connect him with Falerii in Etruria and this may well have been his birthplace; it has yielded
many inscriptions relating to his mother's family, the Egnatii.[3]
He married to Cornelia Salonina about ten years before his accession to the throne. She was the mother of three
princes, Valerian II (who died in 258), Saloninus (who, after becoming co-emperor, died in 260 by the hand of his
general Postumus), and Marinianus[4] (killed in 268, shortly after his father was assassinated).
When his father Valerian was proclaimed emperor on 22 October 253, he asked the Senate to ratify Gallienus' elevation
to Caesar and Augustus, in order to share the power between two persons. He was also designated Consul Ordinarius for
254.
As Marcus Aurelius and his adopted brother Lucius Verus had done a hundred years before them, Gallienus and his
father divided the Empire; Valerian struck for the East to stem the Persian threat and Gallienus remained in Italy to
repel the Germanic tribes on the Rhine and Danube. This policy made sense not simply because the unhappy fates of
several Emperors previous to this duo had made it clear that one man simply could not rule a state this size;
equally, a 'barbarian' enemy suing for peace in this time tended to demand that they be allowed to apply to the
'chief' or 'king' of the victorious side. Therefore, an Emperor had to be available to negotiate if such a situation
arose...
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Placidia, daughter of the preceding by Theodosius. When Alaric
took Rome in A.D. 410, she fell into his hands, and four years
later was married by Ataulphus, king of the Goths. Upon his
death she was returned to her country, and in 417 married
Constantius III., by whom she had the emperor Valentinian III.
During the minority of her son she was regent of the Western
Empire, dying about the year 450. See Gibbon, Decline and
Fall, chapters xxxi., xxxiii., xxxv.
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Galliēnus, Publius Licinius Valeriānus Egnatius
A son of the emperor Valerian, made Caesar and colleague to his father in A.D. 253. He defeated, in a great
battle near Mediolanum (Milan), the Alemanni and other northern tribes which had made an irruption into Upper
Italy, and gave evidence on that occasion of his personal bravery and abilities. He was also well-informed in
literature, and was both an orator and a poet, winning some distinction by an epithalamium. When Valerian was
taken prisoner by the Persians, A.D. 260, Gallienus took the reins of government, and was acknowledged as
Augustus. He appears to have then given himself up to debauchery and the company of profligate persons,
neglecting the interests of the Empire, and taking no pains to effect the release of his father from the hard
captivity in which he died. The barbarians attacked the Empire on every side, revolts broke out in various
provinces, where several commanders assumed the title of emperor, while Gallienus was loitering at Rome with his
favourites. Yet now and then he seemed to awaken from his torpor at the news of the advance of the invaders;
and, putting himself at the head of the legions, he defeated Ingenuus, who had usurped the imperial title in
Illyricum. Gallienus disgraced his victory by horrible cruelties. Mean
time Probus, Aurelianus, and other able commanders were strenuously supporting the honour of the Roman arms in
the East, where Odenatus of Palmyra acted as a useful ally to the Romans against the Persians. Usurpers arose in
Egypt, in the Gauls, in Thrace, in almost every province of the Empire, from which circumstance this period has
been styled the Reign of the Thirty Tyrants. At last Aureolus, a man of obscure birth, some say a Dacian
shepherd originally, but a brave soldier, was proclaimed emperor by the troops in Illyricum, entered Italy, took
possession of Mediolanum, and even marched against Rome while Gallienus was absent. Gallienus returned quickly,
repulsed Aureolus, and defeated him in a great battle, near the Addua, after which the usurper shut himself up
in Mediolanum. Here he was besieged by Gallienus; but, during the siege (A.D. 268), the emperor was murdered by
conspirators (Aurel. Vict. 33; Eutrop. ix. 8; Trebell. Poll. Gallien., Zonaras, xii. 24 foll.). The reign of
Gallienus is memorable for the plague that swept over the Empire. During its height, it is said that there were
5000 deaths daily in the city of Rome; while the population of Alexandria was diminished nearly two thirds. The
plague was followed by a general famine.
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Publius Septimius Geta (7 March 189 – 19 December 211), was a Roman Emperor co-ruling with his father Septimius Severus and his older
brother Caracalla from 209 to his death.
Early life
Geta was the younger son of Septimius Severus by his second wife Julia Domna. Geta was born in Rome, at a time when his father was
only a provincial governor at the service of emperor Commodus.
Geta was always in a place secondary to his older brother Lucius, the heir known as Caracalla. Perhaps due to this, the relations
between the two were difficult from their early years. Conflicts were constant and often required the mediation of their mother. To
appease his youngest son, Septimius Severus gave Geta the title of Augustus in 209. During the campaign against the Britons of the
early 3rd century, the imperial propaganda publicized a happy family that shared the responsibilities of rule. Caracalla was his
father's second in command, Julia Domna the trusted counsellor and Geta had administrative and bureaucratic duties. Truth was that the
rivalry and antipathy between the brothers was far from being improved.
Joint Emperor
When Septimius Severus died in Eboracum in the beginning of 211, Caracalla and Geta were proclaimed joint emperors and returned to
Rome.
Regardless, the shared throne was not a success: the brothers argued about every decision, from law to political appointments. Later
sources speculate about the desire of the two of splitting the empire in two halves. By the end of the year, the situation was
unbearable. Caracalla tried to murder Geta during the festival of Saturnalia without success. Later in December he arranged a meeting
with his brother in his mother's apartments, and had him murdered in her arms by centurions.
Following Geta's assassination, Caracalla damned his memory and ordered his name to be removed from all inscriptions. The now sole
emperor also took the opportunity to get rid of his political enemies, on the grounds of conspiracy with the deceased. Cassius Dio [1]
stated that around 20,000 persons of both sexes were killed and/or proscribed during this time.