Manners & Customs
The Talmud indicates that a leper could not come within 4
cubits of any Israelite or 100 cubits if there was an east
wind blowing. The Mishnah indicates that any contact with a
leper, his dwelling, or any of his possessions would make a
person ceremonially unclean. According to Leviticus 13:45 a
leper was commanded to cry "unclean, unclean" when he was
near any Israelite. According to Josephus there were many
lepers in the land and they were forbidden to come into a
city at all or to live with any anyone in a house. The leper
was to be treated as a dead person.
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The Talmud indicates that a leper could not come within 4
cubits of any Israelite or 100 cubits if there was an east
wind blowing. The Mishnah indicates that any contact with a
leper, his dwelling, or any of his possessions would make a
person ceremonially unclean. According to Leviticus 13:45 a
leper was commanded to cry "unclean, unclean" when he was
near any Israelite. According to Josephus there were many
lepers in the land and they were forbidden to come into a
city at all or to live with any anyone in a house. The leper
was to be treated as a dead person.
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The Bible mentions an alabaster flask or box or more accurately "an alabastron", a small contaner which was filled with costly spikenard (perfumed oil). Mary came to the house of Simon the leper to anoint Jesus by breaking the jar and pouring the spikenard on his head in Mark 14. In the ancient world one of the purposes for anointing the head was to show respect and honor to the person receiving it. Alabaster was a soft stone resembling marble, and many of these jars came from Egypt. Alabaster jars contained many interesting colors, some were translucent with veins of yellow, brown, and red. The alabaster jar usually contained olive oil, or a costly ointment or perfume. It had a long neck designed to restrict the flow and prevent waste. Mary broke the top in order to pour out the spikenard. [Life of Jesus]
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The Bible mentions an alabaster flask or box or more accurately "an alabastron", a small contaner which was filled with costly spikenard (perfumed oil). Mary came to the house of Simon the leper to anoint Jesus by breaking the jar and pouring the spikenard on his head in Mark 14. In the ancient world one of the purposes for anointing the head was to show respect and honor to the person receiving it. Alabaster was a soft stone resembling marble, and many of these jars came from Egypt. Alabaster jars contained many interesting colors, some were translucent with veins of yellow, brown, and red. The alabaster jar usually contained olive oil, or a costly ointment or perfume. It had a long neck designed to restrict the flow and prevent waste. Mary broke the top in order to pour out the spikenard. [Life of Jesus]
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Luke 5:12-14 - And it came to pass, when he was in a
certain city, behold a man full of leprosy: who seeing
Jesus fell on his face, and besought him, saying, Lord,
if thou wilt, thou canst make me clean. And he put forth
his hand, and touched him, saying, I will: be thou clean.
And immediately the leprosy departed from him. And he
charged him to tell no man: but go, and shew thyself to
the priest, and offer for thy cleansing, according as
Moses commanded, for a testimony unto them.
Luke tells us that a man "full of leprosy" came to Jesus
and "fell on his face." The leper came, perhaps from his
primitive dwelling in the fields to speak with Jesus. He
had no doubt heard Jesus message and believed in him. The
Bible says the leper came to Jesus and "worshiped" him.
He certainly knew that in the Law it was forbidden to bow
down and worship any man, but only God. Jesus took note
of this as the leper pleaded with him, "if you are
willing you can make me clean," Jesus suddenly reached
out and touched the man, and then spoke the word "I am
willing, be clean" and the leprosy left the man. You can
feel the compassion that Jesus had for this poor man, as
Jesus reached out and touched him. This would have been a
shock if anyone was close enough to observe, because
touching a leper meant instant uncleanness. In reverence
for the Law (Lev 14:2) he told the leper to go and
present himself to the priest and offer the gift as a
testimony to them.
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During ancient biblical times there was a loathsome disease
called leprosy (Heb. tzarah meaning smitten and Gr. lepra
meaning scaly) of which there was no known cure. It was an
uncontrollable, slowly growing disease that would cause
swollen lumps on the skin and ulcerous scabs all over the
body. There was a numbness sensation that caused the leper
to scratch himself, and damage his body unknowingly. A
leprous person would look scaly and very deformed, their
hair and body was noticeably white and therefore they were
easy to identify. Their bodies would rot, body parts would
deform, and fingers and toes and sometimes feet would fall
off. The leper would drag himself along and his voice would
often sound like a dog growling or howling in pain. The only
hope and rest for the leper was death.
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In biblical times lepers were considered unclean, and they
were forced to separate themselves from the public. The mere
touch of a leper brought uncleanness, and breathing the same
air of a leper was believed to be dangerous. When someone
was pronounced "leprous" they were looked upon as dead and
cast out of society to dwell in a special place or colony in
the wilderness, living in caves or tents. In ancient Israel
lepers were commanded to wear certain clothes, keep
themselves a certain distance from people, wear special
bells, and they had to cry "unclean unclean" if someone was
too close (Lev 13:45). The rabbis viewed leprosy as a
chastisement from God because of moral issues.
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The ancient Jewish Law made no provision for the cleansing
of a leper, but only the ability to declare someone clean
who had been suspected of leprosy. The Law required lepers
to be quarantined, and there were strict rules for
ceremonial cleansing. For a man that was suspected of
leprosy the priest would make the decision if the disease
was harmless or dangerous. He would examine the skin, hair,
and beard and if the man was "smitten with the plague of
leprosy" he would be cast out of society. The priest would
also give the word if the disease was harmless and the man
would be considered "ceremonially clean" and he could live a
normal life.
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The Tax Collectors,
Overview ,
Their Name,
Their History ,
Their Customs ,
NT Tax Collectors ,
Jesus and Tax Collectors,
Dictionaries ,
Encyclopedias ,
Index,
Conclusion
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The Jewish people were under the yoke of foreign oppressors ever since the Babylonian captivity. During the New Testament times the land of Israel was within the province of Syria and the tax collectors were collectors of Roman taxes, they were extortioners, and very despised.
The Jews detested these tax collectors not only on account of their abusive and tyrannical attitude, but because the very taxes that they were forced to collect by the Roman government were a badge of servitude and a constant reminder that God had forsaken His people. The tax collectors were always classed by the people with the harlots, usurers, gamblers, thieves, and dishonest herdsmen, who lived promiscuous, lawless lives. Some of the common terms for the tax collectors were "licensed robbers" and "beasts in human shape."
According to Rabbinism there was no hope for a tax collector. They were excluded from all religious fellowship including the Temple and Synagogue. Their money was considered tainted and it defiled anyone who accepted it. They could not serve as a witness in any court in Israel. The Rabbis had no word to describe any sort of help for the tax collector, because they expected him to externally conform to the law in order to be justified before God.
Ancient Jewish writings reveal some interesting views of Rabbis toward the tax collectors:
"As one robber disgraced his whole family, so one publican in a family; promises were not to be kept with murderers, thieves and publicans" -Nedar 3:4
"The synagogue alms box and the temple corban must not receive their alms" -Baba Kama 10:1
"It was not lawful to use riches received from them, as gotten by rapine; nor could they judge or give testimony in court -Sanhedr. 25, sec. 2
The attitude of Jesus toward the tax collectors was in stark contrast to that of the Rabbis. He had come to seek and save the lost. The Pharisees were separatists, and did not lower themselves to have anything to do with a tax collector, who was to them no better than a Gentile. But Jesus came not to condemn anyone, but to save every sinner and offer a better life. He never taught that there was anything inherently wrong with paying tribute to the Roman Government or collecting the tax. He was opposed to extortioners, but would fling open the door of repentance and salvation to them. He rejected none, not even the worst.
Jesus made himself a friend of men, even of the tax collectors and the worst of sinners. He set a new precedent among the Jews by accepting and associating with the tax collectors. He ate with them (Mark 2:16), He offered salvation to them (Luke 19:9), and He even chose a tax collector (Matthew) as one of His twelve disciples (Matt 9:9).
Luke 18:9-14 "Also He spoke this parable to some who trusted in themselves that they were righteous, and despised others: Two men went up to the temple to pray, one a Pharisee and the other a tax collector. The Pharisee stood and prayed thus with himself, 'God, I thank You that I am not like other men--extortioners, unjust, adulterers, or even as this tax collector. I fast twice a week; I give tithes of all that I possess.' And the tax collector, standing afar off, would not so much as raise his eyes to heaven, but beat his breast, saying, 'God, be merciful to me a sinner!' I tell you, this man went down to his house justified rather than the other; for everyone who exalts himself will be humbled, and he who humbles himself will be exalted."
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According to Rabbinism there was no hope for a tax collector. They were excluded from all religious fellowship including the Temple and Synagogue. Their money was considered tainted and it defiled anyone who accepted it. They could not serve as a witness in any court in Israel. The Rabbis had no word to describe any sort of help for the tax collector, because they expected him to externally conform to the law in order to be justified before God.
Ancient Jewish writings reveal some interesting views of Rabbis toward the tax collectors:
"As one robber disgraced his whole family, so one publican in a family; promises were not to be kept with murderers, thieves and publicans" -Nedar 3:4
"The synagogue alms box and the temple corban must not receive their alms" -Baba Kama 10:1
"It was not lawful to use riches received from them, as gotten by rapine; nor could they judge or give testimony in court -Sanhedr. 25, sec. 2
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The attitude of Jesus toward the tax collectors was in stark contrast to that of the Rabbis. He had come to seek and save the lost. The Pharisees were separatists, and did not lower themselves to have anything to do with a tax collector, who was to them no better than a Gentile. But Jesus came not to condemn anyone, but to save every sinner and offer a better life. He never taught that there was anything inherently wrong with paying tribute to the Roman Government or collecting the tax. He was opposed to extortioners, but would fling open the door of repentance and salvation to them. He rejected none, not even the worst.
Jesus made himself a friend of men, even of the tax collectors and the worst of sinners. He set a new precedent among the Jews by accepting and associating with the tax collectors. He ate with them (Mark 2:16), He offered salvation to them (Luke 19:9), and He even chose a tax collector (Matthew) as one of His twelve disciples (Matt 9:9).
Luke 18:9-14 "Also He spoke this parable to some who trusted in themselves that they were righteous, and despised others: Two men went up to the temple to pray, one a Pharisee and the other a tax collector. The Pharisee stood and prayed thus with himself, 'God, I thank You that I am not like other men--extortioners, unjust, adulterers, or even as this tax collector. I fast twice a week; I give tithes of all that I possess.' And the tax collector, standing afar off, would not so much as raise his eyes to heaven, but beat his breast, saying, 'God, be merciful to me a sinner!' I tell you, this man went down to his house justified rather than the other; for everyone who exalts himself will be humbled, and he who humbles himself will be exalted."
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The term "tax collector" or "tax gatherer" is from the Greek word "telones" and the King James Version of the Bible translates the word "publican," although the Greek word telones were really NOT the publicans. Publicans were wealthy men, usually non-Jewish, who contracted with the Roman government to be responsible for the taxes of a particular district of the imperial Roman state.
The Publican collected income tax for Rome. Sometime around 200 B.C. the Roman Senate found it fitting to farm the vectigalia (direct taxes) and the portoria (customs) to capitalists, who agreed to pay a substantial sum into the publicum (treasury) and so received the name of publicani.
The Roman class who handled the contracts and financial arrangements were called equites. They often went further in their dealings with the publicani and formed a joint-stock societas (company) partnership with them or one of their agents magister (manager). This manager usually resided at Rome and conducted business and paying profits to all partners through the submagistri (officer) who lived among the provinces. Directly under their authority were the portitores (customhouse officers) who would examine all goods, whether imported or exported, assess the value, wrote out a ticket and enforced payment. They would live within the province where they were stationed and come into contact with all classes of the population. It was these portitores who were referred to as the Tax Gatherers (telones) in the New Testament.
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The Tax Collectors in the Roman Empire
The Tax Collector or Tax Gatherer is the Greek word "telones" and the King James Version of the Bible translates the word "publican." He was contracted by Rome to collect taxes for the government during New Testament times. The Greek word telones were really NOT the publicans. Publicans were wealthy men, usually non-Jewish, who contracted with the Roman government to be responsible for the taxes of a particular district of the imperial Roman state. These publicans would often be backed by military force.
The telones tax collectors to which the New Testament refers (with the exception of Zacchaeus?) were employed by publicans to do the actual collecting of taxes within the areas where they lived. These men were Jews, usually not very wealthy, who could be seen in the Temple (Luke 18:13). They were probably very familiar with the people from whom they collected taxes.
The Publican collected income tax for Rome. Sometime around 200 B.C. the Roman Senate found it fitting to farm the vectigalia (direct taxes) and the portoria (customs) to capitalists, who agreed to pay a substantial sum into the publicum (treasury) and so received the name of publicani.
The Roman class who handled the contracts and financial arrangements were called equites. They often went further in their dealings with the publicani and formed a joint-stock societas (company) partnership with them or one of their agents magister (manager). This manager usually resided at Rome and conducted business and paying profits to all partners through the submagistri (officer) who lived among the provinces. Directly under their authority were the portitores (customhouse officers) who would examine all goods, whether imported or exported, assess the value, wrote out a ticket and enforced payment. They would live within the province where they were stationed and come into contact with all classes of the population. It was these portitores who were referred to as the Tax Gatherers (telones) in the New Testament.
These tax-gatherers were usually Jews and would collect taxes for Rome and it was understood that they were to keep a "fraction" for themselves. There was really no real way to prevent that fraction from assuming great proportions, and in fact fraudulent exactions were encouraged. Although there were some honorable exceptions, the publicans, great and small, were really extortioners.
Luke 3:12-15 "Then tax collectors also came to be baptized, and said to him, "Teacher, what shall we do?" And he said to them, "Collect no more than what is appointed for you." Likewise the soldiers asked him, saying, "And what shall we do?" So he said to them, "Do not intimidate anyone or accuse falsely, and be content with your wages."
The Jewish people were outraged by the Publicans and regarded them as traitors and apostates. They were considered defiled by their constant contact with the heathen, even Rome’s willing instruments of oppression. Zacchaeus was called a "chief tax-gatherer" (Greek: ‘architelones’) in Luke 19:2 and his kind were utterly despised. Yet Jesus showed mercy on him:
Luke 19:8-10 "Then Zacchaeus stood and said to the Lord, "Look, Lord, I give half of my goods to the poor; and if I have taken anything from anyone by false accusation, I restore fourfold." And Jesus said to him, "Today salvation has come to this house, because he also is a son of Abraham; for the Son of Man has come to seek and to save that which was lost."
In Augustus's day (27 B.C.-A.D. 14) the practice of selling tax-collection contracts to joint-stock companies ceased, and tax collectors were put on the public payroll. Thus a kind of Internal Revenue Service was established and continued through the rest of the NT period.
Edersheim makes an interesting comment:
"The Talmud distinguishes two classes of publicans-the tax-gatherer in general (Gabbai) and the Mokhes or Mokhsa, who was specially the douanier, or customhouse official. Although both classes fell under the rabbinic ban, the douanier-such as Matthew was-was the object of chief execration. And this because his exactions were more vexatious and gave more scope to rapacity. The Gabbai, or tax-gatherer, collected the regular dues, which consisted of ground, income, and poll tax. . . . If this offered many opportunities for vexatious exactions and rapacious injustice, the Mokhes might inflict much greater hardship upon the poor people. There was a tax and duty upon all imports and exports; on all that was bought and sold; bridge money, road money, harbor dues, town dues, etc. The classical reader knows the ingenuity which could invent a tax and find a name for every kind of exaction, such as on axles, wheels, pack animals, pedestrians, roads, highways; on admission to markets; on carriers, bridges, ships, and quays; on crossing rivers, on dams, on licenses-in short, on such a variety of objects that even the research of modern scholars has not been able to identify all the names. But even this was as nothing compared to the vexation of being constantly stopped on the journey, having to unload all one's pack animals, when every bale and package was opened, and the contents tumbled about, private letters opened, and the Mokhes ruled supreme in his insolence and rapacity" (Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 1:515 ff.).
These tax collectors gathered several different types of taxes. Rome levied upon the Jews a land tax, a poll tax, even a tax for the operation of the Temple. There were different kinds of taxes for every territory. For example, since some provinces, like Galilee, were not under an imperial governor, taxes remained in the province rather than going to the imperial treasury at Rome. This is one reason why the Pharisees in Judea (an imperial province) came to ask Jesus, "Is it lawful to pay taxes to Caesar, or not?" (Matt 22:17).
Levi or Matthew, gathered the customs on exports and imports and taxes (Matt 9:9-11; Mark 2:14, etc.). The office for "receipt of custom" was at city gates, on public roads, or bridges. Levi's post was on the great road between Damascus and the seaports of Phoenicia.
Zacchaeus' head quarters were in Jericho, which was a great center for the balsam trade. In fact this was the territory where the famed Marc Anthony purchased balsam plantations for Queen Cleopatra. It is interesting that when Jesus was in Jericho He preferred to eat at the publican’s house than any of the priests who lived in Jericho, who were said to have numbered over 10,000, which reveals the honor that He bestowed upon Zacchaeus and the scorn for the Jewish priesthood.
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The Customs of Tax Collectors in the Roman Empire.
"The tax collector could walk up to any traveler, on any road within his district and ask him to drop all of his goods in order to exact tax."
The taxes levied by the Roman government were many and varied. There was first of all the poll tax (tributum capitis). This had to be paid by every male over fourteen and every female over twelve (the aged were exempt). There was the land tax (tributum agri), which was payable in kind. Both of these direct taxes were collected by officials in Palestine who were usually Jewish.
Also there were many forms of indirect taxation. The people were taxed on all imports and exports, including the transportation of slaves. These were collected by the telones of the gospels. They examined goods and collected tolls on roads and bridges. There was also a market toll in Jerusalem introduced by Herod.
Many scholars believe that the customs raised at Capernaum, in Galilee, went into the treasury of Herod Antipas. In senatorial provinces, the Roman senate seized the money. Judea, however, was an imperial province, and the revenue collected went into the treasury of the emperor. This is part of the reason that they asked Jesus the question: "Is it lawful to pay taxes to Caesar, or not?" (Matt 22 :17; Mark 12 :14; Luke 20:22).
Luke 19:2 mentions a "chief tax collector" at Jericho. Josephus (Jos. War II. xiv. 4) speaks of a certain John who was a tax collector at Caesarea in A.D. 66 and evidently a prominent Jew.
Alfred Edersheim makes an interesting comment:
"The Talmud distinguishes two classes of publicans-the tax-gatherer in general (Gabbai) and the Mokhes or Mokhsa, who was specially the douanier, or customhouse official. Although both classes fell under the rabbinic ban, the douanier-such as Matthew was-was the object of chief execration. And this because his exactions were more vexatious and gave more scope to rapacity. The Gabbai, or tax-gatherer, collected the regular dues, which consisted of ground, income, and poll tax. . . . If this offered many opportunities for vexatious exactions and rapacious injustice, the Mokhes might inflict much greater hardship upon the poor people. There was a tax and duty upon all imports and exports; on all that was bought and sold; bridge money, road money, harbor dues, town dues, etc. The classical reader knows the ingenuity which could invent a tax and find a name for every kind of exaction, such as on axles, wheels, pack animals, pedestrians, roads, highways; on admission to markets; on carriers, bridges, ships, and quays; on crossing rivers, on dams, on licenses-in short, on such a variety of objects that even the research of modern scholars has not been able to identify all the names. But even this was as nothing compared to the vexation of being constantly stopped on the journey, having to unload all one's pack animals, when every bale and package was opened, and the contents tumbled about, private letters opened, and the Mokhes ruled supreme in his insolence and rapacity" (Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 1:515 ff.).
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The call of Matthew (Levi) and his reception in honor of Jesus (Mark 2:13-17 ; Matt. 9:9-13 ; Luke 5:27-37) .
Jesus went out from the house of Peter to walk by the seaside. He needed a brief rest after the sharp conflict with His astute and stubborn enemies. This walk on the beach was a favorite haunt of His. There was place for physical recuperation in the salt-laden breezes and for quiet meditation and prayer after the heated debate. Soon the crowd was gathering about Him again. We do not know how many days of strenuous activity He had in the ministry by the sea before the call .of Levi. It may have been many days; but possibly it was on that same day that He passed by and "saw the son of Alpheus," who may have been the father of James the Less, also later of the Apostolic group.
Levi was a custom-house official. The Talmud distinguishes between the tax collector and the custom house official. The Gabbai collected the regular real estate and income taxes and the poll tax; the Mockhes, the duty on imports, exports, toll on roads, bridges, the harbor, the town tax, and a great multiplicity of other variable taxes on an unlimited variety of things, admitting of much abuse and graft. The very word Mockhes was associated with the idea -of oppression and injustice. The taxes in Judea were levied by publicans, who were Jews, and therefore hated the more as direct officials of the heathen Roman power. Levi occupied the detestable position of a publican of the worst type --a little Mockhes, who himself stood in the Roman custom-house on the highway connecting Damascus and Ptolemais, and by the sea where all boats plied between the domains of Antipas and Philip. The name "publican," which applied to these officials, is derived from the :Latin word publicanus a man who did public duty. The Jews detested these publicans not only on account of their frequent abuses and tyrannical spirit, but because the very taxes they were forced to collect by the Roman government were a badge of servitude and a constant reminder that God had forsaken His people and land in spite of the Messianic hope, founded on many promises of the ancient prophets. The publicans were classed by the people with harlots, usurers, gamblers, thieves, and dishonest herdsmen, who lived hard, lawless lives. They were just "licensed robbers" and "beasts in human shape."
According to Rabbinism there was no hope for a man like Levi. He was excluded from all religious fellowship including the Temple and Synagogue. His money was considered tainted and defiled anyone who accepted it. He could not serve as a witness. The Rabbis had no word of help for the publican, because they expected him by external conformity to the law to be justified before God.
The attitude of Jesus toward the publican was in complete contrast to that of the Rabbis. He had come to seek and save the lost. The Pharisees were separatists, and did not deign to have anything to do with a publican, who was to them no better than a Gentile. But Jesus came not to condemn a whole class or any individuals, but to save every sinner to a better life. He refused to admit that there was anything inherently wrong with paying tribute to the Roman Government, while that continued supreme and maintained order in the land. Why was it wrong to collect the tax? Even though Levi and his colleagues .of the custom-house had been extortioners, Jesus would fling open the door of repentance and salvation to them. He despaired of none, not even the worst.
Jesus made himself a friend of men, even of the publicans and the worst of sinners. By doing this, He "made Himself of no reputation" so far as the elite society was concerned. But He was a friend of all classes, the rich and the poor, the learned and the illiterate, the good and the bad.
Capernaum, being located on the Via Maris and being a busy populous center, had a large custom-house with a correspondingly large number of tax-gatherers. It was located at the
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There is no one hated by a nation quite as much as an enemy collaborator. The tax collectors in Israel at the time of Christ were the leaches that sucked the financial blood out of the hard working laborers of Israeli society and transferred it into the coffers of the occupying Roman Empire, taking as much as they could for themselves.
The tax collector made a sizable living. But part of his pay was the derision, disgust and isolation of his community. In rigid defiance he plodded through the condemning faces, the whispers, the threats and rage, multiplying his wealth and the emptiness of his soul.
Here comes the new preacher from Nazareth, offering as his credentials, miracles, physical healing, and a voice of authority that even demonic presences obey. Having spent another day plundering the strongholds of hell over His people, He calls another to follow Him. Who would it be this time? It is Matthew, a tax collector!
But so that you may know that the Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins...." Then he said to the paralytic, "Get up, take your mat and go home." And the man got up and went home.
When the crowd saw this, they were filled with awe; and they praised God, who had given such authority to men. As Jesus went on from there, he saw a man named Matthew sitting at the tax collector's booth. "Follow me," he told him, and Matthew got up and followed him. While Jesus was having dinner at Matthew's house, many tax collectors and "sinners" came and ate with him and his disciples. When the Pharisees saw this, they asked his disciples, "Why does your teacher eat with tax collectors and `sinners'?" On hearing this, Jesus said, "It is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. But go and learn what this means: `I desire mercy, not sacrifice.' For I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners." Matt. 9:6-13
The great physician calls to all who are sick, knowing that the disease of sin is terminal regardless of the kind of sin, degree of sin, or any biased human method of quantifying it. All have fallen short of the glory of God, and all are in desperate need of His love and forgiveness. The tax collectors that followed Christ took their place in the long line of notorious sinners who were grateful for the abundance of mercy that God offered and continues to offer to all who will call upon His name.
Part of their message must be that if God can forgive an enemy collaborator, He can forgive me. In the end, and by God’s standard, have we not all collaborated with the true enemy of heaven? Haven’t we all been self-serving if we were honest enough to admit it? Thank God there is room for the tax collectors, and the sinners of all kinds in the Kingdom of Heaven, because that means that there is also room for you and me.
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And it came to pass, [as] the ark of the covenant of the LORD
came to the city of David, that Michal the daughter of Saul
looking out at a window saw king David dancing and playing:
and she despised him in her heart.
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And there sat in a window a certain young man named Eutychus,
being fallen into a deep sleep: and as Paul was long
preaching, he sunk down with sleep, and fell down from the
third loft, and was taken up dead.
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Then she let them down by a cord through the window: for her
house [was] upon the town wall, and she dwelt upon the wall.
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And it came to pass, when he had been there a long time, that
Abimelech king of the Philistines looked out at a window, and
saw, and, behold, Isaac [was] sporting with Rebekah his wife.
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The mother of Sisera looked out at a window, and cried through
the lattice, Why is his chariot [so] long in coming? why tarry
the wheels of his chariots?
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And when Jehu was come to Jezreel, Jezebel heard [of it]; and
she painted her face, and tired her head, and looked out at a
window.
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win, win'-pres:
I. Terms.
1. Wine:
(1) (~yayin), apparently from a non-Tsere root allied to
Greek oinos, Latin vinum, etc. This is the usual word for
"wine" and is found 141 times in Massoretic Text. (2)
chemer, perhaps "foaming" (Dt 32:14 and Massoretic Text Isa
27:2 (but see the English Revised Version margin)); Aramaic
chamar (Ezr 6:9; 7:22; Dan 5:1,2,4,23). (3) tirosh. Properly
this is the fresh grape juice (called also mishreh, Nu 6:3),
even when still in the grape (Isa 65:8). But unfermented
grape juice is a very difficult thing to keep without the
aid of modern antiseptic precautions, and its preservation
in the warm and not over-cleanly conditions of ancient
Israel was impossible. Consequently, tirosh came to mean
wine that was not fully aged (although with full
intoxicating properties (Jdg 9:13; Hos 4:11; compare Acts
11:13)) or wine when considered specifically as the product
of grapes (Dt 12:17; 18:4, etc.). The Septuagint always
(except Isa 65:8; Hos 4:11) translates by oinos and the
Targums by chamar. the King James Version has "wine" 26
times, "new wine" 11 times, "sweet wine" in Mic 6:15; the
Revised Version (British and American) "vintage" in Nu
18:12; Mic 6:15 (with the same change in Neh 10:37,39 the
Revised Version margin; Isa 62:8 the English Revised Version
margin). Otherwise the English Revised Version has left the
King James Version unchanged, while the American Standard
Revised Version uses "new wine" throughout. (4) Two
apparently poetic words are `acic (the Revised Version
(British and American) "sweet wine," Isa 49:26; Am 9:13;
Joel 1:5; 3:18, "juice"; Song 8:2), and cobhe' ("wine," Isa
1:22; "drink," Hos 4:18 (margin "carouse"); Nah 1:10). (5)
For spiced wine three words occur: mecekh, Ps 75:8 (English
Versions of the Bible "mixture"); mimcakh, Prov 23:30
("mixed wine"); Isa 65:11 (the Revised Version (British and
American) "mingled wine"); mezegh, Song 7:2 (the Revised
Version (British and American) "mingled wine"); compare also
yayin hareqach, Song 8:2 ("spiced wine"). (6) mamethaqqim,
literally, "sweet," Neh 8:10.
(7) shekhar (22 times), translated "strong drink" in English
Versions of the Bible. Shekhar appears to mean "intoxicating
drink" of any sort and in Nu 28:7 is certainly simply "wine"
(compare also its use in parallelism to "wine" in Isa
5:11,22, etc.). In certain passages (Lev 10:9; Nu 6:3; 1 Sam
1:15, etc.), however, it is distinguished from "wine," and
the meaning is not quite certain. But it would seem to mean
"drink not made from grapes." Of such only pomegranate wine
is named in the Bible (Song 8:2), but a variety of such
preparations (made from apples, quinces, dates, barley,
etc.) were known to the ancients and must have been used in
Israel also. The translation "strong drink" is unfortunate,
for it suggests "distilled liquor," "brandy," which is
hardly in point.
See DRINK, STRONG.
(8) In the Apocrypha and New Testament "wine" represents
oinos, with certain compounds, except in Acts 2:13, where
the Greek is gleukos, "sweet," English Versions of the Bible
"new wine."
See also BLOOD; DRINK; FLAGON; FRUIT; HONEY.
2. Wine Press:
(1) Properly speaking, the actual wine press was...
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Made from grapes
Ge 40:11; 49:11; Isa 25:6; Jer 40:1,12
-From pomegranates
So 8:2
-Kept in jars
Jer 13:12; 48:12
-In skins (R. V.)
Jos 9:4,13; Job 32:19; Mt 9:17; Lu 5:37,38
-In bottles
Jos 9:4,13; Job 32:19; Jer 13:12; 48:12; Mt 9:17; Lu
5:37,38
-Cellars for
1Ch 27:27
-New
Hag 1:11
-Old
Lu 5:39
-Medicinal use of
Pr 31:6,7
-Recommended by Paul to Timothy
1Ti 5:23
-Used at meals
Mt 26:27-29; Mr 14:23
-Made by Jesus at the marriage feast in Cana
Joh 2:9,10
-Sacramental use of
Mt 26:27-29; Lu 22:17-20
-Forbidden to priests while on duty
Le 10:9; Eze 44:21
-Forbidden to Nazarites
Nu 6:2,3
-See NAZARITE
-Abstinence from
Of Daniel
Da 1:5,8,16; 10:3
Of the courtiers of Ahasuerus
Es 1:8
Of Timothy
1Ti 5:23
-Samson's mother forbidden to drink
Jud 13:4,5
-Forbidden to kings
Pr 31:4
-Denied to the Israelites in the wilderness, so that they
could
know that the Lord was their God
De 29:6
-Offered with sacrifices
Ex 29:40; Le 23:13; Nu 15:5,10; 28:7,14
-Given by Melchizedek to Abraham
Ge 14:18
-Fermented
Le 10:9; Nu 6:3; 28:7; De 14:26; 29:6; Pr 23:31,32;
Mr
2:22
-Refined
Isa 25:6; Jer 48:11
-Of staggering (R. V.)
Ps 60:3
-Inflames the eyes
Ge 49:12
-Commerce in
Re 18:13
-Banquets of
Es 5:6
-Cheap wine (like vinegar) given to Jesus at the crucifixion
Mt 27:48; Mr 15:23; Lu 23:36; Joh 19:29
-Intoxication from the use of
Ps 104:15; Pr 4:17
-INSTANCES OF INTOXICATION FROM
Noah
Ge 9:21
Lot
Ge 19:32
Joseph and his brothers
Ge 43:34
Nabal
1Sa 25:36
Amnon
2Sa 13:28,29
Ahasuerus
Es 1:10
Kings of Israel
Ho 7:5
Falsely charged against the disciples
Ac 2:13
-FIGURATIVE
Of the divine judgments
Ps 60:3; 75:8; Jer 51:7
Of the joy of wisdom
Pr 9:2,5
Of the joys of spiritual matters
Isa 25:6; 55:1; Joe 2:19
Of abominations
Re 14:8; 16:19
-SYMBOLICAL
Of the blood of Jesus
Mt 26:28; Mr 14:23,24; Lu 22:20; Joh 6:53-56
-UNCLASSIFIED SCRIPTURES RELATING TO
De 14:26; 33:28; 2Ki 18:32; 2Ch 32:28; Ne 10:39; Ps
4:7;
104:14,15; Pr 31:6,7; Ec 2:3,11; Isa 56:12; Ho
2:8,22; 7:14;
Joe 1:5; 2:24; 3:3; Am 6:6; Hab 2:5; Hag 1:11; Zec
9:17;
10:7; 1Ti 5:23
See VINE
See VINEYARD
-ADMONITIONS AGAINST THE USE OF
Le 10:9; Nu 6:3; Jud 13:4; Pr 20:1; 21:17; 23:29-32;
31:4,5; Isa 5:11,22; 24:9; 28:1,3,7; Jer 23:9;
35:2-10,14,18,19; Eze 44:21; Ho 4:11; Lu 1:15; Ro
14:21; Eph
5:18; Tit 2:3
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The manufacture of wine is carried back in the Bible to the
age of Noah, Ge 9:20,21 to whom the discovery of the process
is apparently, though not explicitly, attributed. The
natural history and culture of the vine are described under
a separate head. [VINE] The only other plant whose fruit is
noticed as having been converted into wine was the
pomegranate.
So 8:2 In Israel the vintage takes place in
September, and is celebrated with great rejoicing. The ripe
fruit was gathered in baskets, Jer 6:9 as represented in
Egyptian paintings, and was carried to the wine-press. It
was then placed in the upper one of the two vats or
receptacles of which the winepress was formed, and was
subjected to the process of "treading," which has prevailed
in all ages in Oriental and south European countries. Ne
13:15; Job 24:11; Isa 18:10; Jer 25:30; 48:33; Am 9:13; Re
19:15 A certain amount of juice exuded front the ripe fruit
from its own pressure before treading commenced. This
appears to have been kept separate from the rest of the
juice, and to have formed the "sweet wine" noticed in Ac
2:13 [See below] The "treading" was effected by one or more
men, according to the size of the vat. They encouraged one
another by shouts. Isa 16:9,10; Jer 25:30; 48:33 Their legs
and garments were dyed red with the juice. Ge 40:11; Isa
63:2,3 The expressed juice escaped by an aperture into the
lower vat, or was at once collected in vessels. A hand-press
was occasionally used in Egypt, but we have no notice of
such an instrument in the Bible. As to the subsequent
treatment of the wine we have but little information.
Sometimes it was preserved in its unfermented state and
drunk as must, but more generally it was bottled off after
fermentation and if it were designed to be kept for some
time a certain amount of lees was added to give it body. Isa
25:6 The wine consequently required to be "refined" or
strained previous to being brought to table. Isa 25:6 To
wine, is attributed the "darkly-flashing eye," Ge 40:12
Authorized Version "red," the unbridled tongue, Pr 20:1; Isa
28:7 the excitement of the spirit, Pr 31:6; Isa 5:11; Zec
9:15; 10:7 the enchained affections of its votaries, Ho 4:11
the perverted judgment, Pr 31:5; Isa 28:7 the indecent
exposure, Hab 2:15,16 and the sickness resulting from the
heat (chemah, Authorized Version "bottles") of wine. Ho 7:5
The allusions to the effects of tirosh are confined to a
single passage, but this a most decisive one, viz. Ho 4:11
"Whoredom and wine (yayin) and new wine (tirosh) take away
the heart," where tirosh appears as the climax of engrossing
influences, in immediate connection with yayin. It has been
disputed whether the Hebrew wine was fermented; but the
impression produced on the mind by a general review of the
above notices is that the Hebrew words indicating wine refer
to fermented, intoxicating wine. The notices of fermentation
are not very decisive. A certain amount of fermentation is
implied in the distension of the leather bottles when new
wine was placed in them, and which was liable to burst old
bottles. It is very likely that new wine was preserved in
the state of must by placing it in jars or bottles and then
burying it in the earth. The mingling that we read of in
conjunction with wine may have been designed either to
increase or to diminish the strength of the wine, according
as spices or water formed the ingredient that was added. The
notices chiefly favor the former view; for mingled liquor
was prepared for high festivals, Pr 9:2,5 and occasions of
excess. Pr 23:30; Isa 5:22 At the same time strength was not
the sole object sought; the wine "mingled with myrrh," given
to Jesus, was designed to deaden pain, Mr 15:23 and the
spiced pomegranate wine prepared by the bride, So 8:2 may
well have been of a mild character. In the New Testament the
character of the "sweet wine," noticed in Ac 2:13 calls for
some little remark. It could not be new wine in the proper
sense of the term, inasmuch as about eight months must have
elapsed between the vintage and the feast of Pentecost. The
explanations of the ancient lexicographers rather lead us to
infer that its luscious qualities were due, not to its being
recently made, but to its being produced from the very
purest juice of the grape. There can be little doubt that
the wines of palestine varied in quality, and were named
after...
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The common Hebrew word for wine is _yayin_, from a root
meaning
"to boil up," "to be in a ferment." Others derive it
from a root
meaning "to tread out," and hence the juice of the
grape trodden
out. The Greek word for wine is _oinos_, and the
Latin _vinun_.
But besides this common Hebrew word, there are
several others
which are thus rendered.
(1.) Ashishah (2 Sam. 6:19; 1 Chr. 16:3; Cant. 2:5;
Hos. 3:1),
which, however, rather denotes a solid cake of
pressed grapes,
or, as in the Revised Version, a cake of raisins.
(2.) 'Asis, "sweet wine," or "new wine," the product
of the
same year (Cant. 8:2; Isa. 49:26; Joel 1:5; 3:18;
Amos 9:13),
from a root meaning "to tread," hence juice trodden
out or
pressed out, thus referring to the method by which
the juice is
obtained. The power of intoxication is ascribed to
it.
(3.) Hometz. See VINEGAR -T0003771.
(4.) Hemer, Deut. 32:14 (rendered "blood of the
grape") Isa.
27:2 ("red wine"), Ezra 6:9; 7:22; Dan. 5:1, 2, 4.
This word
conveys the idea of "foaming," as in the process of
fermentation, or when poured out. It is derived from
the root
_hamar_, meaning "to boil up," and also "to be red,"
from the
idea of boiling or becoming inflamed.
(5.) 'Enabh, a grape (Deut. 32:14). The last clause
of this
verse should be rendered as in the Revised Version,
"and of the
blood of the grape ['enabh] thou drankest wine
[hemer]." In Hos.
3:1 the phrase in Authorized Version, "flagons of
wine," is in
the Revised Version correctly "cakes of raisins."
(Comp. Gen.
49:11; Num. 6:3; Deut. 23:24, etc., where this
Hebrew word is
rendered in the plural "grapes.")
(6.) Mesekh, properly a mixture of wine and water
with spices
that increase its stimulating properties (Isa.
5:22). Ps. 75:8,
"The wine [yayin] is red; it is full of mixture
[mesekh];" Prov.
23:30, "mixed wine;" Isa. 65:11, "drink offering"
(R.V.,
"mingled wine").
(7.) Tirosh, properly "must," translated "wine"
(Deut. 28:51);
"new wine" (Prov. 3:10); "sweet wine" (Micah 6:15;
R.V.,
"vintage"). This Hebrew word has been traced to a
root meaning
"to take possession of" and hence it is supposed
that tirosh is
so designated because in intoxicating it takes
possession of the
brain. Among the blessings promised to Esau (Gen.
27:28) mention
is made of "plenty of corn and tirosh." Israel is
called "a
land of corn and tirosh" (Deut. 33:28; comp. Isa.
36:17). See
also Deut. 28:51; 2 Chr. 32:28; Joel 2:19; Hos.
4:11, ("wine
[yayin] and new wine [tirosh] take away the heart").
(8.) Sobhe (root meaning "to drink to excess," "to
suck up,"
"absorb"), found only in Isa. 1:22, Hos. 4:18
("their drink;"
Gesen. and marg. of R.V., "their carouse"), and Nah.
1:10
("drunken as drunkards;" lit., "soaked according to
their
drink;" R.V., "drenched, as it were, in their
drink", i.e.,
according to their sobhe).
(9.) Shekar, "strong drink," any intoxicating
liquor; from a
root meaning "to drink deeply," "to be drunken", a
generic term
applied to all fermented liquors, however obtained.
Num. 28:7,
"strong wine" (R.V., "strong drink"). It is
sometimes
distinguished from wine, c.g., Lev. 10:9, "Do not
drink wine
[yayin] nor strong drink [shekar];" Num. 6:3; Judg.
13:4, 7;
Isa. 28:7 (in all these places rendered "strong
drink").
Translated "strong drink" also in Isa. 5:11; 24:9;
29:9; 56:12;
Prov. 20:1; 31:6; Micah 2:11.
(10.) Yekebh (Deut. 16:13, but in R.V. correctly
"wine-press"), a vat into which the new wine flowed
from the
press. Joel 2:24, "their vats;" 3:13, "the fats;"
Prov. 3:10,
"Thy presses shall burst out with new wine
[tirosh];" Hag. 2:16;
Jer. 48:33, "wine-presses;" 2 Kings 6:27; Job.
24:11.
(11.) Shemarim (only in plural), "lees" or "dregs"
of wine. In
Isa. 25:6 it is rendered "wines on the lees", i.e.,
wine that
has been kept on the lees, and therefore old wine.
(12.) Mesek, "a mixture," mixed or spiced wine, not
diluted
with water, but mixed with drugs and spices to
increase its
strength, or, as some think, mingled with the lees
by being
shaken (Ps. 75:8; Prov. 23:30).
In Acts 2:13 the word _gleukos_, rendered "new
wine," denotes
properly "sweet wine." It must have been
intoxicating.
In addition to wine the Hebrews also made use of
what they
called _debash_, which was obtained by boiling down
must to
one-half or one-third of its original bulk. In Gen.
43:11 this
word is rendered "honey." It was a kind of syrup,
and is called
by the Arabs at the present day dibs. This word
occurs in the
phrase "a land flowing with milk and honey"
(debash), Ex. 3:8,
17; 13:5; 33:3; Lev. 20:24; Num. 13: 27. (See HONEY
-T0001809.)
Our Lord miraculously supplied wine at the marriage
feast in
Cana of Galilee (John 2:1-11). The Rechabites were
forbidden the
use of wine (Jer. 35). The Nazarites also were to
abstain from
its use during the period of their vow (Num. 6:1-4);
and those
who were dedicated as Nazarites from their birth
were
perpetually to abstain from it (Judg. 13:4, 5; Luke
1:15; 7:33).
The priests, too, were forbidden the use of wine and
strong
drink when engaged in their sacred functions (Lev.
10:1, 9-11).
"Wine is little used now in the East, from the fact
that
Mohammedans are not allowed to taste it, and very
few of other
creeds touch it. When it is drunk, water is
generally mixed with
it, and this was the custom in the days of Christ
also. The
people indeed are everywhere very sober in hot
climates; a
drunken person, in fact, is never seen", (Geikie's
Life of
Christ). The sin of drunkenness, however, must have
been not
uncommon in the olden times, for it is mentioned
either
metaphorically or literally more than seventy times
in the
Bible.
A drink-offering of wine was presented with the
daily
sacrifice (Ex. 29:40, 41), and also with the
offering of the
first-fruits (Lev. 23:13), and with various other
sacrifices
(Num. 15:5, 7, 10). Wine was used at the celebration
of the
Passover. And when the Lord's Supper was instituted,
the wine
and the unleavened bread then on the paschal table
were by our
Lord set apart as memorials of his body and blood.
Several emphatic warnings are given in the New
Testament
against excess in the use of wine (Luke 21:34; Rom.
13:13; Eph.
5:18; 1 Tim. 3:8; Titus 1:7).
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Tirosh is the most general term for "vintage fruit," put in
connection with "corn and oil," necessaries (dagan, yitshar,
rather more generally the produce of the field and the
orchard) and ordinary articles of diet in Israel. It occurs
38 times, namely, six times by itself, eleven times with
dagan, twice with yitshar, nineteen times with both dagan
and yitshar. Besides, it is seven times with "firstfruits,"
ten times with "tithes" or "offerings" of fruits and grain;
very rarely with terms expressing the process of preparing
fruits or vegetable produce. Yayin is the proper term for
"wine." In Micah 6:15, "thou shalt tread ... sweet wine
(tirowsh, vintage fruit), but shalt not drink wine," the
vintage fruit, that which is trodden, is distinguished from
the manufactured "wine" which it yields.
Tirowh is never combined with shemen "oil"; nor
yitshar, "orchard produce," with "wine" the manufactured
article. In Deuteronomy 11:14, "gather in thy grain, wine"
(tirosh), it is described as a solid thing, eaten in
Deuteronomy 12:7; compare 2 Chronicles 31:5-6. In Isaiah
65:8 "the tirowsh (vintage) is found in the cluster"; Isaiah
62:8-9, "the stranger shall not drink thy tirowsh, but they
that have gathered it ... and brought it together (verbs
hardly applicable to a liquid) shall drink it." Proverbs
3:10, "presses ... burst out with tirowsh"; and Joel 2:24,
"fats shall overflow with tirowsh (vintage fruit) and
yitshar."
Deuteronomy 14:22-26, "tithe of tirowsh," not merely
of wine but of the vintage fruit. Scripture denounces the
abuse of yayin, "wine." Hosea 4:11, "whoredom, wine, and
tirowsh take away the heart": the tirowsh is denounced not
as evil in itself, but as associated with whoredom to which
wine and grape cakes were stimulants; compare Hosea 3:1,
"love pressed cakes of dried grapes" (not "flagons of
wine"): Ezekiel 16:49. Yayin, from a root "boil up," is the
extract from the grape, whether simple grape juice
unfermented, or intoxicating wine; related to the Greek
oinos, Latin vinum. Vinum, vitis, are thought related to
Sanskrit we, "weave," viere. Chamar is the Chaldee
equivalent to Hebrew yayin, the generic term for grape
liquor.
It literally, means "to foam" (Deuteronomy 32:14,
"the blood of the grape, even wine," not "pure"): Ezra 6:9;
Ezra 7:22; Daniel 5:1; Isaiah 27:2. 'asis, from a root to
"tread," the grape juice newly expressed (Song of Solomon
8:2); "sweet wine" (Isaiah 49:26; Amos 9:13); "new wine"
(Joel 1:5; Joel 3:18). Mesek; Psalm 75:8, translated"the
wine is fermenting ('foaming with wine,' Hengstenberg), it
is full ...
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And, behold, I will give to thy servants, the hewers that cut
timber, twenty thousand measures of beaten wheat, and twenty
thousand measures of barley, and twenty thousand baths of
wine, and twenty thousand baths of oil.
Read More
And thou shalt bestow that money for whatsoever thy soul
lusteth after, for oxen, or for sheep, or for wine, or for
strong drink, or for whatsoever thy soul desireth: and thou
shalt eat there before the LORD thy God, and thou shalt
rejoice, thou, and thine household,
Read More
And he will love thee, and bless thee, and multiply thee: he
will also bless the fruit of thy womb, and the fruit of thy
land, thy corn, and thy wine, and thine oil, the increase of
thy kine, and the flocks of thy sheep, in the land which he
sware unto thy fathers to give thee.
Read More
But hast lifted up thyself against the Lord of heaven; and
they have brought the vessels of his house before thee, and
thou, and thy lords, thy wives, and thy concubines, have drunk
wine in them; and thou hast praised the gods of silver, and
gold, of brass, iron, wood, and stone, which see not, nor
hear, nor know: and the God in whose hand thy breath [is], and
whose [are] all thy ways, hast thou not glorified:
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Then shalt thou go on forward from thence, and thou shalt come
to the plain of Tabor, and there shall meet thee three men
going up to God to Bethel, one carrying three kids, and
another carrying three loaves of bread, and another carrying a
bottle of wine:
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Unto an hundred talents of silver, and to an hundred measures
of wheat, and to an hundred baths of wine, and to an hundred
baths of oil, and salt without prescribing [how much].
Read More
Until I come and take you away to a land like your own land, a
land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards.
Read More
When the ruler of the feast had tasted the water that was made
wine, and knew not whence it was: (but the servants which drew
the water knew;) the governor of the feast called the
bridegroom,
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And thou shalt eat before the LORD thy God, in the place which
he shall choose to place his name there, the tithe of thy
corn, of thy wine, and of thine oil, and the firstlings of thy
herds and of thy flocks; that thou mayest learn to fear the
LORD thy God always.
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And he shall eat the fruit of thy cattle, and the fruit of thy
land, until thou be destroyed: which [also] shall not leave
thee [either] corn, wine, or oil, [or] the increase of thy
kine, or flocks of thy sheep, until he have destroyed thee.
Read More
win, win'-pres:
I. Terms.
1. Wine:
(1) (~yayin), apparently from a non-Tsere root allied to
Greek oinos, Latin vinum, etc. This is the usual word for
"wine" and is found 141 times in Massoretic Text. (2)
chemer, perhaps "foaming" (Dt 32:14 and Massoretic Text Isa
27:2 (but see the English Revised Version margin)); Aramaic
chamar (Ezr 6:9; 7:22; Dan 5:1,2,4,23). (3) tirosh. Properly
this is the fresh grape juice (called also mishreh, Nu 6:3),
even when still in the grape (Isa 65:8). But unfermented
grape juice is a very difficult thing to keep without the
aid of modern antiseptic precautions, and its preservation
in the warm and not over-cleanly conditions of ancient
Israel was impossible. Consequently, tirosh came to mean
wine that was not fully aged (although with full
intoxicating properties (Jdg 9:13; Hos 4:11; compare Acts
11:13)) or wine when considered specifically as the product
of grapes (Dt 12:17; 18:4, etc.). The Septuagint always
(except Isa 65:8; Hos 4:11) translates by oinos and the
Targums by chamar. the King James Version has "wine" 26
times, "new wine" 11 times, "sweet wine" in Mic 6:15; the
Revised Version (British and American) "vintage" in Nu
18:12; Mic 6:15 (with the same change in Neh 10:37,39 the
Revised Version margin; Isa 62:8 the English Revised Version
margin). Otherwise the English Revised Version has left the
King James Version unchanged, while the American Standard
Revised Version uses "new wine" throughout. (4) Two
apparently poetic words are `acic (the Revised Version
(British and American) "sweet wine," Isa 49:26; Am 9:13;
Joel 1:5; 3:18, "juice"; Song 8:2), and cobhe' ("wine," Isa
1:22; "drink," Hos 4:18 (margin "carouse"); Nah 1:10). (5)
For spiced wine three words occur: mecekh, Ps 75:8 (English
Versions of the Bible "mixture"); mimcakh, Prov 23:30
("mixed wine"); Isa 65:11 (the Revised Version (British and
American) "mingled wine"); mezegh, Song 7:2 (the Revised
Version (British and American) "mingled wine"); compare also
yayin hareqach, Song 8:2 ("spiced wine"). (6) mamethaqqim,
literally, "sweet," Neh 8:10.
(7) shekhar (22 times), translated "strong drink" in English
Versions of the Bible. Shekhar appears to mean "intoxicating
drink" of any sort and in Nu 28:7 is certainly simply "wine"
(compare also its use in parallelism to "wine" in Isa
5:11,22, etc.). In certain passages (Lev 10:9; Nu 6:3; 1 Sam
1:15, etc.), however, it is distinguished from "wine," and
the meaning is not quite certain. But it would seem to mean
"drink not made from grapes." Of such only pomegranate wine
is named in the Bible (Song 8:2), but a variety of such
preparations (made from apples, quinces, dates, barley,
etc.) were known to the ancients and must have been used in
Israel also. The translation "strong drink" is unfortunate,
for it suggests "distilled liquor," "brandy," which is
hardly in point.
See DRINK, STRONG.
(8) In the Apocrypha and New Testament "wine" represents
oinos, with certain compounds, except in Acts 2:13, where
the Greek is gleukos, "sweet," English Versions of the Bible
"new wine."
See also BLOOD; DRINK; FLAGON; FRUIT; HONEY.
2. Wine Press:
(1) Properly speaking, the actual wine press was...
Read More
General scriptures concerning
Nu 18:27,30; De 15:14; Jud 6:11
-In vineyards
Isa 5:2; Mt 21:33; Mr 12:1
-Trodden with joy and shouting
Jer 48:33
-FIGURATIVE
Treading the, of the sufferings of Christ
Isa 63:2,3
Of the judgments of God
La 1:15; Re 14:19,20
Read More
From the scanty notices contained in the Bible we gather
that, the wine-presses of the Jews consisted of two
receptacles of vats placed at different elevations, in the
upper one of which the grapes were trodden, while the lower
one received the expressed juice. The two vats are mentioned
together only in Joe 3:13 "The press is full: the fats
overflow" --the upper vat being full of fruit, the lower one
overflowing with the must. [WINE] The two vats were usually
hewn out of the solid rock.
Isa 5:2 margin; Mt 21:33 Ancient winepresses, so
constructed, are still to he seen in Israel.
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Consisted of two vats or receptacles, (1) a trough (Heb.
gath,
Gr. lenos) into which the grapes were thrown and
where they were
trodden upon and bruised (Isa. 16:10; Lam. 1:15;
Joel 3:13); and
(2) a trough or vat (Heb. yekebh, Gr. hypolenion)
into which the
juice ran from the trough above, the gath (Neh.
13:15; Job
24:11; Isa. 63:2, 3; Hag. 2:16; Joel 2:24). Wine-
presses are
found in almost every part of Israel. They are "the
only sure
relics we have of the old days of Israel before the
Captivity.
Between Hebron and Beersheba they are found on all
the hill
slopes; they abound in southern Judea; they are no
less common
in the many valleys of Carmel; and they are numerous
in
Galilee." The "treading of the wine-press" is
emblematic of
divine judgment (Isa. 63:2; Lam. 1:15; Rev. 14:19,
20).
Read More
And they took two princes of the Midianites, Oreb and Zeeb;
and they slew Oreb upon the rock Oreb, and Zeeb they slew at
the winepress of Zeeb, and pursued Midian, and brought the
heads of Oreb and Zeeb to Gideon on the other side Jordan.
Read More
The Lord hath trodden under foot all my mighty [men] in the
midst of me: he hath called an assembly against me to crush my
young men: the Lord hath trodden the virgin, the daughter of
Judah, [as] in a winepress.
Read More
The Lord hath trodden under foot all my mighty [men] in the
midst of me: he hath called an assembly against me to crush my
young men: the Lord hath trodden the virgin, the daughter of
Judah, [as] in a winepress.
Read More
Thou shalt furnish him liberally out of thy flock, and out of
thy floor, and out of thy winepress: [of that] wherewith the
LORD thy God hath blessed thee thou shalt give unto him.
Read More
And he fenced it, and gathered out the stones thereof, and
planted it with the choicest vine, and built a tower in the
midst of it, and also made a winepress therein: and he looked
that it should bring forth grapes, and it brought forth wild
grapes.
Read More
And he said, If the LORD do not help thee, whence shall I help
thee? out of the barnfloor, or out of the winepress?
Read More
And the angel thrust in his sickle into the earth, and
gathered the vine of the earth, and cast [it] into the great
winepress of the wrath of God
Read More
Therefore thou shalt say unto them, When ye have heaved the
best thereof from it, then it shall be counted unto the
Levites as the increase of the threshingfloor, and as the
increase of the winepress.
Read More
I have trodden the winepress alone; and of the people [there
was] none with me: for I will tread them in mine anger, and
trample them in my fury; and their blood shall be sprinkled
upon my garments, and I will stain all my raiment.
Read More
Hear another parable: There was a certain householder, which
planted a vineyard, and hedged it round about, and digged a
winepress in it, and built a tower, and let it out to
husbandmen, and went into a far country:
Read More
And out of his mouth goeth a sharp sword, that with it he
should smite the nations: and he shall rule them with a rod of
iron: and he treadeth the winepress of the fierceness and
wrath of Almighty God.
Read More
Of grain
Ru 3:2; Isa 30:24; Mt 3:12
Read More
Corn was winnowed, (1.) By being thrown up by a shovel against
the wind. As a rule this was done in the evening or
during the
night, when the west wind from the sea was blowing,
which was a
moderate breeze and fitted for the purpose. The north
wind was
too strong, and the east wind came in gusts. (2.) By
the use of
a fan or van, by which the chaff was blown away (Ruth
3:2; Isa.
30:24; Jer. 4:11, 12; Matt. 3:12).
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And now [is] not Boaz of our kindred, with whose maidens thou
wast? Behold, he winnoweth barley to night in the
threshingfloor.
Read More
The oxen likewise and the young asses that ear the ground
shall eat clean provender, which hath been winnowed with the
shovel and with the fan.
Read More
woom'-an ('ishshah, "a woman" (feminine of 'ish, "a man"];
gune, "a woman" "wife"):
I. IN THE CREATIVE PLAN
II. IN OLD TESTAMENT TIMES
1. Prominence of Women
2. Social Equality
3. Marriage Laws
4. Inheritance
5. Domestic Duties
6. Dress and Ornaments
7. Religious Devotion and Service
(1) in Idolatry and False Religion
(2) in Spiritual Religion
III. INTER-TESTAMENTAL ERA
IV. IN NEW TESTAMENT TIMES
1. Mary and Elisabeth
2. Jesus and Women
3. In the Early Church
4. Official Service
5. Widows
6. Deaconesses
IV. LATER TIMES
1. Changes in Character and Condition
2. Notable Examples of Christian Womanhood
3. Woman in the 20th Century
The generic term "man" includes woman. In the narrative of
the creation (Gen 1:26,27) Adam is a collective term for
mankind. It may signify human being, male or female, or
humanity entire. "God said, Let us make man .... and let
them" (Gen 1:26), the latter word "them" defining "man" in
the former clause. So in Gen 1:27, "in the image of God
created he him; male and female created he them," "them"
being synonymous with "him."
See also ADAM; ANTHROPOLOGY.
I. In the Creative Plan.
Whatever interpretation the latest scholarship may give to
the story of woman's formation from the rib of man (Gen
2:21-24), the passage indicates, most profoundly, the
inseparable unity and fellowship of her life with his. Far
more than being a mere assistant, "helper" (`ezer "help"
"helper" Gen 2:18), she is man's complement, essential to
the perfection of his being. Without her he is not man in
the generic fullness of that term. Priority of creation may
indicate headship, but not, as theologians have so uniformly
affirmed, superiority. Dependence indicates difference of
function, not inferiority. Human values are estimated in
terms of the mental and spiritual. Man and woman are endowed
for equality, and are mutually interdependent. Physical
strength and prowess cannot be rated in the same category
with moral courage and the capacity to endure ill-treatment,
sorrow and pain; and in these latter qualities woman has
always proved herself the superior. Man's historic treatment
of woman, due to his conceit, ignorance or moral perversion,
has taken her inferiority for granted, and has thus
necessitated it by her enslavement and degradation. The
narrative of the Fall (Gen 3) ascribes to woman supremacy of
influence, for through her stronger personality man was led
to disobedience of God's command. Her penalty for such ill-
fated leadership was that her husband should "rule over" her
(Gen 3:16), not because of any inherent superiority on his
part, but because of her loss of prestige and power through
sin. In that act she forfeited the respect and confidence
which entitled her to equality of influence in family
affairs. Her recovery...
Read More
Creation of
Ge 1:27; 2:21,22
-Named
Ge 2:23
-Fall of, and curse upon
Ge 3:1-16; 2Co 11:3; 1Ti 2:14
-Promise to
Ge 3:15
-Had separate apartments in dwellings
Ge 24:67; 31:33; Es 2:9,11
-Veiled the face
Ge 24:65
-See VAIL
-Vows of
Nu 30:3-16
-When jealously charged with infidelity, their guilt or
innocence was to be determined by an ordeal
Nu 5:12-31
-Took part in ancient worship
Ex 15:20; 21; 38:8; 1Sa 2:22
-In chorus
1Ch 25:5,6; Ezr 2:65; Ne 7:67
-Worshiped in separate compartments
Ex 38:8; 1Sa 2:22
-Consecrated jewels to tabernacle
Ex 35:22
-Mirrors
Ex 38:8
-Required to attend to the reading of the law of Moses
De 31:12; Jos 8:35
-Purifications of
After menstruation
Le 15:19-33; 2Sa 11:4
After childbirth
Le 12; Lu 2:22
-Difference in ceremonies made between male and female
children
Le 12
-Religious privileges of, among early Christians
Ac 1:14; 12:12,13; 1Co 11:5; 14:34; 1Ti 2:11
-Domestic duties of
Ge 18:6; Pr 31:15-19; Mt 24:41
-Cooked
Ge 18:6
-Spun
Ex 35:25,26; 1Sa 2:19; Pr 31:19-24
-Embroidered
Pr 31:22
-Made garments
Ac 9:39
-Gleaned
Ru 2:8
-Kept vineyards
So 1:6
-Tended flocks and herds
Ge 24:11,13,14,19,20; 29:9; Ex 2:16
-Worked in fields
Isa 27:11; Eze 26:6,8
-Was a doorkeeper
Mt 26:69; Joh 18:16,17; Ac 12:13,14
-Forbidden to wear men's costume...
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The position of women in the Hebrew commonwealth contrasts
favorably with that which in the present day is assigned to
them generally in eastern countries. The most salient point
of contrast in the usages of ancient as compared with modern
Oriental society was the large amount of liberty enjoyed by
women. Instead of being immured in a harem, or appearing in
public with the face covered. The wives and maidens of
ancient times mingled freely and openly with the other sex
in the duties and amenities of ordinary life. Rebekah
travelled on a camel with her face unveiled until she came
into the presence of her affianced. Ge 24:64,65 Jacob
saluted Rachel with a kiss in the presence of the shepherds.
Ge 29:11 Women played no inconsiderable part in public
celebrations Ex 15:20,21; Jud 11:34 The odes of Deborah,
Judg 5, and of Hannah, 1Sa 2:1 etc., exhibit a degree of
intellectual cultivation which is in itself a proof of the
position of the sex in that period. Women also occasionally
held public office, particularly that of prophetess or
inspired teacher. Ex 15:20; Jud 4:4; 2Ki 22:14; Ne 6:14; Lu
2:36 The management of household affairs devolved mainly on
the women. The value of a virtuous and active housewife
forms a frequent topic in the book of Proverbs. ch. Pr
11:16; 12:4; 14:1; 31:10 etc. Her influence was of course
proportionably great.
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was "taken out of man" (Gen. 2:23), and therefore the man
has
the preeminence. "The head of the woman is the man;"
but yet
honour is to be shown to the wife, "as unto the
weaker vessel"
(1 Cor. 11:3, 8, 9; 1 Pet. 3:7). Several women are
mentioned in
Scripture as having been endowed with prophetic
gifts, as Miriam
(Ex. 15:20), Deborah (Judg. 4:4, 5), Huldah (2 Kings
22:14),
Noadiah (Neh. 6:14), Anna (Luke 2:36, 37), and the
daughters of
Philip the evangelist (Acts 21:8, 9). Women are
forbidden to
teach publicly (1 Cor. 14:34, 35; 1 Tim. 2:11, 12).
Among the
Hebrews it devolved upon women to prepare the meals
for the
household (Gen. 18:6; 2 Sam. 13:8), to attend to the
work of
spinning (Ex. 35:26; Prov. 31:19), and making
clothes (1 Sam.
2:19; Prov. 31:21), to bring water from the well
(Gen. 24:15; 1
Sam. 9:11), and to care for the flocks (Gen. 29:6;
Ex. 2:16).
The word "woman," as used in Matt. 15:28, John 2:4
and 20:13,
15, implies tenderness and courtesy and not
disrespect. Only
where revelation is known has woman her due place of
honour
assigned to her.
Read More
Enjoyed a status in Israel not assigned to them in the East
now. Mahometanism especially has degraded women in Asia and
Africa; anciently they had a liberty not now accorded them,
veiling was not then required as now: e.g. Rebekah, Genesis
24:64-65; Rachel, Genesis 29:11; Sarah, Genesis 12:14-19;
Miriam led a band of women with triumphant song, Exodus 15:20-
21; so Jephthah's daughter, Judges 11:34; the maidens of
Shiloh, Judges 21:21; the women meeting Saul and David after
victory; 1 Samuel 18:6-7; Hannah, 1 Samuel 2:1; Deborah,
Judges 4 and Judges 5; Huldah, 2 Kings 22:14; Noadiah,
Nehemiah 6:14; Anna, Luke 2:36.
The virtuous matron is admirably pictured Proverbs
31:10, etc. Polygamy transferred power from the wives to the
queen mother (called therefore gebiraah "powerful"), 1 Kings
2:19; 1 Kings 15:13; separate establishments were kept for the
wives collectively or individually, "the house of the women"
(Esther 2:3; Esther 2:9; 1 Kings 7:8); the wives had severally
a separate tent (Genesis 31:33); the women were present at
table (John 2:3; John 12:2; Job 1:4).
Read More
And the contrary is in thee from [other] women in thy
whoredoms, whereas none followeth thee to commit whoredoms:
and in that thou givest a reward, and no reward is given unto
thee, therefore thou art contrary.
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What [is] thy beloved more than [another] beloved, O thou
fairest among women? what [is] thy beloved more than [another]
beloved, that thou dost so charge us?
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And Hazael said, Why weepeth my lord? And he answered, Because
I know the evil that thou wilt do unto the children of Israel:
their strong holds wilt thou set on fire, and their young men
wilt thou slay with the sword, and wilt dash their children,
and rip up their women with child.
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And they had hair as the hair of women, and their teeth were
as [the teeth] of lions.
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And the righteous men, they shall judge them after the manner
of adulteresses, and after the manner of women that shed
blood; because they [are] adulteresses, and blood [is] in
their hands.
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So it came to pass, when the king's commandment and his decree
was heard, and when many maidens were gathered together unto
Shushan the palace, to the custody of Hegai, that Esther was
brought also unto the king's house, to the custody of Hegai,
keeper of the women.
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And Jeremiah lamented for Josiah: and all the singing men and
the singing women spake of Josiah in their lamentations to
this day, and made them an ordinance in Israel: and, behold,
they [are] written in the lamentations.
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But the women, and the little ones, and the cattle, and all
that is in the city, [even] all the spoil thereof, shalt thou
take unto thyself; and thou shalt eat the spoil of thine
enemies, which the LORD thy God hath given thee.
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Did not Solomon king of Israel sin by these things? yet among
many nations was there no king like him, who was beloved of
his God, and God made him king over all Israel: nevertheless
even him did outlandish women cause to sin.
Read More
And he brought back all the goods, and also brought again his
brother Lot, and his goods, and the women also, and the
people.
Read More
yok:
(1) The usual word is `ol (Gen 27:40, etc.), less commonly
the (apparently later) form moTah (Isa 58:6, etc.; in Nab
1:13 moT), which the Revised Version (British and American)
in Jer 27; 28 translates "bar" (a most needless and
obscuring change). The Greek in Apocrypha (Sirach 28:19,
etc.) and in the New Testament (Mt 11:29 f, etc.) is
invariably zugos. Egyptian monuments show a yoke that
consisted of a straight bar fastened to the foreheads of the
cattle at the root of the horns, and such yokes were no
doubt used in Israel also; but the more usual form was one
that rested on the neck (Gen 27:40, etc.). It was provided
with straight "bars" (moToth in Lev 26:13; Ezek 34:27)
projecting downward, against which the shoulders of the oxen
pressed, and it was held in position by thongs or "bonds"
(moceroth in Jer 2:20; 5:5; 27:2; 30:8; 'aghuddoth in Isa
58:6, "bands"), fastened under the animals' throats. Such
yokes could of course be of any weight (1 Ki 12:4 ff),
depending on the nature of the work to be done, but the use
of "iron yokes" (Dt 28:48; Jer 28:13 f) must have been very
rare, if, indeed, the phrase is anything more than a figure
of speech.
What is meant by "the yoke on their jaws" in Hos 11:4 is
quite obscure. Possibly a horse's bit is meant; possibly the
phrase is a condensed form for "the yoke that prevents their
feeding"; possibly the text is corrupt.
See JAW.
The figurative use of "yoke" in the sense of "servitude" is
intensely obvious (compare especially Jer 27, 28). Attention
needs to be called only to Lam 3:27, where "disciplining
sorrow" is meant, and to Jer 5:5, where the phrase is a
figure for "the law of God." This last use became popular
with the Jews at a later period and it is found, e.g. in
Apocrypha Baruch 41:3; Psalter of Solomon 7:9; 17:32; Ab.
iii.7,. and in this sense the phrase is employed. by Christ
in Mt 11:29 f. "My yoke" here means "the service of God as I
teach it" (the common interpretation, "the sorrows that I
bear," is utterly irrelevant) and the emphasis is on "my."
The contrast is not between "yoke" and "no yoke," but
between "my teaching" (light yoke) and "the current scribal
teaching'; (heavy yoke).
(2) "Yoke" in the sense of "a pair of oxen" is tsemedh (1
Sam 11:7, etc.), or zeugos (Lk 14:19).
Read More
FIGURATIVE
Le 26:13; Isa 9:4; 10:27; Jer 2:20; 5:5; 28:2,4,10;
30:8;
La 1:14; 3:27; Mt 11:29,30; Ac 15:10
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1. A well-known implement of husbandry, frequently used
metaphorically for subjection, e.g. 1Ki 12:4,9-11; Isa 9:4;
Jer 5:5 hence an "iron yoke" represents an unusually galling
bondage. De 28:48; Jer 28:13
2. A pair of oxen, so termed as being yoked together.
1Sa 11:7; 1Ki 19:19,21 The Hebrew term is also applied to
asses, Jud 19:10 and mules, 2Ki 5:17 and even to a couple of
riders. Isa 21:7
3. The term is also applied to a certain amount of
land, 1Sa 14:14 equivalent to that which a couple of oxen
could plough in a day, Isa 5:10 (Authorized Version "acre"),
corresponding to the Latin jugum.
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(1.) Fitted on the neck of oxen for the purpose of binding
to
them the traces by which they might draw the plough,
etc. (Num.
19:2; Deut. 21:3). It was a curved piece of wood
called _'ol_.
(2.) In Jer. 27:2; 28:10, 12 the word in the
Authorized
Version rendered "yoke" is _motah_, which properly
means a
"staff," or as in the Revised Version, "bar."
These words in the Hebrew are both used figuratively
of severe
bondage, or affliction, or subjection (Lev. 26:13; 1
Kings 12:4;
Isa. 47:6; Lam. 1:14; 3:27). In the New Testament
the word
"yoke" is also used to denote servitude (Matt.
11:29, 30; Acts
15:10; Gal. 5:1).
(3.) In 1 Sam. 11:7, 1 Kings 19:21, Job 1:3 the word
thus
translated is _tzemed_, which signifies a pair, two
oxen yoked
or coupled together, and hence in 1 Sam. 14:14 it
represents as
much land as a yoke of oxen could plough in a day,
like the
Latin _jugum_. In Isa. 5:10 this word in the plural
is
translated "acres."
Read More
mot, the wooden bow (ol) bound to the ox's neck: the two are
combined, "bands of the yoke" (Leviticus 26:13; Ezekiel 34:27;
Jeremiah 2:20, rather "thou hast broken the yoke and burst the
bands which I laid on thee," i.e. My laws, setting them at
defiance, Jeremiah 5:5; Psalm 2:3). Contrast the world's heavy
yoke (1 Kings 12:4; 1 Kings 12:9; 1 Kings 12:11; Isaiah 9:11)
with Christ's "easy yoke" (Matthew 11:29-30). Tsemed, a pair
of oxen (1 Samuel 11:7), or donkeys (Judges 19:10); a couple
of horsemen (Isaiah 21:7); also what land a pair of oxen could
plow in a day (Isaiah 5:10, "ten acres," literally, ten yokes;
Latin: jugum, jugerum; 1 Samuel 14:14).
Read More
At Tehaphnehes also the day shall be darkened, when I shall
break there the yokes of Egypt: and the pomp of her strength
shall cease in her: as for her, a cloud shall cover her, and
her daughters shall go into captivity.
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Thus saith the LORD to me; Make thee bonds and yokes, and put
them upon thy neck,
Read More
Go and tell Hananiah, saying, Thus saith the LORD; Thou hast
broken the yokes of wood; but thou shalt make for them yokes
of iron.
Read More
Thou shalt betroth a wife, and another man shall lie with her:
thou shalt build an house, and thou shalt not dwell therein:
thou shalt plant a vineyard, and shalt not gather the grapes
thereof.
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And it came to pass, when Jezebel heard that Naboth was
stoned, and was dead, that Jezebel said to Ahab, Arise, take
possession of the vineyard of Naboth the Jezreelite, which he
refused to give thee for money: for Naboth is not alive, but
dead.
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Six years thou shalt sow thy field, and six years thou shalt
prune thy vineyard, and gather in the fruit thereof;
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But the seventh [year] thou shalt let it rest and lie still;
that the poor of thy people may eat: and what they leave the
beasts of the field shall eat. In like manner thou shalt deal
with thy vineyard, [and] with thy oliveyard.
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And it came to pass, when Ahab heard that Naboth was dead,
that Ahab rose up to go down to the vineyard of Naboth the
Jezreelite, to take possession of it.
Read More
Who goeth a warfare any time at his own charges? who planteth
a vineyard, and eateth not of the fruit thereof? or who
feedeth a flock, and eateth not of the milk of the flock?
Read More
When thou comest into thy neighbour's vineyard, then thou
mayest eat grapes thy fill at thine own pleasure; but thou
shalt not put [any] in thy vessel.
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For the vineyard of the LORD of hosts [is] the house of
Israel, and the men of Judah his pleasant plant: and he looked
for judgment, but behold oppression; for righteousness, but
behold a cry.
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Therefore I will make Samaria as an heap of the field, [and]
as plantings of a vineyard: and I will pour down the stones
thereof into the valley, and I will discover the foundations
thereof.
Read More
But in the seventh year shall be a sabbath of rest unto the
land, a sabbath for the LORD: thou shalt neither sow thy
field, nor prune thy vineyard.
Read More
wosh, wosh'-ing: The two usual Hebrew words for "wash" are
rachats, and kabhac, the former being normally used of
persons or of sacrificial animals (Gen 18:4, etc., often
translated "bathe"; Lev 15:5, etc.), and the latter of
things (Gen 49:11, etc.), the exceptions to this distinction
being few (for rachats, 1 Ki 22:38 margin; for kabhac, Ps
51:2,7; Jer 2:22; 4:14). Much less common are duach (2 Ch
4:6; Isa 4:4; Ezek 40:38) and shataph (1 Ki 22:38; Job
14:19; Ezek 16:9), translated "rinse" in Lev 6:28; 15:11,12.
In Neh 4:23 the King James Version has "washing" and the
Revised Version (British and American) "water" for mayim,
but the text is hopelessly obscure (compare the Revised
Version margin). In the Apocrypha and New Testament the
range of terms is wider. Most common is nipto (Mt 6:17,
etc.), with aponipto in Mt 27:24. Of the other terms, louo
(Susanna verses 15,17; Jn 13:10, etc.), with apolouo (Acts
22:16; 1 Cor 6:11) and the noun loutron (Sirach 34:25b; Eph
5:26; Tit 3:5), usually has a sacral significance. On
baptizo (Sirach 34:25a; Mk 7:4; Lk 11:38), with the noun
baptismos (Mk 7:4 (text?); Heb 9:10), see BAPTISM. In Lk
5:2; Rev 7:14; 22:14 the Revised Version (British and
American) occurs pluno, while Judith 10:3 has perikluzo.
Virtually, as far as meaning is concerned, all these words
are interchangeable. Of the figurative uses of washing, the
most common and obvious is that of cleansing from sin (Ps
51:2; Isa 1:16, etc.), but, with an entirely different
figure, "to wash in" may signify "to enjoy in plenty" (Gen
49:11; Job 29:6; the meaning in Song 5:12 is uncertain).
Washing of the hands, in token of innocence, is found in Dt
21:6; Mt 27:24.
The "washing balls" of Susanna verse 17 (smegma, a very rare
word) were of soap.
Read More
Of hands, a token of innocence
De 21:6; Ps 26:6; 73:13; Mt 27:24
-See ABLUTION
-See PURIFICATION
-FIGURATIVE
Of regeneration
Ps 51:7; Pr 30:12; Isa 1:16; 4:4; Zec 13:1; 1Co 6:11;
Eph
5:26; Tit 3:5
Read More
As knives and forks were not used in the East, in Scripture
times, in eating, it was necessary that the hand, which was
thrust into the common dish, should be scrupulously clean; and
again, as sandals were ineffectual against the dust and heat
of the climate, washing the feet on entering a house was an
act both of respect to the company and of refreshment to the
traveller. The former of these usages was transformed by the
Pharisees of the New Testament age into a matter of ritual
observance, Mr 7:3 and special rules were laid down as to the
time and manner of its performance. Washing the feet did not
rise to the dignity of a ritual observance except in
connection with the services of the sanctuary. Ex 30:19,21 It
held a high place, however, among the rites of hospitality.
Immediately that a guest presented himself at the tent door it
was usual to offer the necessary materials for washing the
feet. Ge 18:4; 19:2; 24:32; 43:24; Jud 19:21 It was a yet more
complimentary act, betokening equally humility and affection,
if the host himself performed the office for his guest. 1Sa
25:41; Lu 7:38,44; Joh 13:5-14; 1Ti 5:10 Such a token of
hospitality is still occasionally exhibited in the East.
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(Mark 7:1-9). The Jews, like other Orientals, used their
fingers
when taking food, and therefore washed their hands
before doing
so, for the sake of cleanliness. Here the reference
is to the
ablutions prescribed by tradition, according to
which "the
disciples ought to have gone down to the side of the
lake,
washed their hands thoroughly, 'rubbing the fist of
one hand in
the hollow of the other, then placed the ten finger-
tips
together, holding the hands up, so that any surplus
water might
flow down to the elbow, and thence to the ground.'"
To neglect
to do this had come to be regarded as a great sin, a
sin equal
to the breach of any of the ten commandments. Moses
had
commanded washings oft, but always for some definite
cause; but
the Jews multiplied the legal observance till they
formed a
large body of precepts. To such precepts about
ceremonial
washing Mark here refers. (See ABLUTION -T0000051.)
Read More
The high priest's whole body was washed at his consecration
(Exodus 29:4; Leviticus 16:4); also on the day of atonement.
The priests' hands and feet alone were washed in the daily
tabernacle ministrations (Exodus 30:18-20). So Christians
are once for all wholly "bathed" (leloumenoi) in
regeneration which is their consecration; and daily wash
away their soils of hand and foot contracted in walking
through this defiling world (John 13:10, Greek "he that has
been bathed needs not save to wash (nipsasthai) his feet,
but is clean all over": 2 Corinthians 7:1; Hebrews 10:22-23;
Ephesians 5:26). The clothes of him who led away the scape-
goat, and of the priest who offered the red heifer, were
washed (Leviticus 16:26; Numbers 19:7).
The Pharisaic washings of hands before eating, and
of the whole body after being in the market (Mark 7:2-4),
turned attention off from the spirit of the law, which aimed
at teaching inward purity, to a mere outward purification.
In the sultry and dusty East water for the feet was provided
for the guests (Luke 7:44; Genesis 18:4). The Lord Jesus by
washing His disciples' feet taught our need of His
cleansing, and His great humility whereby that cleansing was
effected (compare 1 Samuel 25:41; 1 Timothy 5:10). The
sandals, without stockings, could not keep out dust from the
feet; hence washing them was usual before either dining or
sleeping (Song of Solomon 5:3). Again, the usage of
thrusting the hand into a common dish rendered cleansing of
the hand indispensable before eating. It was only when
perverted into a self righteous ritual that our Lord
protested against it (Matthew 15:2; Luke 11:38).
Read More
And all the elders of that city, [that are] next unto the
slain [man], shall wash their hands over the heifer that is
beheaded in the valley:
Read More
I will wash mine hands in innocency: so will I compass thine
altar, O LORD:
Read More
Verily I have cleansed my heart [in] vain, and washed my hands
in innocency.
Read More
When Pilate saw that he could prevail nothing, but [that]
rather a tumult was made, he took water, and washed [his]
hands before the multitude, saying, I am innocent of the blood
of this just person: see ye [to it].
Read More
woch'-man (tsopheh, shomer, metsappeh, notser): Used to
designate a sentinel on the city walls (2 Sam 18:25; 2 Ki
9:18; Ps 127:1; Isa 62:6) or on the hilltops (Jer 31:6). Song
3:3; 5:7 introduces another class, "the watchmen that go about
the city," and thus, it would seem, points to some system of
municipal police. The distinction in meaning between the
various words is clear, tsopheh having the idea of "outlooker"
and notser that of "careful watcher" (being applied even to
besiegers from outside: Jer 4:16, "watchers"), while shomer
also embraces the idea of "defending" or "guarding." In Isa
21:6 metsappeh is to be taken generally in the sense of
"watch." In Sirach 37:14 skopos, means simply "looker."
Read More
Prepare the table, watch in the watchtower, eat, drink: arise,
ye princes, [and] anoint the shield.
Read More
And he cried, A lion: My lord, I stand continually upon the
watchtower in the daytime, and I am set in my ward whole
nights:
Read More
Except the LORD build the house, they labour in vain that
build it: except the LORD keep the city, the watchman waketh
[but] in vain.
Read More
Son of man, speak to the children of thy people, and say unto
them, When I bring the sword upon a land, if the people of the
land take a man of their coasts, and set him for their
watchman:
Read More
And the watchman said, Me thinketh the running of the foremost
is like the running of Ahimaaz the son of Zadok. And the king
said, He [is] a good man, and cometh with good tidings.
Read More
So there went one on horseback to meet him, and said, Thus
saith the king, [Is it] peace? And Jehu said, What hast thou
to do with peace? turn thee behind me. And the watchman told,
saying, The messenger came to them, but he cometh not again.
Read More
And there stood a watchman on the tower in Jezreel, and he
spied the company of Jehu as he came, and said, I see a
company. And Joram said, Take an horseman, and send to meet
them, and let him say, [Is it] peace?
Read More
But if the watchman see the sword come, and blow not the
trumpet, and the people be not warned; if the sword come, and
take [any] person from among them, he is taken away in his
iniquity; but his blood will I require at the watchman's hand.
Read More
The watchman said, The morning cometh, and also the night: if
ye will enquire, enquire ye: return, come.
Read More
So thou, O son of man, I have set thee a watchman unto the
house of Israel; therefore thou shalt hear the word at my
mouth, and warn them from me.
Read More
wo'-ter (mayim; hudor):
(1) The Greek philosophers believed water to be the original
substance and that all things were made from it. The Koran
states, "From water we have made all things." In the story
of the creation (Gen 1:2) water plays an elemental part.
(2) Because of the scarcity of water in Israel it is
especially appreciated by the people there. They love to go
and sit by a stream of running water. Men long for a taste
of the water of their native village (1 Ch 11:17). A town or
village is known throughout the country for the quality of
its water, which is described by many adjectives, such as
"light," "heavy," etc.
(3) The rainfall is the only source of supply of water for
Israel. The moisture is carried up from the sea in clouds
and falls on the hills as rain or snow. This supplies the
springs and fountains. The rivers are mostly small and have
little or no water in summer. For the most part springs
supply the villages, but in case this is not sufficient,
cisterns are used. Most of the rain falls on the western
slopes of the mountains, and most of the springs are found
there. The limestone in many places does not hold the water,
so wells are not very common, though there are many
references to them in the Bible.
(4) Cisterns are usually on the surface of the ground and
vary greatly in size. Jerusalem has always had to depend for
the most part on water stored in this way, and carried to
the city in aqueducts. A large number of cisterns have been
found and partially explored under the temple-area itself.
The water stored in the cisterns is surface water, and is a
great menace to the health of the people. During the long,
dry summer the water gets less and less, and becomes so
stagnant and filthy that it is not fit to drink. In a few
instances the cisterns or pools are sufficiently large to
supply water for limited irrigation.
See CISTERN.
(5) During the summer when there is no rain, vegetation is
greatly helped by the heavy dews. A considerable amount of
irrigation is carried on in the country where there is
sufficient water in the fountains and springs for the
purpose. There was doubtless much more of it in the Roman
period. Most of the fruit trees require water during the
summer.
(6) Many particular wells or pools are mentioned in the
Bible, as: Beersheba (Gen 21:19), Isaac's well (Gen 24:11),
Jacob's well (Jn 4:6), Pool of Siloam (Jn 9:7), "waters of
Nephtoah" (Josh 15:9).
(7) Washing with water held a considerable place in the
Jewish temple-ceremony (Lev 11:32; 16:4; 17:15; 22:6; Nu
19:7; Ex 30:18; 40:7). Sacrifices were washed (Ex 29:4; Lev
1:9; 6:28; 14:5).
(8) The lack of water caused great suffering (Ex 15:22; Dt
8:15; 2 Ki 3:9; Ps 63:1; Prov 9:17; Ezek 4:11; Lam 5:4).
Read More
Creation of
Ps 148:4,5
-Covered the whole earth
Ge 1:9
-Daily allowance of
Eze 4:11
-City waterworks
2Ki 20:20
-Vision of, by Ezekiel
Eze 47:1-5
-Of separation
Nu 19:2-22
-Libation of
1Sa 7:6
-Irrigation with
See IRRIGATION
-Miraculously supplied
To the Israelites
Ex 17:1,6; Nu 20:11
To Samson
Jud 15:19
To Jehoshaphat's army
2Ki 3:16-20
-Purified by Elisha
2Ki 2:19-22
-Red Sea divided
Ex 14:21,22
-The Jordan River
Jos 3:14-17; 2Ki 2:6-8,14
-Jesus walks upon
Mt 14:25
-Changed to wine
Joh 2:1-11
-Turned into blood
Re 16:3-5
-FIGURATIVE
Water of life
Joh 4:14; 7:37-39; Re 21:6; 22:17
Water of affliction
2Sa 22:17; Ps 69:1; Isa 30:20; 43:2
Water of salvation
Isa 12:3; 49:10; 55:1; Eze 36:25; Joh 4:10; 7:38
Domestic love
Pr 5:15
-SYMBOLICAL
Isa 8:7; Re 8:11; 12:15; 16:4; 17:1,15
Read More
The heat of summer and many mouths of drought necessitated
also appliances for storing and conveying water; and remains
still exist of the frontPOOLS of Solomon situated near
Bethlehem, and of the aqueduct near Jericho which was
constructed by the Romans.
Read More
we'-ving: Although weaving was one of the most important and
best developed of the crafts of Bible times, yet we have but
few Biblical references to enlighten us as to the processes
used in those early days. A knowledge of the technique of
weaving is necessary, however, if we are to understand some
of the Biblical incidents. The principle of weaving in all
ages is illustrated by the process of darning. The hole to
be darned is laid over with parallel threads which
correspond to the "warp" (shethi) of a woven fabric. Then,
by means of a darning needle which takes the place of the
shuttle in the loom, other threads are interlaced back and
forth at right angles to the first set of strands. This
second set corresponds to the woof (`erebh) or weft of woven
cloth. The result is a web of threads across the hole. If
the warp threads, instead of being attached to the edges of
a fabric, are fastened to two beams which can be stretched
either on a frame or on the ground, and the woof is
interlaced exactly as in darning, the result will be a web
of cloth. The process is then called weaving ('aragh), and
the apparatus a loom. The most up-to-date loom of our modern
mills differs from the above only in the devices for
accelerating the process. The first of these improvements
dates back some 5,000 years to the early Egyptians, who
discovered what is technically known as shedding, i.e.
dividing the warp into two sets of threads, every other
thread being lifted so that the woof can run between, as is
shown in the diagram of the Arabic loom.of considerable
means (Mk 1:19,20; Jn 19:27).
The looms are still commonly used among the Bedouins.
Supppose only eight threads are used for an illustration. In
reality the eight strands are made by passing one continuous
thread back and forth between the two poles which are held
apart by stakes driven into the ground. The even strands run
through loops of string attached to a rod, and from there
under a beam to the pole. By placing the ends upon stones,
or by suspending it on loops, the even threads are raised
above the odd threads, thus forming a shed through which the
weft can be passed. The separating of odds and evens is
assisted by a flat board of wedge-shaped cross-section,
which is turned at right angles to the odd threads. After
the shuttle has been passed across, this same stick is used
to beat up the weft.
The threads are removed from the stones or loops, and
allowed to lie loosely on the warp; it is pulled forward
toward the weaver and raised on the stones in the position
previously occupied by it. The flat spreader is passed
through the new shed in which the odd threads are now above
and the even threads below. The weft is run through and is
beaten into place with the thin edge of it. The shuttle
commonly used is a straight tree branch on which the thread
is loosely wound "kite-string" fashion.
The loom used by Delilah was no doubt like the one described
above (Jdg 16:13,14). It would have been an easy matter for
her to run in Samson's locks as strands of the weft while he
lay sleeping on the ground near the loom adjacent to rod
under the beam. The passage might be transposed thus: "And
he said unto her, If thou weavest the seven locks of my head
into the web. And she passed in his locks and beat...
Read More
General scriptures concerning
Isa 19:9; 38:12
-Bezaleel skilled in
Ex 35:35
-Performed by women
2Ki 23:7
-Of the ephod
Ex 28:32; 39:22
-Of coats
Ex 39:27
-Weaver's shuttle
Job 7:6
-Beam
Jud 16:14; 2Sa 21:19; 1Ch 11:23
Read More
The art of weaving appears to be coeval with the first
dawning of civilization. We find it practiced with great
skill by the Egyptians at a very early period; The vestures
of fine linen" such as Joseph wore, Ge 41:42 were the
product of Egyptian looms. The Israelites were probably
acquainted with the process before their sojourn in Egypt;
but it was undoubtedly there that they attained the
proficiency which enabled them to execute the hangings of
the tabernacle, Ex 35:35; 1Ch 4:21 and other artistic
textures. The Egyptian loom was usually upright, and the
weaver stood at his work. The cloth was fixed sometimes at
the top, sometimes at the bottom. The modern Arabs use a
procumbent loom, raised above the ground by short legs. The
textures produced by the Jewish weavers were very various.
The coarser kinds, such tent-cloth, sack-cloth and the
"hairy garments" of the poor, were made goat's or camel's
hair. Ex 26:7; Mt 3:4 Wool was extensively used for ordinary
clothing, Le 13:47; Pr 27:26; 31:13; Eze 27:18 while for
finer work flax was used, varying in quality, and producing
the different textures described in the Bible as "linen" and
"fine linen." The mixture of wool and flax in cloth intended
for a garment was interdicted. Le 19:19; De 22:11
Read More
Weaving was an art practised in very early times (Ex.
35:35).
The Egyptians were specially skilled in it (Isa.
19:9; Ezek.
27:7), and some have regarded them as its inventors.
In the wilderness, the Hebrews practised it (Ex.
26:1, 8;
28:4, 39; Lev. 13:47). It is referred to in
subsequent times as
specially the women's work (2 Kings 23:7; Prov.
31:13, 24). No
mention of the loom is found in Scripture, but we
read of the
"shuttle" (Job 7:6), "the pin" of the beam (Judg.
16:14), "the
web" (13, 14), and "the beam" (1 Sam. 17:7; 2 Sam.
21:19). The
rendering, "with pining sickness," in Isa. 38:12
(A.V.) should
be, as in the Revised Version, "from the loom," or,
as in the
margin, "from the thrum." We read also of the "warp"
and "woof"
(Lev. 13:48, 49, 51-53, 58, 59), but the Revised
Version margin
has, instead of "warp," "woven or knitted stuff."
Read More
(See LINEN.) The "fine linen" of Joseph (Genesis 41:42)
accords with existing specimens of Egyptian weaving equal to
the finest cambric. The Israelites learned from the
Egyptians the art, and so could weave the tabernacle
curtains (Exodus 35:35). In Isaiah 19:9 Gesenius translated
choral (from chur, "white") "they that weave white cloth,"
for "networks" (Esther 1:6; Esther 8:15). The Tyrians got
from Egypt their "fine linen with embroidered work" for
sails (Ezekiel 27:7). Men wove anciently (1 Chronicles
4:21); latterly females (1 Samuel 2:19; Proverbs 31:13;
Proverbs 31:19; Proverbs 31:24). The Egyptian loom was
upright, and the weaver stood. Jesus' seamless coat was
woven "from the top" (John 19:23). In Leviticus 13:48 the
"warp" and "woof" are not parts of woven cloth, but yarn
prepared for warp and yarn prepared for woof.
The speed of the shuttle, the decisive cutting of the web
from the thrum when the web is complete, symbolize the rapid
passing away of life and its being cut off at a stroke (Job
7:6; Isaiah 38:12); each day, like the weaver's shuttle,
leaves a thread behind. Textures with gold thread interwoven
(Psalm 45:13) were most valuable. The Babylonians wove men
and animals on robes; Achan appropriated such a "goodly
Babylonish garment" (Joshua 7:21). Sacerdotal garments were
woven without seam (Josephus, Ant. 3:7, section 4); so
Jesus' "coat without seam" (John 19:23)was appropriately
sacerdotal, as He was at once the Priest and the sacrifice.
Read More
Moreover they that work in fine flax, and they that weave
networks, shall be confounded.
Read More
They hatch cockatrice' eggs, and weave the spider's web: he
that eateth of their eggs dieth, and that which is crushed
breaketh out into a viper.
Read More
(1) (be'er; compare Arabic bi'r, "well" or "cistern";
usually artificial: "And Isaac's servants digged (dug) in
the valley, and found there a well of springing (margin
"living") water" (Gen 26:19); some times covered: "Jacob
.... rolled the stone from the well's mouth" (Gen 29:10).
Be'er may also be a pit: "The vale of Siddim was full of
slime pits" (Gen 14:10); "the pit of destruction" (Ps
55:23). (2) (bor), usually "pit": "Let us slay him, and cast
him into one of the pits" (Gen 37:20); may be "well": "drew
water out of the well of Beth-lehem" (2 Sam 23:16).
(3) (pege), usually "running water," "fount," or "source":
"Doth the fountain send forth from the same opening sweet
water and bitter?" (Jas 3:11); may be "well"; compare
"Jacob's well" (Jn 4:6). (4) (phrear), usually "pit": "the
pit of the abyss" (Rev 9:1); but "well"; compare "Jacob's
well" (Jn 4:11,12): "Which of you shall have an ass or an ox
fallen into a well" (the King James Version "pit") (Lk
14:5). (5) (krene), "wells" (Sirach 48:17), Latin, fons,
"spring" (2 Esdras 2:32).
(6) ayin), compare Arabic `ain "fountain," "spring": "the
fountain (English Versions of the Bible) which is in
Jezreel" (1 Sam 29:1); "In Elim were twelve springs (the
King James Version "fountains"] of water" (Nu 33:9); "She
(Rebekah) went down to the fountain" (the King James Version
"well") (Gen 24:16); "the jackal's well" (the English
Revised Version "the dragon's well," the King James Version
"the dragon well") (Neh 2:13). (7) (ma`yan), same root as
(6); "the fountain (the King James Version "well") of the
waters of Nephtoah" (Josh 18:15); "Passing through the
valley of Weeping (the King James Version "Baca") they make
it a place of springs" (the King James Version "well") (Ps
84:6); "Ye shall draw water out of the wells of salvation"
(Isa 12:3). (8) (maqor), usually figurative: "With thee is
the fountain of life" (Ps 36:9); "The mouth of the righteous
is a fountain (the King James Version "well") of life" (Prov
10:11); "make her (Babylon's) fountain (the King James
Version "spring") dry" (Jer 51:36); "a corrupted spring"
(Prov 25:26). (9) (mabbu`), (nabha`, "to flow," "spring,"
"bubble up"; compare Arabic (nab`, manba`, yanbu`)
"fountain": "or the pitcher is broken at the fountain" (Eccl
12:6); "the thirsty ground springs of water" (Isa 35:7).
(10) (motsa'), "spring," (yatsa'), "to go out," "the dry
land springs of water" (Isa 41:18); "a dry land into
watersprings" (Ps 107:35); "the upper spring of the waters
of Gihon" (2 Ch 32:30). (11) (nebhekh), root uncertain,
reading doubtful; only in Job 38:16, "Hast thou entered into
the springs of the sea?" (12) (tehom), "deep," "abyss";
compare Gen 1:2; translated "springs," the King James
Version "depths" (Dt 8:7). (13) (gal), (galal), "to roll";
compare Gilgal (Josh 5:9); "a spring shut up" (Song 4:12).
(14) (gullah), "bowl," "basin," "pool," same root: "Give me
also springs of water. And he gave her the upper sprigs and
the nether springs" (Josh 15:19); compare Arabic (kullat),
pronounced gullat, "a marble," "a cannon-ball."
As is clear from references cited above, wells and springs
were not sharply distinguished in name, though be'er, and
phrear are used mainly of wells, and `ayin, ma`yan, motsa',
mabbua` and (poetically) maqor are chiefly used of
fountains. The Arabic bi'r, the equivalent of the Hebrew
be'er, usually denotes a cistern for rain-water, though it
may be qualified as bi'r jam`, "well of gathering," i.e. for
rain-water, or as bi'r nab`, "well of springing water." A
spring or natural fountain is called in Arabic `ain or nab`
(compare Hebrew `ayin and mabbua`). These Arabic and Hebrew
words for "well" and "spring" figure largely in place-names,
modern and ancient: Beer (Nu 21:16); Beer-elim (Isa 15:8),
etc.; `Ain (a) on the northeast boundary of Israel (Nu
34:11), (b) in the South of Judah, perhaps = En-rimmon (Josh
15:32); Enaim (Gen 38:14); Enam (Josh 15:34), etc. Modern
Arabic names with `ain are very numerous, e.g. `Ainul-
fashkhah, `Ain-ul-chajleh, `Ain-karim, etc.
Read More
The occasion of feuds
Between Abraham and Abimelech
Ge 21:25-30
Between Isaac and Abimelech
Ge 26:15-22,32,33
-Of Jacob
Joh 4:6
-Of Solomon
Ec 2:6
-Of Uzziah
2Ch 26:10
-Of Hezekiah
See GIHON
-At Haran
Ge 24:16
-FlGURATIVE
Of salvation
Isa 12:3; Joh 4:14
Without water
Jer 15:18; 2Pe 2:17
Read More
Wells in Israel are usually excavated from the solid
limestone rock, sometimes with steps to descend into them.
Ge 24:16 The brims are furnished with a curb or low wall of
stone, bearing marks of high antiquity in the furrows worn
by the ropes used in drawing water. It was on a curb of this
sort that our Lord sat when he conversed with the woman of
Samaria, Joh 4:6 and it was this, the usual stone cover,
which the woman placed on the mouth of the well at Bahurim,
2Sa 17:19 where the Authorized Version weakens the sense by
omitting the article. The usual methods for raising water
are the following:
1. The rope and bucket, or waterskin. Ge 24:14-20;
Joh 4:11
2. The sakiyeh, or Persian wheel. This consists of a
vertical wheel furnished with a set of buckets or earthen
jars attached to a cord passing over the wheel. which
descend empty and return full as the wheel revolves.
3. A modification of the last method, by which a
man, sitting opposite to a wheel furnished with buckets,
turns it by drawing with his hands one set of spokes
prolonged beyond its circumference, and pushing another set
from him with his feet.
4. A method very common in both ancient and modern
Egypt is the shadoof, a simple contrivance consisting of a
lever moving on a pivot, which is loaded at one end with a
lump of clay or some other weight, and has at the other a
bowl or bucket. Wells are usually furnished with troughs of
wood or stone into which the water is emptied for the use of
persons or animals coming to the wells. Unless machinery is
used, which is commonly worked by men, women are usually the
water-carriers.
Read More
(Heb. beer), to be distinguished from a fountain (Heb. 'ain).
A
"beer" was a deep shaft, bored far under the rocky
surface by
the art of man, which contained water which percolated
through
the strata in its sides. Such wells were those of
Jacob and
Beersheba, etc. (see Gen. 21:19, 25, 30, 31; 24:11;
26:15,
18-25, 32, etc.). In the Pentateuch this word beer, so
rendered,
occurs twenty-five times.
Read More
(See FOUNTAIN.) As ''Ayin, "fount," literally, "eye", refers
to the water springing up to us, so beer, "well," from a
root "to bore," refers to our finding our way down to it.
The Bir- and the En- are always distinct. The rarity of
wells in the Sinaitic region explains the national
rejoicings over Beer or the well, afterward Beer-Elim, "well
of heroes" (Numbers 21:16-17-18,22). God commanded Moses to
cause the well to be dug; princes, nobles, and people, all
heartily, believingly, and joyfully cooperated in the work.
Naming a well marked right of property in it. To destroy it
denoted conquest or denial of right of property (Genesis
21:30-31; Genesis 26:15-33; 2 Kings 3:19; Deuteronomy 6:11;
Numbers 20:17; Numbers 20:19; Proverbs 5:15). "Drink waters
out of thine own cistern, and running waters out of thine
own well," i.e. enjoy the love of thine own wife alone.
Wells and cisterns are the two sources of oriental
supply, each house had its own cistern (2 Kings 18:31); to
thirst for filthy waters is suicidal. Song of Solomon 4:12;
in Israel wells are excavated in the limestone, with steps
descending to them (Genesis 24:16). A low stone wall for
protection (Exodus 21:33) surrounds the brim; on it sat our
Lord in conversing with the Samaritan woman (John 4:6; John
4:11). A stone cover was above; this the woman placed on the
well at Bahurim (2 Samuel 17:19), translated "the woman
spread the covering over the well's mouth." A rope and
bucket or water skin raised the water; the marks of the rope
are still visible in the furrows worn in the low wall. See
Numbers 24:7, "he shall stream with water out of his two
buckets," namely, suspended from the two ends of a pole, the
usual way of fetching water from the Euphrates in Balaam's
neighbourhood.
Wells are often contended for and are places of
Bedouin attacks on those drawing water (Exodus 2:16-17;
Judges 5:11; 2 Samuel 23:15-16). Oboth (Numbers 21:10-11)
means holes dug in the ground for water. Beerlahairoi is the
first well mentioned (Genesis 16:14). Beersheba, Rehoboth,
and Jacob's well are leading instances of wells (Genesis
21:19; Genesis 26:22). They are sunk much deeper than ours,
to prevent drying up. Jacob's well is 75 ft. deep, seven
feet six inches in diameter, and lined with rough masonry; a
pitcher unbroken at the bottom evidenced that there was
water at some seasons, otherwise the fall would have broken
the pitcher.
Read More
And Isaac digged again the wells of water, which they had
digged in the days of Abraham his father; for the Philistines
had stopped them after the death of Abraham: and he called
their names after the names by which his father had called
them.
Read More
And houses full of all good [things], which thou filledst not,
and wells digged, which thou diggedst not, vineyards and olive
trees, which thou plantedst not; when thou shalt have eaten
and be full;
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And ye shall smite every fenced city, and every choice city,
and shall fell every good tree, and stop all wells of water,
and mar every good piece of land with stones.
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And they beat down the cities, and on every good piece of land
cast every man his stone, and filled it; and they stopped all
the wells of water, and felled all the good trees: only in
Kirharaseth left they the stones thereof; howbeit the slingers
went about [it], and smote it.
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Let us pass, I pray thee, through thy country: we will not
pass through the fields, or through the vineyards, neither
will we drink [of] the water of the wells: we will go by the
king's [high] way, we will not turn to the right hand nor to
the left, until we have passed thy borders.
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And they took strong cities, and a fat land, and possessed
houses full of all goods, wells digged, vineyards, and
oliveyards, and fruit trees in abundance: so they did eat, and
were filled, and became fat, and delighted themselves in thy
great goodness.
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Also he built towers in the desert, and digged many wells: for
he had much cattle, both in the low country, and in the
plains: husbandmen [also], and vine dressers in the mountains,
and in Carmel: for he loved husbandry.
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For all the wells which his father's servants had digged in
the days of Abraham his father, the Philistines had stopped
them, and filled them with earth.
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And they came to Elim, where [were] twelve wells of water, and
threescore and ten palm trees: and they encamped there by the
waters.
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These are wells without water, clouds that are carried with a
tempest; to whom the mist of darkness is reserved for ever.
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General scriptures concerning
Ge 6:16; 26:8; Jos 2:15,21; 1Ki 6:4; Eze 40:16-36; Ac
20:9
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The window of an Oriental house consists generally of an
aperture closed in with lattice-work. Jud 5:28; Pr 7:6
Authorized Version "casement;" Ec 12:3 Authorized Version
"window;" So 2:9; Ho 13:3 Authorized Version "chimney." Glass
has been introduced into Egypt in modern times as a protection
against the cold of winter, but lattice-work is still the
usual, and with the poor the only, contrivance for closing the
window. The windows generally look into the inner court of the
house, but in every house one or more look into the street. In
Egypt these outer windows generally project over the doorway.
[HOUSE]
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properly only an opening in a house for the admission of
light
and air, covered with lattice-work, which might be
opened or
closed (2 Kings 1:2; Acts 20:9). The spies in Jericho
and Paul
at Damascus were let down from the windows of houses
abutting on
the town wall (Josh. 2:15; 2 Cor. 11:33). The clouds
are
metaphorically called the "windows of heaven" (Gen.
7:11; Mal.
3:10). The word thus rendered in Isa. 54:12 ought
rather to be
rendered "battlements" (LXX., "bulwarks;" R.V.,
"pinnacles"), or
as Gesenius renders it, "notched battlements, i.e.,
suns or rays
of the sun"= having a radiated appearance like the
sun.
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(See HOUSE.) Chalon, "aperture" with lattice work; this being
opened, nothing prevented one from falling through the
aperture to the ground (2 Kings 1:2; Acts 20:9). Houses
abutting on a town wall often had projecting windows looking
into the country. From them the spies at Jericho were let
down, and Paul at Damascus (Joshua 2:15; )
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A window shalt thou make to the ark, and in a cubit shalt thou
finish it above; and the door of the ark shalt thou set in the
side thereof; [with] lower, second, and third [stories] shalt
thou make it.
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And he said, Open the window eastward. And he opened [it].
Then Elisha said, Shoot. And he shot. And he said, The arrow
of the LORD'S deliverance, and the arrow of deliverance from
Syria: for thou shalt smite the Syrians in Aphek, till thou
have consumed [them].
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And he said, Open the window eastward. And he opened [it].
Then Elisha said, Shoot. And he shot. And he said, The arrow
of the LORD'S deliverance, and the arrow of deliverance from
Syria: for thou shalt smite the Syrians in Aphek, till thou
have consumed [them].
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Behold, [when] we come into the land, thou shalt bind this
line of scarlet thread in the window which thou didst let us
down by: and thou shalt bring thy father, and thy mother, and
thy brethren, and all thy father's household, home unto thee.
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And as the ark of the LORD came into the city of David, Michal
Saul's daughter looked through a window, and saw king David
leaping and dancing before the LORD; and she despised him in
her heart.
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Practised by the Ishmaelites (Gen. 16:12), the Chaldeans and
Sabeans (Job 1:15, 17), and the men of Shechem
(Judg. 9:25. See
also 1 Sam. 27:6-10; 30; Hos. 4:2; 6:9). Robbers
infested Judea
in our Lord's time (Luke 10:30; John 18:40; Acts
5:36, 37;
21:38; 2 Cor. 11:26). The words of the Authorized
Version,
"counted it not robbery to be equal," etc. (Phil.
2:6, 7), are
better rendered in the Revised Version, "counted it
not a prize
to be on an equality," etc., i.e., "did not look
upon equality
with God as a prize which must not slip from his
grasp" = "did
not cling with avidity to the prerogatives of his
divine
majesty; did not ambitiously display his equality
with God."
"Robbers of churches" should be rendered, as in the
Revised
Version, "of temples." In the temple at Ephesus
there was a
great treasure-chamber, and as all that was laid up
there was
under the guardianship of the goddess Diana, to
steal from such
a place would be sacrilege (Acts 19:37).
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Greek leestai. Rather "robbers." Lawless banditti infested
Israel in our Lord's days (Josephus, Ant. 17:19, section 8;
20:8, section 10), and gave trouble to each successive Roman
governor (Josephus, B. J. 2:13, section 2). Even on the high
road between Jericho and Jerusalem they assailed travelers,
as the parable of the good Samaritan shows (Luke 10:30).
Armed bands were needed to encounter them (Luke 22:52).
Fanatical zeal for emancipating the Jewish nation often
accompanied robbery, from whence Barabbas and his companions
in insurrection and murder enlisted popular sympathy (Mark
15:7). Crucifixion was the Roman penalty for the robber and
the rebel alike. The two crucified with Jesus were probably
such: the taunt of the one, "if Thou be Christ, save Thyself
and us," implies sympathy with the Jews' fanatical zeal for
national and individual deliverance from Roman rule: they
probably were among Barabbas' fellow insurgents, and were
doomed to die with him; but he was released, and they were
left to their fate.
At first both railed at Jesus (Matthew 27:44; Mark
15:32). (Though possibly the plural for the singular is a
Hebrew idiom when the writer expresses a fact generally,
without specifying which of two the fact bolds good of, as
when Jonah "went down into the sides (i.e. one or other of
the sides) of the ship," Jonah 1:5.) The mysterious darkness
from noon; the meek, holy, and divine bearing of Jesus
amidst all taunts and agonies, and His prayer for His
murderers, touched the heart of one of the two robbers with
sympathy and awe (Luke 23:39-43).
When his fellow reviled Jesus he rebuked the reviler
(which makes probable the explanation from Hebrew idiom
above, that he himself had not reviled Jesus), "dost thou
not fear God, seeing thou art in the same condemnation
(surely such a terrible penalty from God should lead thee to
fear Him: see Isaiah 9:13; Revelation 16:10-11; 2 Chronicles
28:22; Jeremiah 5:3); and we indeed justly (he justifies God
in His dealings however penal, the sure mark of repentance,
accepting the punishment of iniquity: Psalm 51:4; Leviticus
26:41), for we receive the due reward of our deeds
(confession of sin: 1 John 1:9); but this Man hath done
nothing amiss" (acknowledgment of Jesus as the Holy One of
God: Romans 10:9; Hebrews 7:26; 1 Peter 2:22-24). Then he
said to Jesus, "Lord remember me": he might have said, Lord
save me from this agonizing cross, as the other said in
taunt; but recognizing him as "Lord" by the Holy Spirit (1
Corinthians 12:3), he leaves the mode of blessing for the
All-wise and Loving One to decide.
"Remember me" includes all that is really...
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Esteemed by the Ishmaelites as creditable (Genesis 16:12).
Predatory incursions were frequent on the part of the
Chaldaeans and Sabeans (Job 1:15; Job 1:17). The "liers in
wait" of the men of Shechem are instances also, "robbing all
that came along that way" (Judges 9:25). Also David plundering
the Amalekites, etc. (1 Samuel 27:6-10); they made reprisals
(1 Samuel 30). In Israel's disorganized state in the northern
kingdom this evil was very prevalent (Hosea 4:2; Hosea 6:9;
Micah 2:8). Owing to the corrupt administration of Roman
governors, and the facility of collecting and hiding banditti
in the natural caves of Israel, robbers infested Judaea much
in our Lord's time and the age following (Luke 10:30; John
18:40; Acts 5:36-37; Acts 21:38; 2 Corinthians 11:26). (On the
punishment of robbery, see Exodus 22.) (For "thieves"
translated "robbers", see Matthew 27:38.)
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Saying unto them, It is written, My house is the house of
prayer: but ye have made it a den of thieves.
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And said unto them, It is written, My house shall be called
the house of prayer; but ye have made it a den of thieves.
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If thieves came to thee, if robbers by night, (how art thou
cut off!) would they not have stolen till they had enough? if
the grapegatherers came to thee, would they not leave [some]
grapes?
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For was not Israel a derision unto thee? was he found among
thieves? for since thou spakest of him, thou skippedst for
joy.
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And he taught, saying unto them, Is it not written, My house
shall be called of all nations the house of prayer? but ye
have made it a den of thieves.
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And Jesus answering said, A certain [man] went down from
Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among thieves, which stripped
him of his raiment, and wounded [him], and departed, leaving
[him] half dead.
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Thy princes [are] rebellious, and companions of thieves: every
one loveth gifts, and followeth after rewards: they judge not
the fatherless, neither doth the cause of the widow come unto
them.
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If grapegatherers come to thee, would they not leave [some]
gleaning grapes? if thieves by night, they will destroy till
they have enough.
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Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and
rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal:
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But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither
moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break
through nor steal:
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thresh'-ing (dush; aloao): Dush means literally, "to trample
out." In Jer 51:33, darakh, is used of threshing. Fitches and
cummin were beaten off with a rod. The distinction between
beating and threshing is made in Isa 28:27. Gideon, in order
to avoid being seen by the Midianites, beat out his wheat in a
wine press instead of threshing it on the threshing-floor (Jdg
6:11). For a general description of the threshing operations
see AGRICULTURE.
Figurative: "Thou shalt thresh the mountains," i.e. thou wilt
overcome great difficulties (Isa 41:15). Babylon's destruction
was foretold poetically in the language of the threshing-floor
(Isa 21:10; Jer 51:33; Dan 2:35); Zion's foes would be
gathered as sheaves on the threshing-floor (Mic 4:12,13;
compare 2 Ki 13:7; Am 1:3; Hab 3:12); threshing unto the
vintage, i.e. throughout the summer, indicated an extra
abundant yield (Lev 26:5).
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By beating
Ru 2:17
-By treading
De 25:4; Isa 25:10; Ho 10:11; 1Co 9:9; 1Ti 5:18
-With instruments
Of wood
2Sa 24:22
Of iron
Am 1:3
With a cart wheel
Isa 28:27,28
-Floors for
Ge 50:10,11; Jud 6:37; Ru 3:2-14; 1Sa 23:1; 2Sa 6:6;
Ho
9:2; Joe 2:24
-Floor of Araunah purchased by David for a place of
sacrifice
2Sa 24:16-25
-Floor for, in barns
2Ki 6:27
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And Ornan said unto David, Take [it] to thee, and let my lord
the king do [that which is] good in his eyes: lo, I give
[thee] the oxen [also] for burnt offerings, and the threshing
instruments for wood, and the wheat for the meat offering; I
give it all.
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Behold, I will make thee a new sharp threshing instrument
having teeth: thou shalt thresh the mountains, and beat [them]
small, and shalt make the hills as chaff.
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And Araunah said unto David, Let my lord the king take and
offer up what [seemeth] good unto him: behold, [here be] oxen
for burnt sacrifice, and threshing instruments and [other]
instruments of the oxen for wood.
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And your threshing shall reach unto the vintage, and the
vintage shall reach unto the sowing time: and ye shall eat
your bread to the full, and dwell in your land safely.
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For the fitches are not threshed with a threshing instrument,
neither is a cart wheel turned about upon the cummin; but the
fitches are beaten out with a staff, and the cummin with a
rod.
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And Ornan turned back, and saw the angel; and his four sons
with him hid themselves. Now Ornan was threshing wheat.
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Neither did he leave of the people to Jehoahaz but fifty
horsemen, and ten chariots, and ten thousand footmen; for the
king of Syria had destroyed them, and had made them like the
dust by threshing.
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Thus saith the LORD; For three transgressions of Damascus, and
for four, I will not turn away [the punishment] thereof;
because they have threshed Gilead with threshing instruments
of iron:
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Bread [corn] is bruised; because he will not ever be threshing
it, nor break [it with] the wheel of his cart, nor bruise it
[with] his horsemen.
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O my threshing, and the corn of my floor: that which I have
heard of the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel, have I declared
unto you.
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From the burial of Sarah in the cave of Machpelah, Ge 23:19
to the funeral rites prepared for Dorcas, Ac 9:37 there is
no mention of any sarcophagus, or even coffin, in any Jewish
burial. Still less were the rites of the Jews like those of
the Pelasgi or Etruscans. They were marked with the same
simplicity that characterized all their religious
observances. This simplicity of rite led to what may be
called the distinguishing characteristic of Jewish
sepulchres --the deep loculus --which, so far as is now
known, is universal in all purely Jewish rock-cut tombs, but
hardly known elsewhere. Its form will be understood by
referring to the following diagram, representing the forms
of Jewish sepulture. In the apartment marked A there are
twelve such loculi about two feet in width by three feet
high. On the ground floor these generally open on the level
of the door; when in the upper story, as at C, on a ledge or
platform, on which the body might be laid to be anointed,
and on which the stones might rest which closed the outer
end of each loculus. The shallow loculus is shown in chamber
B, but was apparently only used when sarcophagi were
employed, and therefore, so far as we know, only during the
Graeco-Roman period, when foreign customs came to be
adopted. The shallow loculus would have been singularly
inappropriate and inconvenient where an unembalmed body was
laid out to decay, as there would evidently be no means of
shutting it off from the rest of the catacomb. The deep
loculus, on the other hand, was strictly conformable with
Jewish customs, and could easily be closed by a stone fitted
to the end and luted into the groove which usually exists
there. This fact is especially interesting as it affords a
key to much that is otherwise hard to be understood in
certain passages in the New Testament; Thus in Joh 11:59
Jesus says, "Take away the stone," and (ver. 40) "they took
away the stone" without difficulty, apparently. And in ch.
Joh 20:1 the same expression is used "the stone is taken
away." There is one catacomb-- that known as the "tomb of
the kings" --which is closed by a stone rolled across its
entrance; but it is the only one, and the immense amount of
contrivance and fitting which it has required is sufficient
proof that such an arrangement was not applied to any other
of the numerous rock tombs around Jerusalem nor could the
traces of it have been obliterated had if anywhere existed.
Although, therefore, the Jews were singularly free from the
pomps and vanities of funereal magnificence, they were at
all stages of their independent existence an eminently
burying people. Tombs of the patriarchs. --One of the most
striking events in the life of Abraham is the purchase of
the field of Ephron the Hittite at Hebron, in which was the
cave of Machpelah, in order that he might therein bury Sarah
his wife, and that it might be a sepulchre for himself and
his children. There he and his immediate descendants were
laid 3700 years ago, and there they are believed to rest
now, under the great mosque of Hebron; but no one in modern
times has seen their remains, or been allowed to enter into
the cave where they rest. From the time when Abraham
established the burying-place of his family at Hebron till
the time when David fixed that of his family in the city
which bore his name, the Jewish rulers-had no fixed or
favorite place of sepulture. Each was buried on his own
property, or where he died, without much caring for either
the sanctity or convenience chosen. Tomb of the kings. --Of
the twenty-two kings of Judah who reigned at Jerusalem from
1048 to 590 B.C. eleven, or exactly one half, were buried in
one hypogeum in the "city of David." Of all these it is
merely said that they were buried in "the sepulchres of
their fathers" or "of the kings" in the city of David,
except of two-- Asa and Hezekiah. Two more of these kings--
Jehoram and Joash --were buried also in the city of David
"but not in the sepulchres of the kings." The passage in Ne
3:18 and...
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of the Hebrews were generally excavated in the solid rock,
or
were natural caves. Mention is made of such tombs in
Judg. 8:32;
2 Sam. 2:32; 2 Kings 9:28; 23:30. They were
sometimes made in
gardens (2 Kings 21:26; 23:16; Matt. 27:60). They
are found in
great numbers in and around Jerusalem and all over
the land.
They were sometimes whitewashed (Matt. 23:27, 29).
The body of
Jesus was laid in Joseph's new rock-hewn tomb, in a
garden near
to Calvary. All evidence is in favour of the opinion
that this
tomb was somewhere near the Damascus gate, and
outside the city,
and cannot be identified with the so-called "holy
sepulchre."
The mouth of such rocky tombs was usually closed by
a large
stone (Heb. golal), which could only be removed by
the united
efforts of several men (Matt. 28:2; comp. John
11:39). (See
GOLGOTHA -T0001522.)
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Simplicity is the characteristic of Jewish sepulture. No
sarcophagus or coffin or separate tomb structure for one
individual; usually no pillar (but Jacob set one over
Rachel, Genesis 35:20) or mound, no inscription or painting.
The coffining and embalming of Joseph as a naturalized
Egyptian, and the embalming of Jacob his father in Egypt,
are exceptional cases. So also the burning of Saul, when his
body was hastily rescued from the Philistines. The body was
usually washed, anointed, wrapped in linen, and borne
without pageant or prayers to the grave. "Great burnings" of
perfumes accompanied the sepulture of kings (Mark 14:8; Mark
16:1; John 19:39, etc.; 2 Chronicles 16:14; Jeremiah 34:5).
The Jewish rock tombs are of three classes:
(1) Kokim tombs, which have parallel tunnels running
in, three or four side by side, from the walls of a
rectangular chamber; the bodies lay with their feet toward
the chamber, and stone pillows for the heads at the further
end; the entrance door is in the face of the cliff; this is
the most ancient form of tomb, for the kokim are found
sometimes in part destroyed to enlarge the tomb on a
different system.
(2) Loculus tombs; these often have decorated
facades, within the chamber has an arched recess with rock-
cut sarcophagus or loculus beneath, the body lying parallel
to the side of the chamber; the rolling stone is found with
the loculus, hardly ever with the koka tomb; our Lord's
sepulchre was therefore a loculus.
(3) Sunken tombs are not of Jewish origin. The so-
called sepulchres of Joseph and Nicodemus are unmistakably
Jewish kokim, rock-hewn.
The present chamber in the church of the Holy
Sepulchre was formed when the church was built, by cutting
away a portion of the original tomb chamber so as to leave a
sort of cave, and the floor was leveled at the same time.
The side of the kok was cut away, and a canopy of rock left
over its bed. In course of time, by pilgrims carrying off
relics of rock the kok became entirely isolated, the canopy
disappeared, and the tomb assumed its present form (Major
Wilson). The angel at the head and the angel at the foot
could only have been in a loculus, not a koka tomb. The
Mishna (Baba Bathra, 2:9) says, "corpses and sepulchres are
separated from the city 50 cubits." The fact that the locuhs
tomb was formed out of an original koka tomb, whereas our
Lord's loculus tomb was a "new" one "wherein was man never
yet laid" (John 19:41), seems to be fatal to the claim of
the so-called Holy Sepulchre, independently of the argument
of its having been probably inside the walls.
The loculi or recesses are about two feet wide by
three high. A stone closes the outer end of each loculus.
The shallow loculi were used only in the Greek-Roman period,
when sarcophagi were introduced, and for embalmed bodies.
The deep loculus lengthwise from the cave best suited the
unembalmed body, for it whilst the body was decomposing
could most easily be shut off with a small stone from the
rest of the catacomb (compare John 11:38-40, "take away the
stone," and "they took away the stone".) This, and the stone
rolled away from out' Lord's tomb (Mark 16:3-4, "the stone
was rolled away ... very great"), was that at the mouth of
the cave, not as Smith's Dictionary supposes from the small
mouth of the loculus inside. The stone, like a cheese or
millstone, (generally three feet wide,) rolled right and
left of the door (generally two feet wide) in a groove, so
that it could be moved to one side when the tomb was opened
and rolled back over the mouth in shutting the tomb. (See
BURIAL.)
The slope was down toward the cave mouth, so that it
would roll down there by its own...
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And when he was come to the other side into the country of the
Gergesenes, there met him two possessed with devils, coming
out of the tombs, exceeding fierce, so that no man might pass
by that way.
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And when he went forth to land, there met him out of the city
a certain man, which had devils long time, and ware no
clothes, neither abode in [any] house, but in the tombs.
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Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because ye
build the tombs of the prophets, and garnish the sepulchres of
the righteous,
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And always, night and day, he was in the mountains, and in
the tombs, crying, and cutting himself with stones.
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And when he was come out of the ship, immediately there met
him out of the tombs a man with an unclean spirit,
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Who had [his] dwelling among the tombs; and no man could bind
him, no, not with chains:
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trad:
I. GENERAL
1. Terms
2. Position of Israel
3. Trade Products of Israel
4. Palestinian Traders
II. HISTORY
1. To David
2. Solomon
3. Maritime Trade
4. To the Exile
5. The Exile and After
LITERATURE
I. General.
1. Terms:
For a full list of the commercial terms used in the Old
Testament, reference must be made to EB, IV, cols. 5193-99.
Only the more important can be given here.
For "merchant" the Hebrew uses almost always one of the two
participial forms cocher, or rokhel, both of which mean
simply "one who travels." There is no difference in their
meaning, but when the two are used together (Ezek 27:13 ff)
the Revised Version (British and American) distinguishes by
using "trafficker" for rokhel. The verb cachar, from which
cocher is derived, is translated "to trade" in Gen 34:10,21
and "to traffic" in Gen 49:34, with numerous noun formations
from the same stem. The verb rakhal from which rokhel is
derived does not occur, but the noun formation rekhullah in
Ezek 26:12 (the Revised Version (British and American)
"merchandise"); 28:5,16,18 (the Revised Version (British and
American) "traffic") may be noted. In Ezek 27:24 the Revised
Version (British and American) has "merchandise" for
markoleth, but the word means "place of merchandise,"
"market." The participle tarim, from tur, "seek out," in
combination with 'aneshe, "men," in 1 Ki 10:15, is
translated "merchant men" by the King James Version,
"chapmen" by the English Revised Version and "traders" by
the American Standard Revised Version; in 2 Ch 9:14, the
King James Version and the English Revised Version have
"chapmen" and the American Standard Revised Version
"traders." The text of these verses is suspected. In Ezek 27
(only) "merchandise" represents ma`arabh, from `arabh, "to
exchange," translated "to deal," margin "exchange," in 27:9
the American Standard Revised Version, with "dealers,"
margin "exchangers," in 27:27 (the King James Version and
the English Revised Version have "occupy," "occupiers").
kena`an, and kena`ani "Canaanite," are sometimes used in the
sense of "merchant," but it is often difficult to determine
whether the literal or the transferred force is intended.
Hence, all the confusion in English Versions of the Bible;
in the Revised Version (British and American) note
"merchant," Job 41:6; "merchant," margin "Canaanite," Prov
31:24; "trafficker," Isa 23:8; "trafficker," margin
"Canaanite," Hos 12:7; "Canaan," margin "merchant people,"
Isa 23:11; Zeph 1:11, and compare "land of traffic," margin
"land of Canaan," Ezek 17:4.
See CHAPMAN; OCCUPY.
In Apocrypha and New Testament "merchant" is for emporos
(Sirach 26:29, etc.; Mt 13:45; Rev 18:3,11,15,23). So
"merchandise" is emporion, in Jn 2:16 and emporia, in Mt
22:5, while emporeuomai, is translated "make...
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1. Occupation
See under the name of each trade
-2. Commerce
See COMMERCE
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These men [are] peaceable with us; therefore let them dwell in
the land, and trade therein; for the land, behold, [it is]
large enough for them; let us take their daughters to us for
wives, and let us give them our daughters.
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And ye shall dwell with us: and the land shall be before you;
dwell and trade ye therein, and get you possessions therein.
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That ye shall say, Thy servants' trade hath been about cattle
from our youth even until now, both we, [and] also our
fathers: that ye may dwell in the land of Goshen; for every
shepherd [is] an abomination unto the Egyptians.
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For in one hour so great riches is come to nought. And every
shipmaster, and all the company in ships, and sailors, and as
many as trade by sea, stood afar off,
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And the men [are] shepherds, for their trade hath been to feed
cattle; and they have brought their flocks, and their herds,
and all that they have.
Read More
trav'-el-er: Jdg 5:6 for halakh nethibhah, "goers on paths"; 2
Sam 12:4 for helekh, literally, "a going"; Job 31:32 for
'arach, participle of a verb meaning "to wander"; Sirach
26:12; 42:3 for hodoiporos, "one making a way."
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And the whole city was filled with confusion: and having
caught Gaius and Aristarchus, men of Macedonia, Paul's
companions in travel, they rushed with one accord into the
theatre.
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And not [that] only, but who was also chosen of the churches
to travel with us with this grace, which is administered by us
to the glory of the same Lord, and [declaration of] your ready
mind:
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Persons who refrain from eating meat
Ro 14:2
Read More
val: The following words are so translated in English
Versions of the Bible (sometimes the King James Version
vail): (1) miTpachath, Ruth 3:15 the King James Version, the
Revised Version (British and American) "mantle." As the
material was strong enough to serve as a bag for a large
quantity of grain the Revised Version (British and American)
is certainly right; compare Isa 3:22. (2) macweh, Ex 34:33-
35. Paul in his quotation of the passage in 2 Cor 3:13-16
uses kalumma, following Septuagint. The covering worn by
Moses to conceal the miraculous brightness of his face,
although, according to Massoretic Text, he seems to have
worn it only in private. (3) macckhah, Isa 25:7; in 28:20
translated "covering." The use in 25:7 is figurative and the
form of the "veil" a matter of indifference. (4) tsammah,
the Revised Version (British and American) Song 4:1,3
(margin "locks" (of hair)); 6:7; Isa 47:2, the King James
Version "locks." The meaning of the word is uncertain and
the King James Version may very well be right. If, however,
the Revised Version's translation is correct, a light
ornamental veil is meant. (5) tsa`iph, Gen 24:65; 38:14,19.
A large wrap is meant, which at times was used to cover the
face also. In 24:65 Rebekah conformed to the etiquette which
required the veiling of brides (see MARRIAGE). In Genesis 38
one motive for Tamar's use of the veil was certainly to
avoid recognition, but it seems clear from the passage that
veils were used by courtesans. Why is unknown, perhaps
partly to conceal their identity, perhaps partly in parody
of the marriage custom. (6) redhidh, Song 5:7 (the Revised
Version (British and American) "mantle," margin "veil"); Isa
3:23. A light mantle is certainly meant. In Song 5:7 it is
torn from the maiden in the watchmen's endeavor to detain
her. (7) parakalumma, The Wisdom of Solomon 17:3 the King
James Version, the Revised Version (British and American)
"curtain." (8) Verb katakalupto, 1 Cor 11:6 f, with
akatakalupto, "unveil" in 11:5; the King James Version has
"cover" and "uncover"; kalupto, 2 Cor 4:3 (twice),
anakalupto, 2 Cor 3:18; the King James Version "hid" and
"open."
It will be seen that there is a certain reference to what in
modern times would be termed a "veil" only in (2) above. For
a possible additional reference see MUFFLER.
The use of the face veil as a regular article of dress was
unknown to the Hebrew women, and if "veil" is to be
understood in Song 4:1, etc., it was worn as an ornament
only. The modern oriental custom of veiling is due to
Mohammedan influence and has not been universally adopted by
Jewesses in the Orient. In New Testament times, however,
among both Greeks and Romans, reputable women wore a veil in
public (Plutarch Quaest. Rom. xiv) and to appear without it
was an act of bravado (or worse); Tarsus, Paul's home city,
was especially noted for strictness in this regard (Dio of
Prusa, Tarsica prior, section symbol 48). Hence, Paul's
indignant directions in 1 Cor 11:2-16, which have their
basis in the social proprieties of the time. The bearing of
these directions, however, on the compulsory use of the hat
by modern women in public worship would appear to be very
remote.
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Worn
By Rebekah
Ge 24:65
By Tamar
Ge 38:14,19
By Moses, to screen his face when he descended from Mount
Sinai
Ex 34:33,35; 2Co 3:13-16
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With regard to the use of the veil, it is important to observe
that it was by no means so general in ancient as in modern
times. Much of the scrupulousness in respect of the use of the
veil dates from the promulgation of the Koran, which forbade
women appearing unveiled except in the presence of their
nearest relatives. In ancient times the veil was adopted only
in exceptional cases, either as an article of ornamental
dress, So 4:1,3; 6:7 or by betrothed maidens in the presence
of their future husbands, especially at the time of the
wedding, Ge 24:65 or lastly, by women of loose character for
purposes of concealment. Ge 38:14 Among the Jews of the New
Testament age it appears to have been customary for the women
to cover their heads (not necessarily their faces) when
engaged in public worship.
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(1.) Heb. mitpahath (Ruth 3:15; marg., "sheet" or "apron;"
R.V.,
"mantle"). In Isa. 3:22 this word is plural,
rendered "wimples;"
R.V., "shawls" i.e., wraps.
(2.) Massekah (Isa. 25:7; in Isa. 28:20 rendered
"covering").
The word denotes something spread out and covering
or concealing
something else (comp. 2 Cor. 3:13-15).
(3.) Masveh (Ex. 34:33, 35), the veil on the face of
Moses.
This verse should be read, "And when Moses had done
speaking
with them, he put a veil on his face," as in the
Revised
Version. When Moses spoke to them he was without the
veil; only
when he ceased speaking he put on the veil (comp. 2
Cor. 3:13,
etc.).
(4.) Paroheth (Ex. 26:31-35), the veil of the
tabernacle and
the temple, which hung between the holy place and
the most holy
(2 Chr. 3:14). In the temple a partition wall
separated these
two places. In it were two folding-doors, which are
supposed to
have been always open, the entrance being concealed
by the veil
which the high priest lifted when he entered into
the sanctuary
on the day of Atonement. This veil was rent when
Christ died on
the cross (Matt. 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45).
(5.) Tza'iph (Gen. 24:65). Rebekah "took a vail and
covered
herself." (See also 38:14, 19.) Hebrew women
generally appeared
in public without veils (12:14; 24:16; 29:10; 1 Sam.
1:12).
(6.) Radhidh (Cant. 5:7, R.V. "mantle;" Isa. 3:23).
The word
probably denotes some kind of cloak or wrapper.
(7.) Masak, the veil which hung before the entrance
to the
holy place (Ex. 26:36, 37).
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(See DRESS.) The mitpachath (Rth 3:15), tsaiph (Genesis
24:65; Genesis 38:14; Genesis 38:19), and radial (Song of
Solomon 5:7; Isaiah 3:23). Moses' veil was the masveh
(Exodus 34:33-35), related to suth (Genesis 49:11). An ample
outer robe, drawn over the face when required. Mispachot,
the false prophets' magical veils or "kerchiefs" (Ezekiel
13:18; Ezekiel 13:21) which they put over the heads of those
consulting them as if to fit them for receiving a response,
that they might be rapt in spiritual trance above the world;
placed "upon the head of every stature," i.e. upon persons
of every age and height, young and old.
Re' aloth, light veils worn by females, called
"mufflers" (Isaiah 3:19), from rahal "to tremble," i.e.
tremulous, referring to their rustling motion. Tzammah,
translated "locks" (Song of Solomon 4:1; Song of Solomon
4:3), the bride's veil, a mark of modesty and subjection to
her lord. Isaiah 47:2, "take off thy veil," or "thy locks,"
nature's covering for a woman (1 Corinthians 11:15), a badge
of female degradation. Anciently the veil was only
exceptionally used for ornament or by women betrothed in
meeting their future husbands, and at weddings (Genesis
24:65).
Ordinarily women among the Jews, Egyptians, and
Assyrians, appeared in public with faces exposed (Genesis
12:14; Genesis 24:16; Genesis 24:65; Genesis 20:16; Genesis
29:10; 1 Samuel 1:12). Assyrian and Egyptian sculptures
similarly represent women without a veil. It was
Mahometanism that introduced the present veiling closely and
seclusion of women; the veil on them in worship was the sign
of subjection to their husbands (1 Corinthians 11:4-15
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And, behold, the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the
top to the bottom; and the earth did quake, and the rocks
rent;
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The watchmen that went about the city found me, they smote me,
they wounded me; the keepers of the walls took away my veil
from me.
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Which [hope] we have as an anchor of the soul, both sure and
stedfast, and which entereth into that within the veil;
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And the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the top to
the bottom.
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And the sun was darkened, and the veil of the temple was rent
in the midst.
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By a new and living way, which he hath consecrated for us,
through the veil, that is to say, his flesh;
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And after the second veil, the tabernacle which is called the
Holiest of all;
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vin:
1. Hebrew Words:
(1) gephen, usually the cultivated grape vine. In Nu 6:4;
Jdg 13:14 we have gephen ha-yayin, literally, "vine of
wine," translated "grape vine" (Numbers) and "vine," margin
"grape vine" (Jgs); 2 Ki 4:39, gephen sadheh English
Versions of the Bible "wild vine"; Dt 32:32, gephen cedhom,
"vine of Sodom."
(2) soreq, in Isa 5:2, "choicest vine"; soreq, in Jer 2:21,
"noble vine"; soreqah, in Gen 49:11, "choice vine"; compare
SOREK, VALLEY OF (which see). The Hebrew is supposed to
indicate dark grapes and, according to rabbinical tradition,
they were unusually sweet and almost, if not quite,
stoneless.
(3) nazir, in Lev 25:5,11, "undressed vine," the King James
Version "vine undressed," margin "separation." This may mean
an unpruned vine and be a reference to the uncut locks of a
Nazirite, but it is equally probable that nazir should be
batsir, "vintage."
For the blossom we have peraq (Isa 18:5), "blossom";
nitstsah, either the blossom or half-formed clusters of
grapes (Gen 40:10; Isa 18:5); cemadhar, "sweet-scented
blossom" (Song 2:13,15; 7:12).
For grapes we have commonly: `enabh (a word common to all
Semitic languages) (Gen 40:10; Dt 32:14; Isa 5:2, etc.); dam
`anabhim, literally, "blood of grapes," i.e. wine (Gen
49:11); bocer, "the unripe grape" (Isa 18:5, "ripening
grape," the King James Version "sour grape"; Job 15:33,
"unripe grapes"; Jer 31:29 f; Ezek 18:2, "sour grapes");
be'ushim "wild grapes" (Isa 5:2,4; see GRAPES, WILD);
'eshkol, a "cluster" of ripe grapes (Gen 40:10; Song 7:8 f;
Hab 3:17, etc.; compare ESHCOL (which see)); qartsannim,
usually supposed to be the kernels of grapes (Nu 6:4).
2. Greek and Latin:
In Greek we have ampelos, "vine" (Mt 26:29, etc.), staphule
(Sirach 39:26, "blood of grapes"; Mt 7:16, "grapes," etc.),
and botrus (Rev 14:18), "cluster of the vine." In the Latin
of 2 Esdras vinea is "vine" in 5:23 ("vineyard" in
16:30,43); botrus (9:21) and racemus (16:30) are "cluster";
acinium (9:21) and uva (16:26) are "a grape."
3. Antiquity and Importance:
Israel appears to have been a vine-growing country from the
earliest historic times. The countless wine presses found in
and around centers of early civilization witness to this. It
is probable that the grape was largely cultivated as a
source of sugar: the juice expressed in the "wine press" was
reduced by boiling to a liquid of treacle-like consistency
known as "grape honey," or in Hebrew debhash (Arabic, dibs).
This is doubtless the "honey" of many Old Testament
references, and before the days of cane sugar was the chief
source of sugar. The whole Old Testament witnesses to how
greatly Israel depended upon the vine and its products. Men
rejoiced in wine also as one of God's best gifts (Jdg 9:13;
Ps 104:15). But the Nazirite might eat nothing of the vine
"from the kernels even to the husk" (Nu 6:4; Jdg 13:14).
The land promised to the children of Israel was one of
"vines and fig trees and pomegranates" (Dt 8:8); they
inherited vineyards which they had not planted (Dt 6:11;
Josh 24:13; Neh 9:25). Jacob's blessing on Judah had much
reference...
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Huts (R. V., booths) in
Isa 1:8
-Towers in
Isa 5:2; Mt 21:33; Mr 12:1
-Winepress in
Isa 5:2
-Pools in
Ec 2:4,6
-Leased
So 8:11,12; Isa 7:23; Mt 21:33-39
-Of kings
1Ch 27:26-28
-Neglected
Pr 24:30,31
-Plain of the
Jud 11:33
-Parables of
Isa 5:1-7; 27:2,3; Jer 12:10; Mt 20:1-16; 21:28-
31,33-41;
Lu 13:6-9
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the well-known valuable plant (vitis vinifera) very
frequently referred to in the Old and New Testaments, and
cultivated from the earliest times. The first mention of
this plant occurs in Ge 9:20,21 That it was abundantly
cultivated in Egypt is evident from the frequent
representations on the monuments, as well as from the
scriptural allusions. Ge 40:9-11; Ps 78:47 The vines of
Israel were celebrated both for luxuriant growth and for the
immense clusters of grapes which they produced, which were
sometimes carried on a staff between two men, as in the case
of the spies, Nu 13:23 and as has been done in some
instances in modern times. Special mention is made in the
Bible of the vines of Eshcol, Nu 13:24; 32:9 of Sibmah,
Heshbon and Elealeh Isa 16:8,9,10; Jer 48:32 and of Engedi.
So 1:14 From the abundance and excellence of the vines, it
may readily be understood how frequently this plant is the
subject of metaphor in the Holy Scriptures. To dwell under
the vine and tree is an emblem of domestic happiness and
peace, 1Ki 4:25; Ps 128:3; Mic 4:4 the rebellious people of
Israel are compared to "wild grapes," "an empty vine," "the
degenerate plant of a strange vine," etc. Isa 6:2,4; Jer
2:21; Ho 10:1 It is a vine which our Lord selects to show
the spiritual union which subsists between himself and his
members. Joh 15:1-6 The ancient Hebrews probably allowed the
vine to go trailing on the ground or upon supports. This
latter mode of cultivation appears to be alluded to by
Ezekiel. Eze 19:11,12 The vintage, which formerly was a
season of general festivity, began in September. The towns
were deserted; the people lived among the vineyards in the
lodges and tents. Comp. Jud 8:27; Isa 16:10; Jer 25:30 The
grapes were gathered with shouts of joy by the "grape
gatherers," Jer 25:30 and put into baskets. See Jer 6:9 They
were then carried on the head and shoulders, or slung upon a
yoke, to the "wine-press." Those intended for eating were
perhaps put into flat open baskets of wickerwork, as was the
custom in Egypt. In Israel, at present, the finest grapes,
says Dr. Robinson, are dried as raisins, and the juice of
the remainder, after having been trodden and pressed, "is
boiled down to a sirup, which, under the name of dibs, is
much used by all classes, wherever vineyards are found, as a
condiment with their food." The vineyard, which was
generally on a hill, Isa 5:1; Jer 31:5; Am 9:13 was
surrounded by a wall or hedge in order to keep out the wild
boars, Ps 80:13 jackals and foxes. Nu 22:24; Ne 4:3; So
2:15; Eze 13:4,5; Mt 21:33 Within the vineyard was one or
more towers of stone in which the vine-dressers lived. Isa
1:8; 5:2; Mt 21:33 The vat, which was dug, Mt 21:33 or hewn
out of the rocky soil, and the press, were part of the
vineyard furniture. Isa 5:2
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Noah appears as its first cultivator (Genesis 9:20-21); he
probably preserved the knowledge of its cultivation from the
antediluvian world. Pharaoh's dream (Genesis 40:9-11, see
Speaker's Commentary) implies its prevalence in Egypt; this
is confirmed by the oldest Egyptian monuments. So also Psalm
78:47. Osiris the Egyptian god is represented as first
introducing the vine. Wine in Egypt was the beverage of the
rich people; beer was the drink of the poor people. The very
early monuments represent the process of fermenting wine.
The spies bore a branch with one cluster of grapes between
two on a staff from the brook Eshcol. Bunches are found in
Israel of ten pounds weight (Reland Palest., 351). Kitto
(Phys. Hist. Palest., p. 330) says a bunch from a Syrian
vine was sent as a present from the Duke of Portland to the
Marquis of Rockingham, weighing 19 pounds, and was carried
on a staff by four, two bearing it in rotation.
Sibmah, Heshbon, and Elealeh (Isaiah 16:8-10;
Jeremiah 48:31) and Engedi (Song of Solomon 1:14) were
famous for their vines. Judah with its hills and tablelands
was especially suited for vine cultivation; "binding his
foal unto the vine and his ass' colt unto the choice vine he
washed his garments in wine and his clothes in the blood of
grapes, his eyes shall be red with wine" (Genesis 49:11-12).
Both Isaiah (Isaiah 5) and the Lord Jesus make a vineyard
with fence and tower, the stones being gathered out, the
image of Judah (Matthew 21:33). Israel is the vine brought
out of Egypt, and planted by Jehovah in the land of promise
(Psalm 80:8; compare Isaiah 27:2-3). The "gathering out of
the stones" answers to God's dislodging the original
inhabitants before Israel, and the "fencing" to God's
protection of Israel from surrounding enemies.
"The choicest vine" (sowreq, still in Morocco called
serki, the grapes have scarcely perceptible stones; Judges
16:4 mentions a town called from this choice vine Sorek) is
the line of holy patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joshua,
etc. The square "tower" was to watch against depredations,
and for the owner's use; the "fence" to keep out wild boars,
foxes, jackals, etc. (Psalm 80:13; Song of Solomon 2:15).
The "fence" may represent the law, the "stones" gathered out
Jerome thinks are the idols; the "tower" the temple "in the
midst" of Judaea; the "winepress," generally hewn...
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Then Zedekiah the king commanded that they should commit
Jeremiah into the court of the prison, and that they should
give him daily a piece of bread out of the bakers' street,
until all the bread in the city were spent. Thus Jeremiah
remained in the court of the prison.
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[That] thou hast also built unto thee an eminent place, and
hast made thee an high place in every street.
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And let this apparel and horse be delivered to the hand of one
of the king's most noble princes, that they may array the man
[withal] whom the king delighteth to honour, and bring him on
horseback through the street of the city, and proclaim before
him, Thus shall it be done to the man whom the king delighteth
to honour.
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And David went and took the bones of Saul and the bones of
Jonathan his son from the men of Jabeshgilead, which had
stolen them from the street of Bethshan, where the Philistines
had hanged them, when the Philistines had slain Saul in
Gilboa:
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And thou shalt gather all the spoil of it into the midst of
the street thereof, and shalt burn with fire the city, and all
the spoil thereof every whit, for the LORD thy God: and it
shall be an heap for ever; it shall not be built again.
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In that thou buildest thine eminent place in the head of every
way, and makest thine high place in every street; and hast not
been as an harlot, in that thou scornest hire;
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In the midst of the street of it, and on either side of the
river, [was there] the tree of life, which bare twelve [manner
of] fruits, [and] yielded her fruit every month: and the
leaves of the tree [were] for the healing of the nations.
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And he said, Behold now, my lords, turn in, I pray you, into
your servant's house, and tarry all night, and wash your feet,
and ye shall rise up early, and go on your ways. And they
said, Nay; but we will abide in the street all night.
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Then all the men of Judah and Benjamin gathered themselves
together unto Jerusalem within three days. It [was] the ninth
month, on the twentieth [day] of the month; and all the people
sat in the street of the house of God, trembling because of
[this] matter, and for the great rain.
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swod'-'-l, swod'-ling-band (verb chathal, "enwrap,"
"swaddle" (Ezek 16:4), noun chathullah, "swaddling-band"
(Job 38:9); verb sparganoo, "to wrap in swaddling clothes"
(Lk 2:7,12), noun spargana (pl.), "swaddling clothes" (The
Wisdom of Solomon 7:4). the King James Version also has
"swaddle" (Lam 2:22) for Taphach, literally, "to extend."
But the word means "to carry on the outstretched palms of
the hands" (compare Tippuchim, "dandled in the hands," Lam
2:20), whence RV's "to dandle"): "To swaddle" and "to
swathe" are really the same word, both forms going back to
an AS form swethel, "a bandage," but "swaddle" has become
the technical term for the wrapping of an infant in the
Orient or elsewhere. The oriental swaddling-clothes consist
of a square of cloth and two or more bandages. The child is
laid on the cloth diagonally and the corners are folded over
the feet and body and under the head, the bandages then
being tied so as to hold the cloth in position. This device
forms the clothing of the child until it is about a year
old, and its omission (Ezek 16:4) would be a token that the
child had been abandoned. The mention of darkness as a
"swaddling-band" at the birth of the sea (Job 38:9) is only
a poetic way of saying that the sea, at its creation, was
covered with clouds and darkness, and to find any idea of
restraint involved is fanciful.
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(Wrapping, bundling)
Of children
Job 38:9; La 2:22; Eze 16:4; Lu 2:7,12
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And she brought forth her firstborn son, and wrapped him in
swaddling clothes, and laid him in a manger; because there was
no room for them in the inn.
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And this [shall be] a sign unto you; Ye shall find the babe
wrapped in swaddling clothes, lying in a manger.
Read More
sin'-a-gog:
1. Name
2. Origin
3. Spread of Synagogues
4. The Building
(1) The Site
(2) The Structure
(3) The Furniture
5. The Officials
(1) The Elders
(2) The Ruler
(3) The Servant (or Servants)
(4) Delegate of the Congregation
(5) The Interpreter
(6) The Almoners
6. The Service
(1) Recitation of the "Shema`"
(2) Prayers
(3) Reading of the Law and the Prophets
(4) The Sermon
(5) The Benediction
LITERATURE
1. Name:
Synagogue, Greek sunagoge, "gathering" (Acts 13:43),
"gathering-place" (Lk 7:5), was the name applied to the
Jewish place of worship in later Judaism in and outside of
Israel Proseuche, "a place of prayer" (Acts 16:13), was
probably more of the nature of an enclosure, marking off the
sacred spot from the profane foot, than of a roofed building
like a synagogue. Sabbateion in Ant, XV, i, 6, 2, most
probably also meant synagogue. In the Mishna we find for
synagogue beth ha-keneceth, in the Targums and Talmud be-
khenishta', or simply kenishta'. The oldest Christian
meetings and meeting-places were modeled on the pattern of
the synagogues, and, in Christian-Palestinian Aramaic the
word kenishta' is used for the Christian church (compare
Zahn, Tatian's Diatessaron, 335).
2. Origin:
That the synagogue was, in the time of our Lord, one of the
most important religious institutions of the Jews is clear
from the fact that it was thought to have been instituted by
Moses (Apion, ii, 17; Philo, De Vita Moses, iii.27; compare
Targum Jer to Ex 18:20). It must have come into being during
the Babylonian exile. At that time the more devout Jews, far
from their native land, having no sanctuary or altar, no
doubt felt drawn from time to time, especially on Sabbath
and feast days, to gather round those who were specially
pious and God-fearing, in order to listen to the word of God
and engage in some kind of worship. That such meetings were
not uncommon is made probable by Ezek 14:1; 20:1. This would
furnish a basis for the institution of the synagogue. After
the exile the synagogue remained and even developed as a
counterpoise to the absolute sacerdotalism of the temple,
and must have been felt absolutely necessary for the Jews of
the Dispersion. Though at first it was meant only for the
exposition of the Law, it was natural that in the course of
time prayers and preaching should be added to the service.
Thus these meetings, which at first were only held on
Sabbaths and feast days, came also to be held on other days,
and at the same hours with the services in the temple. The
essential aim, however, of the synagogue was not prayer, but
instruction in the Law for all classes of the people. Philo
calls the synagogues "houses of instruction, where the
philosophy of the fathers and all manner of virtues were
taught" (compare Mt 4:23; Mk 1:21; 6:2; Lk 4:15,33; 6:6;
13:10; Jn 6:59; 18:20; CAp, ii, 17).
3. Spread of Synagogues:
In Israel the synagogues were scattered all over the
country, all the larger...
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1. Primarily an assembly of Jews and God-fearers
Ac 13:43
R. V.)
Jas 2:2
Constitutes a court of justice
Lu 12:11; Ac 9:2
Had powers
Of criminal courts
Mt 10:17; 23:34; Ac 22:19; 26:11
Of religious courts
Joh 9:22,34; 12:42; 16:2
-2. A phycial place of assembly for Jews and other God-
fearers.
The Scriptures were read and expounded in
Ne 8:1-8; 9:3,5; Mt 4:23; 9:35; 13:54; Mr 1:39; Lu
4:15-33;
13:10; Joh 18:20; Ac 9:20; 13:5-44; 14:1; 15:21;
17:2,10;
18:4,19,26
In Jerusalem
Ac 6:9
In Damascus
Ac 9:2,20
In other cities
Ac 14:1; 17:1,10; 18:4
One was erected by Jairus
Lu 7:5
Jesus performed healing in
Mt 12:9-13; Lu 13:11-14
Alms (charity) were given in
Mt 6:2
Of Satan
Re 2:9; 3:9
See CHURCH
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1. History. --The word synagogue (sunagoge), which means a
"congregation," is used in the New Testament to signify a
recognized place of worship. A knowledge of the history and
worship of the synagogues is of great importance, since they
are the characteristic institution of the later phase of
Judaism. They appear to have arisen during the exile, in the
abeyance of the temple-worship, and to have received their
full development on the return of the Jews from captivity.
The whole history of Ezra presupposes the habit of solemn,
probably of periodic, meetings. Ezr 8:15; Ne 8:2; 9:1; Zec
7:5 After the Maccabaean struggle for independence, we find
almost every town or village had its one or more synagogues.
Where the Jews were not in sufficient numbers to be able to
erect and fill a building, there was the proseucha
(proseuche), or place of prayer, sometimes open, sometimes
covered in, commonly by a running stream or on the seashore,
in which devout Jews and proselytes met to worship, and
perhaps to read. Ac 16:13 Juven. Sat. iii. 296. It is hardly
possible to overestimate the influence of the system thus
developed. To it we may ascribe the tenacity with which,
after the Maccabaean struggle, the Jews adhered to the
religion of their fathers, and never again relapsed into
idolatry.
2. Structure. --The size of a synagogue varied with
the population. Its position was, however, determinate. If
stood, if possible, on the highest ground, in or near the
city to which it belonged. And its direction too was fixed.
Jerusalem was the Kibleh of Jewish devotion. The synagogue
was so constructed that the worshippers, as they entered and
as they prayed, looked toward it. The building was commonly
erected at the cost of the district. Sometimes it was built
by a rich Jew, or even, as in Lu 7:5 by a friend or
proselyte. In the internal arrangement of the synagogue we
trace an obvious analogy to the type of the tabernacle. At
the upper or Jerusalem end stood the ark, the chest which,
like the older and more sacred ark contained the Book of the
Law. It gave to that end the name and character of a
sanctuary. This part of the synagogue was naturally the
place of honor. Here were the "chief seats," for which
Pharisees and scribes strove so eagerly, Mt 23:6 and to
which the wealthy and honored worshipper was invited. Jas
2:2,3 Here too, in front of the ark, still reproducing the
type of the tabernacle, was the eight-branched lamp, lighted
only on the greater festivals. Besides this there was one
lamp kept burning perpetually. More toward the middle of the
building was a raised platform, on which several persons
could stand at once, and in the middle of this rose a
pulpit, in which the reader stood to read the lesson or sat
down to teach. The congregation were divided, men on one
side, women on the other a low partition, five or six feet
high, running between them. The arrangements of modern
synagogues, for many centuries, have made the separation
more complete by placing the women in low side-galleries,
screened off a lattice-work.
3. Officers. --In smaller towns there was often but
one rabbi. Where a fuller organization was possible, there
was a college of elders, Lu 7:3 presided over by one who was
"the chief of the synagogue." Lu 8:41,49; 13:14; Ac 18:8,17
The most prominent functionary in a large synagogue was
known as the sheliach (= legatus), the officiating minister
who acted as the delegate of the congregation and was
therefore the chief...
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(Gr. sunagoge, i.e., "an assembly"), found only once in the
Authorized Version of Ps. 74:8, where the margin of
Revised
Version has "places of assembly," which is probably
correct; for
while the origin of synagogues is unknown, it may
well be
supposed that buildings or tents for the
accommodation of
worshippers may have existed in the land from an
early time, and
thus the system of synagogues would be gradually
developed.
Some, however, are of opinion that it was specially
during the
Babylonian captivity that the system of synagogue
worship, if
not actually introduced, was at least reorganized on
a
systematic plan (Ezek. 8:1; 14:1). The exiles
gathered together
for the reading of the law and the prophets as they
had
opportunity, and after their return synagogues were
established
all over the land (Ezra 8:15; Neh. 8:2). In after
years, when
the Jews were dispersed abroad, wherever they went
they erected
synagogues and kept up the stated services of
worship (Acts
9:20; 13:5; 17:1; 17:17; 18:4). The form and
internal
arrangements of the synagogue would greatly depend
on the wealth
of the Jews who erected it, and on the place where
it was built.
"Yet there are certain traditional pecularities
which have
doubtless united together by a common resemblance
the Jewish
synagogues of all ages and countries. The
arrangements for the
women's place in a separate gallery or behind a
partition of
lattice-work; the desk in the centre, where the
reader, like
Ezra in ancient days, from his 'pulpit of wood,' may
'open the
book in the sight of all of people and read in the
book of the
law of God distinctly, and give the sense, and cause
them to
understand the reading' (Neh. 8:4, 8); the carefully
closed ark
on the side of the building nearest to Jerusalem,
for the
preservation of the rolls or manuscripts of the law;
the seats
all round the building, whence 'the eyes of all them
that are in
the synagogue' may 'be fastened' on him who speaks
(Luke 4:20);
the 'chief seats' (Matt. 23:6) which were
appropriated to the
'ruler' or 'rulers' of the synagogue, according as
its
organization may have been more or less complete;",
these were
features common to all the synagogues.
Where perfected into a system, the services of the
synagogue,
which were at the same hours as those of the temple,
consisted,
(1) of prayer, which formed a kind of liturgy, there
were in all
eighteen prayers; (2) the reading of the Scriptures
in certain
definite portions; and (3) the exposition of the
portions read.
(See Luke 4:15, 22; Acts 13:14.)
The synagogue was also sometimes used as a court of
judicature, in which the rulers presided (Matt.
10:17; Mark
5:22; Luke 12:11; 21:12; Acts 13:15; 22:19); also as
public
schools.
The establishment of synagogues wherever the Jews
were found
in sufficient numbers helped greatly to keep alive
Israel's hope
of the coming of the Messiah, and to prepare the way
for the
spread of the gospel in other lands. The worship of
the
Christian Church was afterwards modelled after that
of the
synagogue.
Christ and his disciples frequently taught in the
synagogues
(Matt. 13:54; Mark 6:2; John 18:20; Acts 13:5, 15,
44; 14:1;
17:2-4, 10, 17; 18:4, 26; 19:8).
To be "put out of the synagogue," a phrase used by
John (9:22;
12:42; 16:2), means to be excommunicated.
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Hebrew eedah, "a congregation" or "appointed solemn
meeting," in the Pentateuch; qaahaal, "a meeting called",
represents ekklesia the "Church". (See CHURCH.) In the New
Testament synagogue (Greek) is used of the Christian
assembly only by the most Judaic apostle (James 2:2). The
Jews' malice against Christianity caused Christians to leave
the term "synagogue" to the Jews (Revelation 2:9). The first
hints of religions meetings appear in the phrases "before
the Lord," "the calling of assemblies" (Isaiah 1:13). The
Sabbaths were observed from an early time by gatherings for
prayer, whether at or apart from the tabernacle or temple (1
Samuel 20:5; 2 Kings 4:23).
Jehoshaphat's mission of priests and Levites (2
Chronicles 17:7-9) implies there was no provision for
regular instruction except the septennial reading of the law
at the feast of tabernacles (Deuteronomy 31:10-13). In Psalm
74:4; Psalm 74:8 (compare Jeremiah 52:13; Jeremiah 52:17,
which shows that the psalm refers to the Chaldaean
destruction of the sanctuary) the "congregations" and
"synagogues "refer to the tabernacle or temple meeting place
between God and His people; "mo'eed mo'adee" in the psalm is
the same word as expresses "the tabernacle of congregation,"
or meeting between God and His people, in Exodus 33:7,
compare Exodus 29:42-43. So in Lamentations 2:6, "He (the
Lord) hath destroyed His places of assembly." But the other
places of devotional meetings of the people besides the
temple are probably included. So Psalm 107:32, "the
congregation of the people ... the assembly of the elders"
(Ezra 3:1). The prophets' assemblies for psalmody and
worship led the way (1 Samuel 9:12; 1 Samuel 10:5; 1 Samuel
19:20-24).
Synagogues in the strict and later sense are not
mentioned until after the desecration of the temple by
Antiochus Epiphanes. The want of the temple in the
Babylonian captivity familiarized the exiles with the idea
of spiritual worship independent of locality. The elders
often met and sat before the prophet, Ezekiel to hear
Jehovah's word (Ezekiel 8:1; Ezekiel 11:15-16; Ezekiel 14:1;
Ezekiel 20:1); in Ezekiel 33:31 the people also sit before
him to hear. Periodic meetings for hearing the law and the
prophets read were customary thenceforth on the return (Ezra
8:15; Nehemiah 8:2; Nehemiah 9:1; Zechariah 7:5; Acts
15:21). When the Jews could not afford to build a synagogue
they built "an oratory" (proseuchee) by a running stream or
the seashore (Acts 16:13). The synagogue was the means of
rekindling the Jewish devotion and patriotism which shone so
brightly in the Maccabean struggle with Antiochus.
The synagogue required no priest to minister; this
and the reading of the Old Testament prepared the way for
the gospel. Sometimes a wealthy Jew or a proselyte built the
synagogue (Luke 7:5). The kibleh or "direction" was toward
Jerusalem. The structure, though essentially different from
the temple (for it had neither altar nor sacrifice),
resembled in some degree that of the temple: the ark at the
far end contained the law in both; the lid was called the
kopereth or "mercy-seat"; a veil hung before it. Here were
"the chief seats" sought by the Pharisees and the rich
(Matthew 23:6; James 2:2-3). In the middle was a raised
platform on which several could be together, with a pulpit
in the middle for the reader to stand in when reading and to
sit when teaching. A low partition separated men on one side
from women on the other. Besides the ark for "the law"
(torah) there was a chest for the haphtaroth or "roll of the
prophets". In the synagogue a college of elders was presided
over by the chief or ruler of the synagogue (Luke 7:3; Luke
8:41; Luke 8:49).
The elders were called parnasiym, "pastors,"
"shepherds" (Ephesians 4:11; 1 Peter 5:1), ruling
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Behold, I will make them of the synagogue of Satan, which say
they are Jews, and are not, but do lie; behold, I will make
them to come and worship before thy feet, and to know that I
have loved thee.
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And the ruler of the synagogue answered with indignation,
because that Jesus had healed on the sabbath day, and said
unto the people, There are six days in which men ought to
work: in them therefore come and be healed, and not on the
sabbath day.
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And he arose out of the synagogue, and entered into Simon's
house. And Simon's wife's mother was taken with a great fever;
and they besought him for her.
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And he departed thence, and entered into a certain [man's]
house, named Justus, [one] that worshipped God, whose house
joined hard to the synagogue.
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And Crispus, the chief ruler of the synagogue, believed on the
Lord with all his house; and many of the Corinthians hearing
believed, and were baptized.
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These [words] spake his parents, because they feared the Jews:
for the Jews had agreed already, that if any man did confess
that he was Christ, he should be put out of the synagogue.
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And it came to pass in Iconium, that they went both together
into the synagogue of the Jews, and so spake, that a great
multitude both of the Jews and also of the Greeks believed.
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And when the sabbath day was come, he began to teach in the
synagogue: and many hearing [him] were astonished, saying,
From whence hath this [man] these things? and what wisdom [is]
this which is given unto him, that even such mighty works are
wrought by his hands?
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Jesus answered him, I spake openly to the world; I ever taught
in the synagogue, and in the temple, whither the Jews always
resort; and in secret have I said nothing.
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Then all the Greeks took Sosthenes, the chief ruler of the
synagogue, and beat [him] before the judgment seat. And Gallio
cared for none of those things.
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tan'-er (burseus, from bursa "a hide"): The only references
to a tanner are in Acts 9:43; 10:6,32. The Jews looked upon
tanning as an undesirable occupation and well they might,
for at best it was accompanied with unpleasant odors and
unattractive sights, if not even ceremonially unclean. We
can imagine that Simon the tanner found among the disciples
of Jesus a fellowship which had been denied him before.
Peter made the way still easier for Simon by choosing his
house as his abode while staying in Joppa. Simon's house was
by the seashore, as is true of the tanneries along the
Syrian coast today, so that the foul-smelling liquors from
the vats can be drawn off with the least nuisance, and so
that the salt water may be easily accessible for washing the
skins during the tanning process. These tanneries are very
unpretentious affairs, usually consisting of one or two
small rooms and a courtyard. Within are the vats made either
of stone masonry, plastered within and without, or cut out
of the solid rock. The sheep or goat skins are smeared on
the flesh side with a paste of slaked lime and then folded
up and allowed to stand until the hair loosens. The hair and
fleshy matter are removed, the skins are plumped in lime,
bated in a concoction first of dog dung and afterward in one
of fermenting bran, in much the same way as in a modern
tannery. The bated skins are tanned in sumach (Arabic
summak), which is the common tanning material in Syria and
Israel. After drying, the leather is blackened on one side
by rubbing on a solution made by boiling vinegar with old
nails or pieces of copper, and the skin is finally given a
dressing of olive oil. In the more modern tanneries degras
is being imported for the currying processes. For dyeing the
rams' skins red (Ex 25 ff) they rub on a solution of qermes
(similar to cochineal; see DYEING), dry, oil, and polish
with a smooth stone.
Pine bark is sometimes used for tanning in Lebanon.
According to Wilkinson (Ancient Egypt, II, 186), the Arabs
use the juice of a desert plant for dehairing and tanning
skins. The skins for pouches are either tawed, i.e. tanned
with a mineral salt like alum, or treated like parchment
(see PARCHMENT). About Hebron oak branches, chopped into
small chips, are used for tanning the leather bottles or
water skins. In this case the hair is not removed. The
tanning is accomplished, after removing the fleshy matter,
by filling the skin with oak chips and water, tying up all
openings in the skins, and allowing them to lie in the open
on their "backs," with "legs" upright, for weeks. The field
near Hebron where they arrange the bulging skins in orderly
rows during the tanning process presents a weird sight.
These are the bottles referred to in the King James Version
(the Revised Version (British and American) "skins") (Josh
9:4,13; Hos 7:5; Mt 9:17; Mk 2:22; Lk 5:37).
Leather was probably used more extensively than any records
show. We know that the Egyptians used leather for ornamental
work. They understood the art of making stamped leather. The
sculptures give us an idea of the methods used for making
the leather into sandals, trimmings for chariots, coverings
of chairs, decorations for harps, sarcophagi, etc. There are
two Biblical references to leather, where leather girdles
are mentioned (2 Ki 1:8; Mt 3:4).
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General scriptures concerning
Ac 9:43; 10:5,6
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Send therefore to Joppa, and call hither Simon, whose surname
is Peter; he is lodged in the house of [one] Simon a tanner by
the sea side: who, when he cometh, shall speak unto thee.
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He lodgeth with one Simon a tanner, whose house is by the sea
side: he shall tell thee what thou oughtest to do.
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And it came to pass, that he tarried many days in Joppa with
one Simon a tanner.
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Poll
Ex 30:11-16; 38:26; Ne 10:32; Lu 2:1
-Jesus pays
Mt 17:24-27
-Land
Ge 41:34,48; 2Ki 23:35
-Land mortgaged for
Ne 5:3,4
-Priests exempted from
Ge 47:26; Ezr 7:24
-Paid in grain
Am 5:11; 7:1
-Paid in provisions
1Ki 4:7-28
-Personal
1Ki 9:15; 2Ki 15:19,20; 23:35
-Resisted by Israelites
1Ki 12:18; 2Ch 10:18
-World-wide, levied by Caesar
-The R. V. changes the reading to enrolled instead of taxed
Lu 2:1-3
-Collectors of
2Sa 20:24; 1Ki 4:6; Isa 33:18; Da 11:20; Mr 2:14; Lu
3:13;
5:27
-Unpopular
Mt 5:46; 9:11; 11:19; 18:17; 21:31; Lu 18:11
-Stoned
2Ch 10:18
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taks, taks'-ing:
I. INTRODUCTION
1. General Considerations
2. Limits of the Discussion
II. TAXES IN ISRAEL UNDER SELF-GOVERNMENT
1. In the Earliest Period
2. Under the Theocracy; in the Period of the Judges
3. Under the Kings
III. TAXES IN ISRAEL UNDER CONQUERORS
1. Under the Assyrians and Babylonians
2. Under the Persians
3. Under the Ptolemies and Seleucid Kings
4. Under the Romans
I. Introduction.
1. General Considerations:
Taxation, in the sense of regular, graduated imposts levied
by authority upon wealth, whether in the form of flocks and
herds, tilled lands or accumulated treasure, is a
comparatively late product of social evolution. The
beginnings of this trouble-breeding institution are, of
course, very ancient. If in the beginning all wealth was
common wealth, all property vested in the family or tribe,
making any kind of levies unnecessary, with the rise of
individualism, the prorata setting aside, for common uses,
of certain possessions held as private property by
individuals, which is the essence of taxation, is
inevitable. With the advent of more advanced civilization,
by which is meant fixed residence, systematic use and
cultivation of defined and limited territory, established
political organization centering in rulers of one kind or
another, regular taxation must necessarily have begun.
Throughout history the burden of taxation has kept pace with
the elaboration of the machinery of government; kings,
courts, ceremonials, legislative and judicial
administration, wars, diplomacy--all these institutions
spell expense and, consequently, taxation. In a very real
sense, the history of taxation is the history of
civilization.
2. Limits of the Discussion:
In following the history of taxation in the Bible, two lines
of development are to be noted: Israel's internal history
when left to herself, and her experiences as tributary to
successive conquerors. These two lines of experience form
the main divisions of this article. We shall confine
ourselves so far as possible to the civil aspects of the
subject, leaving for others those interesting problems of
taxation connected with the origin and development of the
priestly legislation.
See TITHE etc.
II. Taxes in Israel under Self-Government.
In the first glimpses of the ancestors of the Hebrew...
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first mentioned in the command (Ex. 30:11-16) that every Jew
from twenty years and upward should pay an annual
tax of "half a
shekel for an offering to the Lord." This enactment
was
faithfully observed for many generations (2 Chr.
24:6; Matt.
17:24).
Afterwards, when the people had kings to reign over
them, they
began, as Samuel had warned them (1 Sam. 8:10-18),
to pay taxes
for civil purposes (1 Kings 4:7; 9:15; 12:4). Such
taxes, in
increased amount, were afterwards paid to the
foreign princes
that ruled over them.
In the New Testament the payment of taxes, imposed
by lawful
rulers, is enjoined as a duty (Rom. 13:1-7; 1 Pet.
2:13, 14).
Mention is made of the tax (telos) on merchandise
and travellers
(Matt. 17:25); the annual tax (phoros) on property
(Luke 20:22;
23:2); the poll-tax (kensos, "tribute," Matt. 17:25;
22:17; Mark
12:14); and the temple-tax ("tribute money" = two
drachmas =
half shekel, Matt. 17:24-27; comp. Ex. 30:13). (See
TRIBUTE
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(See PUBLICAN.) Each Israelite paid a half shekel as
"atonement money" for the service of the tabernacle, the
morning and evening sacrifice, the incense, wood, shewbread,
red heifers, scape-goat, etc. (Exodus 30:13). This became an
annual payment on the return from Babylon; at first only a
third of a shekel (Nehemiah 10:32); afterward a half, the
didrachma (Matthew 17:24); paid by every Jew wherever in the
world he might be (Josephus Ant. 18:9, section 1). Under
kings the taxes were much increased: a tithe of the soil's
produce and of cattle (1 Samuel 8:15; 1 Samuel 8:17); forced
military service, a month every year (verse 12; 1 Kings
9:22; 1 Chronicles 27:1); gifts, nominally voluntary but
really imperative (like the Old English "benevolences"), and
expected, as at the beginning of a reign or in war (1 Samuel
10:27; 1 Samuel 16:20; 1 Samuel 17:18). Import duties on
foreign articles (1 Kings 10:15); monopolies of commerce;
gold, linen from Egypt (1 Kings 9:28; 1 Kings 10:28); the
first cuttings of hay, "the king's mowings" (Amos 7:1).
Exemption from taxes was deemed an ample reward for
military service (1 Samuel 17:25). The taxes, not the
idolatry, of Solomon caused the revolt under his son; and
Adoram, as over the tribute, was the chief object, of hatred
(1 Kings 12:4; 1 Kings 12:18). The Assyrian and Egyptian
conquerors imposed heavy taxes on the Israelite and Jewish
kings, Mendhem, Hoshea, Hezekiah, Josiah (2 Kings 15:20; 2
Kings 17:4; 2 Kings 18:14; 2 Kings 23:35). Under the Persian
Darius Hystaspes each satrap had to pay a fixed sum which he
levied from the people with extortion. Judaea had to provide
for the governor's household daily maintenance, besides 40
shekels a day (Nehemiah 5:14-15). The three sources of
revenue were:
(1) the mindah or "measured payment" or "toll," i.e.
direct taxes;
(2) the excise on articles of consumption,
"tribute," belo;
(3) "custom" (halak), payable at bridges, fords, and
stations on the road (Ezra 4:13; Ezra 4:20). The priests,
Levites, singers, porters, and Nethinim were exempted by
Artaxerxes (Ezra 7:24). The distress of the people by taxes
and forced service is pathetically described (Nehemiah
9:37). They mortgaged their lands to buy grain, and borrowed
money at one per cent per month, i.e. 12 percent per year,
to pay the king's tribute; failing payment they became
slaves to their creditors. When Judaea fell under Rome, the
taxes were farmed, namely, the "dues" (telos) at harbours
and city gates, and the poll tax (census or epikephalaion);
the lawfulness of the latter alone the rabbis questioned
(Matthew 22:17). Judas of Galilee raised a revolt against it
(Josephus Ant. 18:1, section 6; B.J. 2:8, sec. 1). Besides
there was a property tax, the registry and valuation for
which took place at Christ's birth and was completed by
Quirinus Cyrenius after Archelaus' deposition (Luke 2:1-2).
(See CYRENIUS.) The Christian's rule is Matthew 22:21;
Romans 13:7.
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I. Under the judges, according to the theocratic government
contemplated by the law, the only payments incumbent upon
the people as of permanent obligation were the Tithes, the
Firstfruits, the Redemption-money of the first-born, and
other offerings as belonging to special occasions. The
payment by each Israelite of the half-shekel as "atonement-
money," for the service of the tabernacle, on taking the
census of the people, Ex 30:13 does not appear to have had
the character of a recurring tax, but to have been
supplementary to the freewill offerings of Ex 25:1-7 levied
for the one purpose of the construction of the sacred tent.
In later times, indeed, after the return from Babylon, there
was an annual payment for maintaining the fabric and
services of the temple; but the fact that this begins by of
a shekel, Ne 10:32 shows that till then there was no such
payment recognized as necessary. A little later the third
became a half, and under the name of the didrachma, Mt 17:24
was paid by every Jew, in whatever part of the world he
might be living. II. The kingdom, with centralized
government and greater magnificence, involved of course, a
larger expenditure, and therefore a heavier taxation, The
chief burdens appear to have been-- (1) A tithe of the
produce both of the soil and of live stock. 1Sa 8:15,17 (2)
Forced military service for a month every year. 1Sa 8:12;
1Ki 9:22; 1Ch 27:1 (3) Gifts to the king. 1Sa 10:27; 16:20;
17:18 (4) Import duties. 1Ki 10:15 (5) The monopoly of
certain-branches of commerce. 1Ki 9:28; 22:48; 10:28,29 (6)
The appropriation to the king's use of the early crop of
hay. Am 7:1 At times, too, in the history of both the
kingdoms there were special burdens. A tribute of fifty
shekels a head had to be paid by Menahem to the Assyrian
king, 2Ki 16:20 and under his successor Hoshea this assumed
the form of an annual tribute. 2Ki 17:4 III. Under the
Persian empire the taxes paid by the Jews were, in their
broad outlines, the same in kind as those of other subject
races. The financial system which gained for Darius
Hystaspes the name of the "shopkeeper king" involved the
payment by each satrap of a fixed sum as the tribute due
from his province. In Judea, as in other provinces, the
inhabitants had to provide in kind for the maintenance of
the governor's household, besides a money payment of forty
shekels a day. Ne 5:14,15 In Ezra 4:13,20; 7:24
we get a formal enumeration of the three great
branches of the revenue. The influence of Ezra secured for
the whole ecclesiastical order, from the priests down to the
Nethinim, an immunity from all three Ezr 7:24 but the burden
pressed heavily on the great body of the people. IV. Under
the Egyptian and Syrian kings the taxes paid by the Jews
became yet heavier. The "farming" system of finance was
adopted in its worst form. The taxes were put up to auction.
The contract sum for those of Phoenicia, Judea and Samaria
had been estimated at about 8000 talents. An unscrupulous
adventurer would bid double that sum, and would then go down
to the province, and by violence and cruelty, like that of
Turkish or Hindoo collectors, squeeze out a large margin of
profit for himself. V. The pressure of Roman taxation, if
not absolutely heavier, was probably more galling, as being
more thorough and systematic, more distinctively a mark of
bondage. The capture of Jerusalem by Pompey was followed
immediately by the imposition of a tribute, and within a
short time the sum thus taken from the resources of the
country amounted to 10,000 talents. When Judea became
formally a Roman province, the whole financial system of the
empire came as a natural consequence. The taxes were
systematically farmed, and the publicans appeared as a new
curse to the country. The portoria were levied at harbors,
piers and the gates of cities. Mt 17:24; Ro 13:7 In addition
to this there was the poll-tax paid by every Jew, and looked
upon, for that reason, as the special badge of servitude.
United with this, as part of the same system, there was
also, in all probability, a property tax of some kind. In
addition to these general taxes, the inhabitants of
Jerusalem were subject to a special house duty about this
period.
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Then shall stand up in his estate a raiser of taxes [in] the
glory of the kingdom: but within few days he shall be
destroyed, neither in anger, nor in battle.
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And Jehoiakim gave the silver and the gold to Pharaoh; but he
taxed the land to give the money according to the commandment
of Pharaoh: he exacted the silver and the gold of the people
of the land, of every one according to his taxation, to give
[it] unto Pharaohnechoh.
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And it came to pass in those days, that there went out a
decree from Caesar Augustus, that all the world should be
taxed.
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To be taxed with Mary his espoused wife, being great with
child.
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And all went to be taxed, every one into his own city.
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tent'-mak-er (~skenopoios): Mentioned only once (Acts 18:3).
Paul's native province of Cilicia was noted for its goats'
hair cloth which was exported under the name of cilicium and
was used largely for tentmaking. We are told in the passage
mentioned that Paul dwelt with Aquila and Priscilla, and
worked with them at tent-making (compare Acts 20:34).
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And because he was of the same craft, he abode with them, and
wrought: for by their occupation they were tentmakers.
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tent ('ohel; skene; 'ohel is a derivative of 'ahal, "to be
clear," "to shine"; hence, 'ohel, "to be conspicuous from a
distance"): In the great stretches of uncultivated lands in
the interior of Syria or Arabia, which probably have much
the same aspect today as in Abraham's time, it is an easy
matter to espy an encampment of roving Bedouin, "a nation
.... that dwelleth without care .... that have neither gates
nor bars" (Jer 49:31). The peaks of their black (compare
Song 1:5) goats' hair tents stand out in contrast against
the lighter colors of the soil.
There seems to be little doubt about the antiquity of the
Arab tent, and one can rightly believe that-the dwelling-
places of Abraham, Sarah, Jacob, and their descendants were
made on the same pattern and of the same materials (Gen
4:20; 9:27; 12:8; 13:3; 18:6; 31:25,30; Ps 78:55; Heb 11:9,
etc.). Long after the children of Israel had given up their
tents for houses they continued to worship in tents (2 Sam
7:1-6; 2 Ch 1:3,4) (for the use of tents in connection with
religious observances see TABERNACLE).
The Arab tents (called bait sha`r, "house of hair") are made
of strips of black goats' hair cloth, sewed together into
one large piece (see GOATS' HAIR; WEAVING). Poles are placed
under this covering at intervals to hold it from the ground,
and it is stretched over these poles by ropes of goats hair
or hemp (compare Job 4:21; Isa 54:2; Jer 10:20) "fastened to
hard-wood pins driven into the ground (Isa 54:2; Jdg 4:21;
5:26). A large wooden mallet for driving the pegs is part of
the regular camp equipment (Jdg 4:21; 5:26). The sides
(curtains) of the tent (Isa 54:2) are made of strips of
goats hair cloth or from mats woven from split cane or
rushes (see Illustration, p. 2948). Where more than one
family occupies the same tent or the animals are provided
with shelter under the same roof (compare 2 Ch 14:15),
curtains of the same materials mentioned above form the
dividing walls. A corner of the matting where two ends meet
is turned back to form the door of the tent (Gen 18:1). In
the summer time the walls are mostly removed. New tents are
not water-proof, and the condition of the interior after a
heavy rain is not far from squalid. The tent material
becomes matted by use, especially if wool has been woven
into the fabric, and is then a better protection against the
rain. It is the women's duty to pitch the tents.
The poorer Arabs have no mats to cover the ground under
their tents. Straw mats, goats' hair or woolen rugs (compare
Jdg 4:18), more or less elaborate as the taste and means of
the family allow, are the usual coverings for the tent
floor. The food supplies are usually kept in goats' hair
bags, the liquids, as oil or milk products, in skins. One or
two tinned copper cooking-vessels, a shallow tray of the
same material, a coffee set consisting of roasting pan,
mortar and pestle, boiling-pot and cups, make up the usual
camp furniture. The more thrifty include bedding in their
equipment, but this increases the difficulties of moving,
since it might require more than the one animal, sometimes
only a donkey, which carries all the earthly belongings of
the family. A sheikh or chief has several tents, one for
himself and guests, separate ones for his wives and female
servants, and still others for his animals (compare Gen
31:33).
Other Hebrew words translated "tent" are forms of chanah (Nu
13:19; 1 Sam 17:53; 2 Ki 7:16; 2 Ch 31:2; Zec 14:15); cukkah
(2 Sam 11:11; 22:12); mishkenoth (Song 1:8).
Figurative: "Neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there"
typified utter desolation (Isa 13:20). "Enlarge the place of
thy tent .... stretch forth the curtains .... lengthen thy
cords .... strengthen thy stakes" prophesied an increase in
numbers and prosperity of God's people (Isa 54:2; compare
33:20; Lk 16:9; 2 Cor 5:4). Tent cords plucked up denoted
death. (Job 4:21). Jer 10:20 is a picture of a destroyed
household as applied to Judah. Hezekiah in his sickness
bewails that his dwelling (life) had been carried away as
easily as a shepherd's tent is plucked up (Isa 38:12).
Isaiah compared the heavens to a tent spread out (Isa
40:22). "They shall pitch their tents against her" i.e. they
shall make war (Jer 6:3).
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Used for a dwelling
Ge 4:20
-By Noah
Ge 9:21
-By Abraham
Ge 12:8; 13:18; 18:1
-By Lot
Ge 13:5
-By Moses
Ex 18:7
-By the people of Israel
Nu 24:5,6; 2Sa 20:1; 1Ki 12:16
-By the Midianites
Jud 6:5
-By Cushites
Hab 3:7
-By Arabians
Isa 13:20
-By shepherds
Isa 38:12; Jer 6:3
-Women had separate tents from men
Ge 24:67; 31:33
-Used for cattle
2Ch 14:15
-The manufacture of
Ac 18:3
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(1.) Heb. 'ohel (Gen. 9:21, 27). This word is used also of
a
dwelling or habitation (1 Kings 8:66; Isa. 16:5;
Jer. 4:20), and
of the temple (Ezek. 41:1). When used of the
tabernacle, as in 1
Kings 1:39, it denotes the covering of goat's hair
which was
placed over the mishcan.
(2.) Heb. mishcan (Cant. 1:8), used also of a
dwelling (Job
18:21; Ps. 87:2), the grave (Isa. 22:16; comp.
14:18), the
temple (Ps. 46:4; 84:2; 132:5), and of the
tabernacle (Ex. 25:9;
26:1; 40:9; Num. 1:50, 53; 10:11). When
distinguished from
'ohel, it denotes the twelve interior curtains which
lay upon
the framework of the tabernacle (q.v.).
(3.) Heb. kubbah (Num. 25:8), a dome-like tent
devoted to the
impure worship of Baal-peor.
(4.) Heb. succah (2 Sam. 11:11), a tent or booth
made of green
boughs or branches (see Gen. 33:17; Lev. 23:34, 42;
Ps. 18:11;
Jonah 4:5; Isa. 4:6; Neh. 8:15-17, where the word is
variously
rendered).
Jubal was "the father of such as dwell in tents"
(Gen. 4:20).
The patriarchs were "dwellers in tents" (Gen. 9:21,
27; 12:8;
13:12; 26:17); and during their wilderness
wanderings all Israel
dwelt in tents (Ex. 16:16; Deut. 33:18; Josh. 7:24).
Tents have
always occupied a prominent place in Eastern life (1
Sam. 17:54;
2 Kings 7:7; Ps. 120:5; Cant. 1:5). Paul the
apostle's
occupation was that of a tent-maker (Acts 18:3);
i.e., perhaps a
maker of tent cloth.
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'ohel, "tabernacle "; mishkan, "dwelling"; sukkak, "booth";
qubbah, "recess" (Numbers 25:8). The characteristic dwelling
of the keepers of cattle, the nomadic races, of whom Jabal
was the father (Genesis 4:20). The stay of Israel in Egypt
weaned them from tent life and trained them for their fixed
home in Canaan. The pastoral tribes Reuben, Gad, and half
Manasseh, still in part retained the tent life E. of Jordan
(Joshua 22:8). The phrase "to your tents, O Israel,"
remained as a trace of the former nomadic state, when the
nation was no longer so (1 Kings 12:16). Agriculture was
sometimes associated with tent life, as in Isaac's case
(Genesis 26:12), and probably in Heber's case (Judges 4:11-
22). Hazerim (Deuteronomy 2:23) is not a proper name, but
means nomadic "villages" or "enclosures," a piece of ground
surrounded with a rude fence, in which tents were pitched
and cattle tethered at night for safety from marauders; or
as the Yezidee tent in Syria, a stone wall five feet high,
roofed with goats' hair cloth raised on long poles.
So Hazar-adder in the S. and Hazar-erran in the N.
(Numbers 34:4; Numbers 34:9.) Some tents are circular,
resting on one central pole; others square on several poles.
The better kind are oblong, and divided by a curtain into an
outer apartment for the males and an inner one for the
females. Hooks are fixed in the poles to hang articles on
(Isaiah 22:23-24). To the rain-proof goats' hair covering a
cloth is sewn or twisted round a stick, to the ends of which
are tied leather loops.
To these loops one end of the tent ropes is
fastened, the other being tied to a hooked sharp pin of wood
which they drive into the ground with a mallet; such a nail
and mallet Jael used (Judges 4:21). The patriarchs' wives
had separate tents (Genesis 24:67; Genesis 31:33). The
beauty of Israel's orderly and wide encampment by the four
parallel brooks running westward into Jordan is compared to
trees in rows in beautiful gardens, such as Balaam had seen
along his own river Euphrates (Numbers 24:5-6). The
quickness and ease with which tents can be struck, leaving
their tenants without covering in the lonely desert, is
Paul's image for the speedy dissolution of our mortal body,
preparatory to our abiding resurrection home (2 Corinthians
5:1).
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Among the leading characteristics of the nomad races, those
two have always been numbered whose origin has been ascribed
to Jabal the son of Lameth, Ge 4:20 viz., to be tent-
dwellers and keepers of cattle. The same may be said of the
forefathers of the Hebrew race; nor was it until the return
into Canaan from Egypt that the Hebrews became inhabitants
of cities. An Arab tent is called beit, "house;" its
covering consists of stuff, about three quarters of a yard
broad, made of black goat's-hair, So 1:5 laid parallel with
the tent's length. This is sufficient to resist the heaviest
rain. The tent-poles or columns are usually nine in number,
placed in three groups; but many tents have only one pole,
others two or three. The ropes which hold the tent in its
place are fastened, not to the tent-cover itself, but to
loops consisting of a leathern thong tied to the ends of a
stick, round which is twisted a piece of old cloth, which is
itself sewed to the tent-cover. The ends of the tent-ropes
are fastened to short sticks or pins, which are driven into
the ground with a mallet. Jud 4:21 Round the back and sides
of the tent runs a piece of stuff removable at pleasure to
admit air. The tent is divided into two apartments,
separated by a carpet partition drawn across the middle of
the tent and fastened to the three middle posts. When the
pasture near an encampment is exhausted, the tents are taken
down, packed on camels and removed. Ge 26:17,22,25; Isa
38:12 In choosing places for encampment, Arabs prefer the
neighborhood of trees, for the sake of the shade and
coolness which they afford. Ge 18:4,8
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Then Laban overtook Jacob. Now Jacob had pitched his tent in
the mount: and Laban with his brethren pitched in the mount of
Gilead.
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Then the king arose, and sat in the gate. And they told unto
all the people, saying, Behold, the king doth sit in the gate.
And all the people came before the king: for Israel had fled
every man to his tent.
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And a cubit on the one side, and a cubit on the other side of
that which remaineth in the length of the curtains of the
tent, it shall hang over the sides of the tabernacle on this
side and on that side, to cover it.
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And he removed from thence unto a mountain on the east of
Bethel, and pitched his tent, [having] Bethel on the west, and
Hai on the east: and there he builded an altar unto the LORD,
and called upon the name of the LORD.
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And the charge of the sons of Gershon in the tabernacle of the
congregation [shall be] the tabernacle, and the tent, the
covering thereof, and the hanging for the door of the
tabernacle of the congregation,
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Saul chose him three thousand [men] of Israel; [whereof] two
thousand were with Saul in Michmash and in mount Bethel, and a
thousand were with Jonathan in Gibeah of Benjamin: and the
rest of the people he sent every man to his tent.
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And he put the altar of burnt offering [by] the door of the
tabernacle of the tent of the congregation, and offered upon
it the burnt offering and the meat offering; as the LORD
commanded Moses.
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And he made curtains [of] goats' [hair] for the tent over the
tabernacle: eleven curtains he made them.
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And he made a covering for the tent [of] rams' skins dyed red,
and a covering [of] badgers' skins above [that].
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thef: In the Old Testament the uniform translation (17
times) of gannabh, from ganabh, "steal," but gannabh is
rather broader than the English "thief," and may even
include a kidnapper (Dt 24:7). In Apocrypha and the New
Testament, the King James Version uses "thief" indifferently
for kleptes, and lestes, but the Revised Version (British
and American) always renders the latter word by "robber" (a
great improvement), See CRIMES. The figurative use of thief"
as one coming without warning" (Mt 24:43, etc.) needs no
explanation.
The penitent thief ("robber," the Revised Version (British
and American) Mk 15:27; Mt 27:38,44; "malefactor," Lk
23:32,39) was one of the two criminals crucified with
Christ. According to Mark and Matthew, both of these joined
in the crowd's mockery, but Luke tells that one of them
reproached his fellow for the insults, acknowledged his own
guilt, and begged Christ to remember him at the coming of
the Kingdom. And Christ replied by promising more than was
asked--immediate admission into Paradise. It should be noted
that unusual moral courage was needed for the thief to make
his request at such a time and under such circumstances, and
that his case has little in common with certain sentimental
"death-bed repentances."
To explain the repentance and the acknowledgment of Christ
as Messiah, some previous acquaintance of the thief with
Christ must be supposed, but all guesses as to time and
place are of course useless. Later tradition abundantly
filled the blanks and gave the penitent thief the name Titus
or Dysmas.
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rob'-er, rob'-er-i: "Robber" represents no particular Hebrew
word in the Old Testament, but in the Apocrypha and the New
Testament is always a translation of lestes (see THIEF). In
the King James Version Job 5:5; 18:9, "robber" stands for
the doubtful word tsammim, the Revised Version (British and
American) "hungry" in JOb 5:5 and "snare" in 18:9. The
meaning is uncertain, and perhaps tseme'im, "thirsty,"
should be read in both places. Ps 62:10, "Become not vain in
robbery," means "put not your trust in riches dishonestly
gained." RV's changes of the King James Version in Prov
21:7; Dan 11:14; Nab 3:1 are obvious. In Phil 2:6 the King
James Version reads "thought it not robbery to be equal with
God." the English Revised Version has "a prize," while the
English Revised Version margin and the American Standard
Revised Version read "a thing to be grasped," the American
Standard Revised Version rewording "counted not the being on
an equality with God a thing to be grasped." The Greek here
is harpagmos, a word derived from harpazo, "to ravish away,"
"carry off," "plunder" (compare "harpy"). Properly speaking,
the termination -mos should give the derived noun an active
sense, "the act of plundering," whence the King James
Version's "robbery." The verse would then mean "who thought
that being on an equality with God did not consist in
grasping," and this translation gives good sense in the
context and has some excellent scholarly support. But a
passive significance is frequently found despite a -mos
termination, giving to harpagmos the sense of "thing
grasped," as in the Revised Version (British and American).
Usually English commentators take "grasped" as meaning
"clung to"--"did not think equality with God should be clung
to tenaciously"--but "to cling to" seems unknown as a
translation of harpazo. Hence, render "a thing to be grasped
at"--did not seek equality with God by selfish methods but
by humbling himself." It is to be noticed, naturally, that
Paul is thinking of "equality with God" simply in the sense
of "receiving explicit adoration from men" (Phil 2:10,11),
and that the metaphysical relation of the Son to the Father
is not at all in point.
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General scriptures concerning
Pr 1:11-16
-Dens of
Jer 7:11
-Bands of
Ho 6:9; 7:1
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Forbidden
Le 19:13; Isa 61:8
-Punished with death
Eze 18:10,13
-Forgiven
Eze 33:15
-INSTANCES OF
Jud 9:25; Lu 10:30
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General scriptures concerning
Ex 20:15; 21:16; 22:1-4,10-15; Le 6:2-7; 19:11,13;
De 5:19;
23:24,25; Ps 50:18; 62:10; 119:61; Pr 6:30,31; 21:7;
Isa
61:8; Jer 2:26; 7:9,10; Eze 22:29; Ho 4:1,2; Na 3:1;
Zec
5:3; Mt 6:19,20; 15:19; 19:18; 21:13; 27:38,44; Mr
7:21,22;
11:17; 15:27; Lu 18:20; 19:45,46; Joh 10:1; Ro 2:21;
13:9;
1Co 6:8,10; Eph 4:28; Tit 2:10; 1Pe 4:15; Re 3:3;
9:21
-See DISHONESTY
-FIGURATIVE
Ob 1:5
-INSTANCES OF
By Rachel, of the household gods (teraphim)
Ge 31:19,34,35
Achan
Jos 7:11
Micah
Jud 17:2
The spies of Laish
Jud 18:14-27
Judas
Joh 12:6
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Robbery has ever been one of the principal employments of the
nomad tribes of the East. From the time of Ishmael to the
present day the Bedouin has been a "wild man," and a robber by
trade. Ge 16:12 The Mosaic law on the subject of theft is
contained in Ex 2:2 There seems no reason to suppose that the
law underwent any alteration in Solomon's time. Man-stealing
was punishable with death. Ex 21:16; De 24:7 Invasion of right
in land was strictly forbidden. De 27:17; Isa 5:8; Mic 2:2
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And thou shalt make a plate [of] pure gold, and grave upon it,
[like] the engravings of a signet, HOLINESS TO THE LORD.
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[As] I live, saith the LORD, though Coniah the son of
Jehoiakim king of Judah were the signet upon my right hand,
yet would I pluck thee thence;
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And he said, What pledge shall I give thee? And she said, Thy
signet, and thy bracelets, and thy staff that [is] in thine
hand. And he gave [it] her, and came in unto her, and she
conceived by him.
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When she [was] brought forth, she sent to her father in law,
saying, By the man, whose these [are, am] I with child: and
she said, Discern, I pray thee, whose [are] these, the signet,
and bracelets, and staff.
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And a stone was brought, and laid upon the mouth of the den;
and the king sealed it with his own signet, and with the
signet of his lords; that the purpose might not be changed
concerning Daniel.
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slav, slav'-er-i:
1. Acquiring of Slaves
2. Hebrews as War Captives
3. Freedom of Slaves
4. Rights of Slaves
5. Rights of Slave Masters
6. The New Testament Conception
LITERATURE
The origin of the term "slave" is traced to the German
sklave, meaning a captive of the Slavonic race who had been
forced into servitude (compare Slav); French esclave, Dutch
slaaf, Swedish slaf, Spanish esclavo. The word "slave"
occurs only in Jer 2:14 and in Rev 18:13, where it is
suggested by the context and not expressed in the original
languages (Hebrew yelidh bayith, "one born in the house";
Greek soma, "body"). However, the Hebrew word `ebhedh, in
the Old Testament and the Greek word doulos, in the New
Testament more properly might have been translated "slave"
instead of "servant" or "bondservant," understanding though
that the slavery of Judaism was not the cruel system of
Greece, Rome, and later nations. The prime thought is
service; the servant may render free service, the slave,
obligatory, restricted service.
Scripture statement rather than philological study must form
the basis of this article. We shall notice how slaves could
be secured, sold and redeemed; also their rights and their
masters' rights, confining the study to Old Testament
Scripture, noting in conclusion the New Testament
conception. The word "slave" in this article refers to the
Hebrew slave unless otherwise designated.
1. Acquiring of Slaves:
Slaves might be acquired in the following ways, namely:
(1) Bought.
There are many instances of buying slaves (Lev 25:39 ff).
Hebrew slavery broke into the ranks of every human
relationship: a father could sell his daughter (Ex 21:7; Neh
5:5); a widow's children might be sold to pay their father's
debt (2 Ki 4:1); a man could sell himself (Lev 25:39,47); a
woman could sell herself (Dt 15:12,13,17), etc. Prices paid
were somewhat indefinite. According to Ex 21:32 thirty
shekels was a standard price, but Lev 27:3-7 gives a scale
of from 3 to 50 shekels according to age and sex, with a
provision for an appeal to the priest in case of uncertainty
(27:8). Twenty shekels is the price set for a young man
(27:5), and this corresponds with the sum paid for Joseph
(Gen 37:28).
But in 2 Macc 8:11 the price on the average is 90 for a
talent, i.e. 40 shekels...
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The institution of slavery was recognized, though not
established, by the Mosaic law with a view to mitigate its
hardship and to secure to every man his ordinary rights. I.
Hebrew slaves. --
1. The circumstances under which a Hebrew might be
reduced to servitude were-- (1) poverty; (2) the commission
of theft; and (3) the exercise of paternal authority. In the
first case, a man who had mortgaged his property, and was
unable to support his family, might sell himself to another
Hebrew, with a view both to obtain maintenance and perchance
a surplus sufficient to redeem his property. Le 25:25,39 (2)
The commission of theft rendered a person liable to
servitude whenever restitution could not be made on the
scale prescribed by the law. Ex 22:1,3 The thief was bound
to work out the value of his restitution money in the
service of him on whom the theft had been committed. (3) The
exercise of paternal authority was limited to the sale of a
daughter of tender age to be a maidservant, with the
ulterior view of her becoming the concubine of the
purchaser. Ex 21:7
2. The servitude of a Hebrew might be terminated in
three ways: (1) by the satisfaction or the remission of all
claims against him; (2) by the recurrence of the year of
jubilee, Le 25:40 and (3) the expiration of six years from
the time that his servitude commenced. Ex 21:2; De 15:12 (4)
To the above modes of obtaining liberty the rabbinists
added, as a fourth, the death of the master without leaving
a son, there being no power of claiming the salve on the
part of any heir except a son. If a servant did not desire
to avail himself of the opportunity of leaving his service,
he was to signify his intention in a formal manner before
the judges (or more exactly at the place of judgment), and
then the master was to take him to the door-post, and to
bore his ear through with an awl, Ex 21:6 driving the awl
into or "unto the door," as stated in De 15:17 and thus
fixing the servant to it. A servant who had submitted to
this operation remained, according to the words of the law,
a servant "forever." Ex 21:6 These words are however,
interpreted by Josephus and by the rabbinsts as meaning
until the year of jubilee.
3. The condition of a Hebrew servant was by no means
intolerable. His master was admonished to treat him, not "as
a bond-servant, but as an hired servant and as a sojourner,"
and, again, "not to rule over him with rigor." Le
25:39,40,43 At the termination of his servitude the master
was enjoined not to "let him go away empty," but to
remunerate him liberally out of his flock, his floor and his
wine-press. De 15:13,14 In the event of a Hebrew becoming
the servant of a "stranger," meaning a non-Hebrew, the
servitude could be terminated only in two ways, viz. by the
arrival of the year of jubilee, or by the repayment to the
master of the purchase money paid for the servant, after
deducting a sum for the value of his services proportioned
to the length of his servitude. Le 25:47-55 A Hebrew woman
might enter into voluntary servitude on the score of
poverty, and in this case she was entitled to her freedom
after six years service, together with her usual gratuity at
leaving, just as in the case of a man. De 15:12,13 Thus far
we have seen little that is objectionable in the condition
of Hebrew servants. In respect to marriage there were some
peculiarities which, to our ideas, would be regarded as
hardships. A master might, for instance, give a wife to a
Hebrew servant for the time of his servitude, the wife being
in this case, it must be remarked, not only a slave but a
non-Hebrew. Should he leave when his term had expired, his
wife and children would remain the absolute property of the
master. Ex 21:4,5 Again, a father might sell his young
daughter to a Hebrew, with a view either of marrying her
himself or of giving her to his son. Ex 21:7-9 It diminishes
the apparent harshness of this proceeding if we look on the
purchase money as in the light of a dowry given, as was not
unusual, to the parents of the bride; still more, if we
accept the rabbinical view that the consent of the maid was
required before the marriage could take place. The position
of a maiden thus sold by her father was subject to the
following regulations: (1) She could not "go out as the men-
servants do," i.e. she could not leave at the termination of
six years, or in the year of jubilee, if her..
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Jer. 2:14 (A.V.), but not there found in the original. In
Rev.
18:13 the word "slaves" is the rendering of a Greek
word meaning
"bodies." The Hebrew and Greek words for slave are
usually
rendered simply "servant," "bondman," or
"bondservant." Slavery
as it existed under the Mosaic law has no modern
parallel. That
law did not originate but only regulated the already
existing
custom of slavery (Ex. 21:20, 21, 26, 27; Lev. 25:44-
46; Josh.
9:6-27). The gospel in its spirit and genius is
hostile to
slavery in every form, which under its influence is
gradually
disappearing from among men.
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Hired service was little known anciently; slavery was the
common form of service. But among the Hebrew the bond
service was of a mild and equitable character; so much so
that ebed, "servant," is not restricted to the bond servant,
but applies to higher relations, as, e.,g., the king's prime
minister, a rich man's steward, as Eliezer (Genesis 15:2;
Genesis 24:2), God's servant (Daniel 9:17). Bond service was
not introduced by Moses, but being found in existence was
regulated by laws mitigating its evils and restricting its
duration. Man stealing was a capital crime (Deuteronomy
24:7); not only stealing Israelites, but people of other
nations (Exodus 21:16). The Mosaic law jealously guarded
human life and liberty as sacred. Masters must treat Hebrew
servants as hired servants, not with rigour, but with
courteous considerateness as brethren, and liberally
remunerate them at the close of their service (Deuteronomy
15:12-18; Leviticus 25:39-41). Exodus 21:2 provided that no
Israelite bound to service could be forced to continue in it
more than six years.
Leviticus supplements this by giving every Hebrew
the right to claim freedom for himself and family in the
Jubilee year, without respect to period of service, and to
recover his land. This was a cheek on the oppression of the
rich (Jeremiah 34:8-17). Property in foreign slaves might be
handed down from father to son, so too the children born in
the house (Genesis 14:14; Genesis 17:12). Some were war
captives (Numbers 31:6-7; Numbers 31:9; Deuteronomy 20:14);
but Israelites must not reduce to bondage Israelites taken
in war (2 Chronicles 28:8-15). The monuments give many
illustrations of the state of the Israelites themselves
reduced to bondage by foreign kings to whom they were
delivered for their rebellion. Others were enslaved for
crime (Exodus 22:3, like our penal servitude), or bought
from foreign slave dealers (Leviticus 25:44), so they were
his property (Exodus 21:21). The price was about 30 or 40
shekels (Exodus 21:32; Leviticus 27:3-4; Zechariah 11:12-13;
Matthew 26:15).
The slave was encouraged to become a "proselyte"
(doulos) (Exodus 12:44). He might be set free (Exodus 21:3;
Exodus 21:20-21; Exodus 21:26-27). The law guarded his life
and limbs. If a married man became a bondman, his rights to
his wife were respected, she going out with him after six
years' service. If as single he accepted a wife from his
master, and she bore him children, she and they remained the
master's, and he alone went out, unless from love to his
master and his wife and children he preferred staying
(Exodus 21:6); then the master bored his ear (the member
symbolizing willing obedience, as the phrase "give ear"
implies) with an awl, and he served for ever, i.e. until
Jubilee year (Leviticus 25:10; Deuteronomy 15:17); type of
the Father's willing Servant for man's sake (compare Isaiah
50:5; Psalm 40:6-8; Hebrews 10:5; Philemon 2:7).
A Hebrew sold to a stranger sojourning in Israel did
not go out after six years, but did at the...
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And cinnamon, and odours, and ointments, and frankincense, and
wine, and oil, and fine flour, and wheat, and beasts, and
sheep, and horses, and chariots, and slaves, and souls of men.
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spis, spi'-sis, -sez:
(1) (besem (Ex 30:23), bosem, plural besamim, all from root
"to attract by desire," especially by smell): The list of
spices in Ex 30:23 includes myrrh, cinnamon, "sweet calamus
cassia." These, mixed with olive oil, made the "holy
anointing oil." Officials of the temple had charge of the
spices (1 Ch 9:29). Among the treasures of the temple shown
by Hezekiah to the messengers of Babylon were the spices (2
Ki 20:13). They were used in the obsequies of kings (2 Ch
16:14) and in preparation of a bride for a royal marriage
(Est 2:12, "sweet-odors" = balsam). Spices are frequently
mentioned in Song (4:10,14,16; 5:1, margin and the King
James Version "balsam"; Song 5:13; 6:2, "bed of spices,"
margin "balsam"; 8:14). These passages in Song may refer in
particular to balsam, the product of the balsam plant,
Balsamodendron opobalsamum, a plant growing in Arabia.
According to Josephus it was cultivated at Jericho, the
plant having been brought to Israel by the Queen of Sheba
(Ant., VIII, vi, 6; see also XIV, iv, 1; XV, iv, 2; BJ, I,
vi, 6).
See MYRRH.
(2) cammim (Ex 30:34, "sweet spices")): "Take unto thee
sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum; sweet spices
with pure frankincense." It is a general term for fragrant
substances finely powdered. Compare Arabic shamm, "a smell"
or "sense of smell"; generally translated "sweet incense"
(Ex 25:6; 30:7; 31:11; 35:8,15,28; 39:38; 40:27 (the King
James Version only); Lev 4:7; 16:12; Nu 4:16; 2 Ch 2:4 (the
King James Version only); 2 Ch 13:11). In Ex 37:29; 40:27; 2
Ch 2:4, we have qsToreth cammim, "incense of sweet spices."
(3) (nekho'th; thumiamata (Gen 37:25, "spicery," margin "gum
tragacanth or storax"); thumiama "incense" (Gen 43:11,
"spicery"; some Greek versions and the Vulgate (Jerome's
Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) have "storax")): Storax is the
dried gum of the beautiful Styrax officinalis (see POPLAR),
which was used as incense--different article from that now
passing under that name. Tragacanth is the resinous gum of
several species of milk vetch (Natural Order, Leguminosae),
especially of the Astragalus gummifer. Septuagint "incense"
is probably the best translation.
(4) (reqach, "spiced" wine (Song 8:2)).
See WINE.
(5) (aroma, "spices" (Mk 16:1, the King James Version "sweet
spices"; Lk 23:56; 24:1; Jn 19:40; in 19:39 defined as a
mixture of aloes and myrrh)).
See PERFUME; BURIAL.
(6) (amomon (Rev 18:13), margin "amomum"; the King James
Version "odours"): The Greek means "blameless," and it was
apparently applied in classical times to any sweet and fine
odor. In modern botany the name Amomum is given to a genus
in the Natural Order. Zingiberaceae. The well-known cardamon
seeds (Amomum cardamomum) and the A. grana Paradisi which
yields the well-known "grains of Paradise," used as a
stimulant, both belong to this genus. What was the substance
indicated in Rev 18:13 is quite uncertain.
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In the formula for the sacred oil
Ex 25:6; 35:8
-Stores of
2Ki 20:13
-Used in the temple
1Ch 9:29
-Exported from Gilead
Ge 37:25
-Sent as a present by Jacob to Joseph
Ge 43:11
-Presented by the Queen of Sheba to Solomon
1Ki 10:2,10
-Sold in the marketplaces of Tyre
Eze 27:22
-Used in the embalming of Asa
2Ch 16:14
-Prepared for embalming the corpse of Jesus
Mr 16:1; Lu 23:56; 24:1; Joh 19:39,40
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1. Heb. basam, besem or bosem. In So 5:1 "I have gathered my
myrrh with my spice," the word points apparently to some
definite substance. In the other places, with the exception
perhaps of So 1:13; 6:2 the words refer more generally to
sweet aromatic odors, the principal of which was that of the
balsam or balm of Gilead; the tree which yields this
substance is now generally admitted to be the Balsam-
odendron opobalsamum. The balm of Gilead tree grows in some
parts of Arabia and Africa, and is seldom more than fifteen
feet high, with straggling branches and scanty foliage. The
balsam is chiefly obtained from incisions in the bark, but
is procured also from the green and ripe berries.
2. Necoth. Ge 37:25; 43:11 The most probable
explanation is that which refers the word to the Arabic
naku'at i.e. "the gum obtained from the tragacanth"
(Astragalus).
3. Sammim, a general term to denote those aromatic
substances which were used in the preparation of the
anointing oil, the incense offerings, etc. The spices
mentioned as being used by Nicodemus for the preparation of
our Lord's body, Joh 19:39,40 are "myrrh and aloes," by
which latter word must be understood not the aloes of
medicine, but the highly-scented wood of the Aquilaria
agallochum.
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aromatic substances, of which several are named in Ex. 30.
They
were used in the sacred anointing oil (Ex. 25:6; 35:8;
1 Chr.
9:29), and in embalming the dead (2 Chr. 16:14; Luke
23:56;
24:1; John 19:39, 40). Spices were stored by Hezekiah
in his
treasure-house (2 Kings 20:13; Isa. 39:2).
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basam. Not pungent, as pepper, ginger, etc., but aromatic
woods, seeds, or gums (Song of Solomon 6:2; Song of Solomon
5:1). Balsam or balm of Gilead, Amyris opobalsamum; a
tropical plant that grew in the plains of Jericho and the
hot valleys of southern Israel. KJV translated not basam,
but tseri or tsori, "balm". (See BALM.) The balm of Gilead
tree is not more than 15 ft. high, with straggling branches
and scanty foil age. The balsam is procured from the bark by
incision, and from the green and ripe berries.
The nekoth, "spicery" Genesis 37:25, is the storax
or gum of the styrax tree (Speaker's Commentary). Arabic
nekaat, the gum exuding from the tragacanth (astragalus);
when exposed to the air it hardens into lumps or worm-like
spires (Smith's Bible Dictionary). In 2 Kings 20:13 margin,
"house of spicery" expresses the original design of the
house; but it was used ultimutely for storing Hezekiah's
other "precious things." Sammim, a general term for
aromatics used in preparing the holy anointing oil. Certain
Levites especially "oversaw the frankincense and spices" (1
Chronicles 9:29-30). Myrrh and aloes were among the spices
wrapped with Jesus' body (John 19:39-40; compare also 2
Chronicles 16:4; Mark 16:1; Luke 23:56; Luke 24:1).
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Take thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh five
hundred [shekels], and of sweet cinnamon half so much, [even]
two hundred and fifty [shekels], and of sweet calamus two
hundred and fifty [shekels],
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And Hezekiah hearkened unto them, and shewed them all the
house of his precious things, the silver, and the gold, and
the spices, and the precious ointment, and [all] the house of
his armour, and all that was found in his treasures: there was
nothing in his house, nor in all his dominion, that Hezekiah
shewed them not.
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And Hezekiah was glad of them, and shewed them the house of
his precious things, the silver, and the gold, and the spices,
and the precious ointment, and all the house of his armour,
and all that was found in his treasures: there was nothing in
his house, nor in all his dominion, that Hezekiah shewed them
not.
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And when the queen of Sheba heard of the fame of Solomon, she
came to prove Solomon with hard questions at Jerusalem, with a
very great company, and camels that bare spices, and gold in
abundance, and precious stones: and when she was come to
Solomon, she communed with him of all that was in her heart.
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And she gave the king an hundred and twenty talents of gold,
and of spices great abundance, and precious stones: neither
was there any such spice as the queen of Sheba gave king
Solomon.
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And they brought every man his present, vessels of silver, and
vessels of gold, and garments, and armour, and spices, horses,
and mules, a rate year by year.
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And they brought every man his present, vessels of silver, and
vessels of gold, and raiment, harness, and spices, horses, and
mules, a rate year by year.
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And they buried him in his own sepulchres, which he had made
for himself in the city of David, and laid him in the bed
which was filled with sweet odours and divers kinds [of
spices] prepared by the apothecaries' art: and they made a
very great burning for him.
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Awake, O north wind; and come, thou south; blow upon my
garden, [that] the spices thereof may flow out. Let my beloved
come into his garden, and eat his pleasant fruits.
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And when the sabbath was past, Mary Magdalene, and Mary the
[mother] of James, and Salome, had bought sweet spices, that
they might come and anoint him.
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foun'-tin, foun'-tan: In a country where no rain falls for
half of the year, springs sume an importance unknown in more
favored lands. In both eastern and western Israel and even
in Lebanon there are many villages which depend entirely
upon reservoirs or cisterns of rain water. Others are
situated along the courses of the few perennial streams. But
wherever a spring exists it is very apt to be the nucleus of
a village. It may furnish sufficient water to be used in
irrigation, in which case the gardens surrounding the
village become an oasis in the midst of the parched land. Or
there may be a tiny stream which barely suffices for
drinking water, about which the village women and girls sit
and talk waiting their turns to fill their jars, sometimes
until far in the night. The water of the village fountain is
often conveyed by a covered conduit for some distance from
the source to a convenient spot in the village where an arch
is built up, under which the water gushes out. See CISTERN;
SPRING; WELL; EN-, and place-names compounded with EN-.
Figurative: (1) of God (Ps 36:9; Jer 2:13; 17:13); (2) of
Divine pardon and purification, with an obvious Messianic
reference (Zec 13:1); (3) of wisdom and godliness (Prov
13:14; 14:27); (4) of wives (Prov 5:18); (5) of children (Dt
33:28; compare Ps 68:26; Prov 5:16); (6) of prosperity (Ps
107:35; 114:8; Hos 13:15); (7) of the heart (Eccl 12:6; see
CISTERN); (8) of life everlasting (Rev 7:17; 21:6).
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FIGURATIVE
Of divine grace
Ps 36:9; Jer 2:13
Of the salvation of the gospel
Joe 3:18; Zec 13:1; Re 7:17
The turgid, of the debasement of character
Pr 25:26
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(a spring in distinction from a well). The springs of Israel,
though short-lived, are remarkable for their abundance and
beauty, especially those which fall into the Jordan and into
its lakes, of which there are hundreds throughout its whole
course. The spring or fountain of living water, the "eye" of
the landscape, is distinguished in all Oriental languages from
the artificially-sunk and enclosed well. Jerusalem appears to
have possessed either more than one perennial spring or one
issuing by more than one outlet. In Oriental cities generally
public fountains are frequent. Traces of such fountains at
Jerusalem may perhaps be found in the names of Enrogel, 2Sa
17:17 the "Dragon well" or fountain, and the "gate of the
fountain." Ne 2:13,14
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(Heb. 'ain; i.e., "eye" of the water desert), a natural
source
of living water. Israel was a "land of brooks of
water, of
fountains, and depths that spring out of valleys and
hills"
(Deut. 8:7; 11:11).
These fountains, bright sparkling "eyes" of the
desert, are
remarkable for their abundance and their beauty,
especially on
the west of Jordan. All the perennial rivers and
streams of the
country are supplied from fountains, and depend
comparatively
little on surface water. "Israel is a country of
mountains
and hills, and it abounds in fountains of water. The
murmur of
these waters is heard in every dell, and the
luxuriant foliage
which surrounds them is seen in every plain."
Besides its
rain-water, its cisterns and fountains, Jerusalem
had also an
abundant supply of water in the magnificent
reservoir called
"Solomon's Pools" (q.v.), at the head of the Urtas
valley,
whence it was conveyed to the city by subterrean
channels some
10 miles in length. These have all been long ago
destroyed, so
that no water from the "Pools" now reaches
Jerusalem. Only one
fountain has been discovered at Jerusalem, the so-
called
"Virgins's Fountains," in the valley of Kidron; and
only one
well (Heb. beer), the Bir Eyub, also in the valley
of Kidron,
south of the King's Gardens, which has been dug
through the
solid rock. The inhabitants of Jerusalem are now
mainly
dependent on the winter rains, which they store in
cisterns.
(See WELL -T0003803.)
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A spring of water flowing from a hole in the earth. The
limestone rock of Israel is especially suited for the
formation of springs. In semi-arid country springs are
highly prized as water sources and often determine the
location of settlements. Thus the frequency of the Hebrew
root En, meaning spring, in place names: En-dor (Joshua
17:11); En-eglaim (Ezekiel 47:10); En-gannim (Joshua 15:34);
En-gedi (Joshua 15:62); En-haddah (Joshua 19:21); En-hakkore
(Judges 15:19); En-hazor (Joshua 19:37); En-rimmon;
(Nehemiah 11:29); En-rogel and En-shemesh (Joshua 15:7); and
En-tappuah (Joshua 17:7). Enaim (Enam, Joshua 15:34) means
"two springs." The goodness of Canaan was seen in its
abundant water supply, "a land with flowing streams, with
springs and underground waters welling up in valleys and
hills" (Deuteronomy 8:7 NRSV).
The Old Testament portrays the earth's dry land
resting on foundations over the fountains of the deep
(Genesis 7:11). The unleashing of these waters amounted to a
return to the chaos before the creation (Genesis 1:1,Genesis
1:9).
Provisions of spring water is an expression of God's
providential care (Psalms 104:10). God's special concern for
the poor and needy is pictured in terms of providing
fountains and springs (Isaiah 41:17-18). The blessedness of
the endtime includes pictures of fountains flowing from the
Temple (Ezekiel 47:1-12; Joel 3:18), Jerusalem (Zechariah
14:8), or the throne of God (Revelation 22:1-2) with amazing
life-giving powers.
The metaphorical use of fountain for source is
common. The teaching of the wise is a fountain (source) of
life (Proverbs 13:14; contrast Proverbs 25:26).
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But the gate of the fountain repaired Shallun the son of
Colhozeh, the ruler of part of Mizpah; he built it, and
covered it, and set up the doors thereof, the locks thereof,
and the bars thereof, and the wall of the pool of Siloah by
the king's garden, and unto the stairs that go down from the
city of David.
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And at the fountain gate, which was over against them, they
went up by the stairs of the city of David, at the going up of
the wall, above the house of David, even unto the water gate
eastward.
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And the border was drawn from the top of the hill unto the
fountain of the water of Nephtoah, and went out to the cities
of mount Ephron; and the border was drawn to Baalah, which
[is] Kirjathjearim:
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Or ever the silver cord be loosed, or the golden bowl be
broken, or the pitcher be broken at the fountain, or the wheel
broken at the cistern.
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And it shall come to pass in that day, [that] the mountains
shall drop down new wine, and the hills shall flow with milk,
and all the rivers of Judah shall flow with waters, and a
fountain shall come forth of the house of the LORD, and shall
water the valley of Shittim.
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For with thee [is] the fountain of life: in thy light shall
we see light.
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O LORD, the hope of Israel, all that forsake thee shall be
ashamed, [and] they that depart from me shall be written in
the earth, because they have forsaken the LORD, the fountain
of living waters.
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Though he be fruitful among [his] brethren, an east wind shall
come, the wind of the LORD shall come up from the wilderness,
and his spring shall become dry, and his fountain shall be
dried up: he shall spoil the treasure of all pleasant vessels.
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For my people have committed two evils; they have forsaken me
the fountain of living waters, [and] hewed them out cisterns,
broken cisterns, that can hold no water.
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As a fountain casteth out her waters, so she casteth out her
wickedness: violence and spoil is heard in her; before me
continually [is] grief and wounds.
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Hast thou entered into the springs of the sea? or hast thou
walked in the search of the depth?
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I will open rivers in high places, and fountains in the midst
of the valleys: I will make the wilderness a pool of water,
and the dry land springs of water.
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And all the plain on this side Jordan eastward, even unto the
sea of the plain, under the springs of Pisgah.
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So Joshua smote all the country of the hills, and of the
south, and of the vale, and of the springs, and all their
kings: he left none remaining, but utterly destroyed all that
breathed, as the LORD God of Israel commanded.
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In the mountains, and in the valleys, and in the plains, and
in the springs, and in the wilderness, and in the south
country; the Hittites, the Amorites, and the Canaanites, the
Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites:
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And the parched ground shall become a pool, and the thirsty
land springs of water: in the habitation of dragons, where
each lay, [shall be] grass with reeds and rushes.
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They shall not hunger nor thirst; neither shall the heat nor
sun smite them: for he that hath mercy on them shall lead
them, even by the springs of water shall he guide them.
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Therefore thus saith the LORD; Behold, I will plead thy cause,
and take vengeance for thee; and I will dry up her sea, and
make her springs dry.
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As well the singers as the players on instruments [shall be
there]: all my springs [are] in thee.
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He sendeth the springs into the valleys, [which] run among the
hills.
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staf: Many Hebrew terms are represented by this word. The
"staves" of the ark translate the word badh, literally, "a
part," hence, branch, bar, etc. (Ex 25:13,14,15,27,28, etc.).
Other words, as matteh, maqqel, shebhet, used of the staff in
the hand, the shepherd's staff, figuratively, "staff of bread"
(matteh, Ezek 4:16; 5:16; 14:13), as indispensable for support
of life, are dealt with under ROD (which see). The New
Testament word is rhabdos (Mt 10:10 parallel Lk 9:3; Heb
11:21).
See also SCEPTRE.
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(maqqel, maTTeh, shebheT; rhabdos): Little distinction can be
drawn between the Hebrew words used for "rod" and "staff."
Maqqel is the word used in Gen 30:37 ff for the twigs of
poplar put by Jacob before his sheep, and in Jer 1:11 of the
"rod of an almond-tree." MaTTeh is used of a rod in the hand,
as the "rods" of Moses and of Aaron (Ex 4:2 ff; 7:9 ff, etc.).
ShebheT is used, but sometimes also maTTeh, of the rod used
for correction (Ex 21:20; 2 Sam 7:14; Prov 10:13; 13:24; Isa
10:5, etc.). In Ps 23:4 ("Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort
me"), however, shebheT is the shepherd's rod, figurative of
divine guidance and care. In Ezek 21:10,13, the word stands
for the royal scepter. In the New Testament "rod" is used of a
rod of correction (1 Cor 4:21), Aaron's rod (Heb 9:4), a
ruler's rod "of iron" (severity, as in Rev 2:27; 12:5; 19:15),
a measuring rod (Rev 11:1).
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Emblem of authority. Exodus 4:2, etc., Moses'; Numbers 17,
Aaron's; Psalm 2:9, Christ's. He will either rule with the
pastoral rod, or break with the rod (scepter) of iron
(Revelation 2:27; Revelation 19:15; Micah 6:9; Micah 7:14;
Psalm 110:2; Isaiah 9:4; Isaiah 11:4).
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And he slew an Egyptian, a goodly man: and the Egyptian had a
spear in his hand; but he went down to him with a staff, and
plucked the spear out of the Egyptian's hand, and slew him
with his own spear.
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Then the angel of the LORD put forth the end of the staff that
[was] in his hand, and touched the flesh and the unleavened
cakes; and there rose up fire out of the rock, and consumed
the flesh and the unleavened cakes. Then the angel of the LORD
departed out of his sight.
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And he slew an Egyptian, a man of [great] stature, five cubits
high; and in the Egyptian's hand [was] a spear like a weaver's
beam; and he went down to him with a staff, and plucked the
spear out of the Egyptian's hand, and slew him with his own
spear.
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For, behold, the Lord, the LORD of hosts, doth take away from
Jerusalem and from Judah the stay and the staff, the whole
stay of bread, and the whole stay of water,
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Let it rest on the head of Joab, and on all his father's
house; and let there not fail from the house of Joab one that
hath an issue, or that is a leper, or that leaneth on a staff,
or that falleth on the sword, or that lacketh bread.
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For the fitches are not threshed with a threshing instrument,
neither is a cart wheel turned about upon the cummin; but the
fitches are beaten out with a staff, and the cummin with a
rod.
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When I shall send upon them the evil arrows of famine, which
shall be for [their] destruction, [and] which I will send to
destroy you: and I will increase the famine upon you, and will
break your staff of bread:
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[And] when I have broken the staff of your bread, ten women
shall bake your bread in one oven, and they shall deliver
[you] your bread again by weight: and ye shall eat, and not be
satisfied.
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Therefore thus saith the Lord GOD of hosts, O my people that
dwellest in Zion, be not afraid of the Assyrian: he shall
smite thee with a rod, and shall lift up his staff against
thee, after the manner of Egypt.
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Now, behold, thou trustest upon the staff of this bruised
reed, [even] upon Egypt, on which if a man lean, it will go
into his hand, and pierce it: so [is] Pharaoh king of Egypt
unto all that trust on him.
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The street called "Straight" at Damascus (Acts 9:11) is "a
long
broad street, running from east to west, about a
mile in length,
and forming the principal thoroughfare in the city."
In Oriental
towns streets are usually narrow and irregular and
filthy (Ps.
18:42; Isa. 10:6). "It is remarkable," says Porter,
"that all
the important cities of Israel and Syria Samaria,
Caesarea,
Gerasa, Bozrah, Damascus, Palmyra, had their
'straight streets'
running through the centre of the city, and lined
with stately
rows of columns. The most perfect now remaining are
those of
Palmyra and Gerasa, where long ranges of the columns
still
stand.", Through Samaria, etc.
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The streets of a modern Oriental town present a great
contrast to those with which we are familiar, being
generally narrow, tortuous and gloomy, even in the best
towns. Their character is mainly fixed by the climate and
the style of architecture, the narrowness being due to the
extreme heat, and the gloominess to the circumstance of the
windows looking for the most part into the inner court. The
street called "Straight," in Damascus, Ac 9:11 was an
exception to the rule of narrowness: it was a noble
thoroughfare, one hundred feet wide. divided in the Roman
age by colonnades into three avenues, the central one for
foot passengers, the side passages for vehicles and horsemen
going in different directions. The shops and warehouses were
probably collected together into bazaars in ancient as in
modern times. Jer 37:21 That streets occasionally had names
appears from Jer 37:21; Ac 9:11 That they were generally
unpaved may be inferred from the notices of the pavement
laid by Herod the Great at Antioch, and by Herod Agrippa II.
at Jerusalem. Hence pavement forms one of the peculiar
features of the ideal Jerusalem. Tob. 13:17; Re 21:21 Each
street and bazaar in a modern town is locked up at night;
the same custom appears to have prevailed in ancient times.
So 3:3
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rechob. A broad open space, as the courtyard, the space near
the gate devoted to public business (Deuteronomy 13:16), or
before t he temple (Ezra 10:9; Esther 4:6). Particular trades
gathered in certain quarters, as "the bakers' street"
(Jeremiah 37:21). Chuts is a "narrow street" (Proverbs 5:16;
Jeremiah 5:1) in contrast to the "broad street", rechob. Shuq
like chuts is seemingly "the narrow street" distinguished from
"the broad way," rechob, in Song of Solomon 3:2. Luke 14:21
plateia and rumee, "the streets and lanes." But shuq etymology
means "a place of concourse", and rume is applied to the
"straight" street of Damascus (Acts 9:11).
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And it shall be, [that] whosoever shall go out of the doors of
thy house into the street, his blood [shall be] upon his head,
and we [will be] guiltless: and whosoever shall be with thee
in the house, his blood [shall be] on our head, if [any] hand
be upon him.
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(See SHEEP.) The nomadic state is one of the earliest stages
of society, and was regarded as honourable even to a chief
(Genesis 4:2; Genesis 4:20; Genesis 30:29 ff; Genesis 37);
chiefs' daughters did not disdain to tend flocks (Genesis
29:6, etc.; Exodus 2:19). The long stay in Egypt elevated
Israel from the nomadic to a settled life. The two and a
half nomadic tribes received their portion in the outlying
regions beyond Jordan (Numbers 32). As agriculture increased
pasturage decreased, and was limited to particular spots,
the border of the wilderness of Judah, Carmel (1 Samuel
25:2), Bethlehem (1 Samuel 16:11; Luke 2:8), Tekoa (Amos
1:1), and Gedor (1 Chronicles 4:39). Hence the "shepherd's
tent" came to symbolize desolation (Ezekiel 25:4; Zephaniah
2:6). The shepherd's occupation was now no longer dignified
(Psalm 78:70; 2 Samuel 7:8; Amos 7:14).
The shepherd's office represents Jehovah's tender
care of His people (Psalm 23; Isaiah 40:11; Isaiah 49:9-10;
Jeremiah 23:3-4; Ezekiel 34:11-12; Ezekiel 34:23). Allusions
occur to the exposure to heat and cold (Genesis 31:40), the
precarious food (Amos 7:14), the husks of the carob (Luke
15:16), the attacks of beasts (1 Samuel 17:34; Isaiah 31:4;
Amos 3:12), robbers (Genesis 31:39). The shepherd had a
mantle of sheepskin with the fleece on (Jeremiah 43:12), a
wallet for food (1 Samuel 17:40), a sling such as the
Bedouin still carries, a staff to ward off foes and to guide
the flock with its crook (Psalm 23:4; Zechariah 11:7; so
Jehovah "lifts up His staff against" His people's foes,
Isaiah 10:1-24; His word is at once our prop of support and
our defense against Satan). The shepherd, when far from
home, had his light tent (Song of Solomon 1:8), easily taken
down and shifted (Isaiah 38:12).
Towers were sometimes erected to spy a foe afar off,
and to guard the flock (2 Chronicles 26:10; 2 Chronicles
27:4, compare "tower of Edar," Genesis 35:21; Micah 4:8).
frontEDAR.) His duty was to go before and call by name the
sheep (John 10:4), watch it with dogs, a sorry animal in the
East (Job 30:1), to search for stray sheep (Ezekiel 34:12;
Luke 15:4), to supply water, either at a stream or at
troughs by wells (Genesis 29:7; Genesis 30:38; Exodus 2:16),
(so Jesus, Psalm 23:2), to bring back to the fold at evening
and to reckon the sheep that none be missing (compare as to
Jesus John 18:9; John 17:11-12; John 10:28-29), passing one
by one "under the rod" (Leviticus 27:32; Jeremiah 33:13;
Ezekiel 20:37), (i.e. you shall be counted as Mine, and
subjected to My chastening discipline with a view to My
ultimate saving of the elect, Micah 7:14), checking each
sheep as it passed; to act as porter, guarding the entrance
to the fold by night (John 10:3).
The shepherds kept watches (plural in Greek, Luke
2:8, not "slumbering," Nahum 3:18) by turns at night, not on
duty both night and day as Jacob (Genesis 31:40). Tenderness
to the young and feeble was the shepherd's duty, not to
overdrive them (Genesis 33:13); so Jesus (Isaiah 40:11-29;
Mark 6:31; Mark 8:2; Mark 4:33; John 16:12). There were
chief and under shepherds (Genesis 47:6; 1 Peter 5:4), and
hirelings not of the family (John 10:11-13; 1 Samuel 21:7).
The shepherd had responsibility, and at the same time
personal interest in the flock (1 Samuel 31:39; 1 Samuel
30:32; 1 Corinthians 9:7).
Playing on the pipe beguiled the monotony, and a
feast at shearing time gave a yearly variety (1 Samuel
16:17; Genesis 31:19; Genesis 38:12; 2 Samuel 13:23).
Shepherds often contended with one another as to water
(Genesis 26:17-22; Exodus 2:17). The Egyptian antipathy to
shepherds (whom the monuments always represent as mean) was
due to their being themselves agriculturists, whereas the
neighbouring Arabs with whom they so often strove were
nomads. The seizure of Lower Egypt by shepherd kings
(Hyksos) for centuries aggravated this dislike, though the
Hyksos were subsequent to Joseph (Genesis 46:34). Princes,
and even hostile leaders, are called shepherds: Isaiah
44:28; Jeremiah 2:8; Jeremiah 3:15; Jeremiah 6:3; Ezekiel
34:2; Micah 5:5. Teachers: Ecclesiastes 12:11. Messiah:
Genesis 49:24; Psalm 80:1; Zechariah 13:7; John 10:14;
Hebrews 13:20.
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For thus hath the LORD spoken unto me, Like as the lion and
the young lion roaring on his prey, when a multitude of
shepherds is called forth against him, [he] will not be afraid
of their voice, nor abase himself for the noise of them: so
shall the LORD of hosts come down to fight for mount Zion, and
for the hill thereof.
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[There is] a voice of the howling of the shepherds; for their
glory is spoiled: a voice of the roaring of young lions; for
the pride of Jordan is spoiled.
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Mine anger was kindled against the shepherds, and I punished
the goats: for the LORD of hosts hath visited his flock the
house of Judah, and hath made them as his goodly horse in the
battle.
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Three shepherds also I cut off in one month; and my soul
lothed them, and their soul also abhorred me.
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And Pharaoh said unto his brethren, What [is] your occupation?
And they said unto Pharaoh, Thy servants [are] shepherds, both
we, [and] also our fathers.
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If thou know not, O thou fairest among women, go thy way
forth by the footsteps of the flock, and feed thy kids beside
the shepherds' tents.
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It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from
generation to generation: neither shall the Arabian pitch tent
there; neither shall the shepherds make their fold there.
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And it came to pass, as the angels were gone away from them
into heaven, the shepherds said one to another, Let us now go
even unto Bethlehem, and see this thing which is come to pass,
which the Lord hath made known unto us.
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Howl, ye shepherds, and cry; and wallow yourselves [in the
ashes], ye principal of the flock: for the days of your
slaughter and of your dispersions are accomplished; and ye
shall fall like a pleasant vessel.
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My people hath been lost sheep: their shepherds have caused
them to go astray, they have turned them away [on] the
mountains: they have gone from mountain to hill, they have
forgotten their restingplace.
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I. THE HEBREWS AND THE SEA
II. SHIPS IN THE OLD TESTAMENT AND THE APOCRYPHA
1. Among the Hebrews
(1) In Early Times
(2) During the Monarchy
(3) In Later Times
2. Among Neighboring Nations
(1) Egypt
(2) Assyria and Babylonia
(3) Phoenicia
3. General References
III. SHIPS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
1. In the Gospels
2. In the Acts of the Apostles
3. In Other Books
LITERATURE
In the Old Testament the following words are found:
(1) The word most commonly used in Hebrew for "a ship" is
'oniyah (Prov 30:19; Jon 1:3,4), of which the plural
'oniyoth is found most frequently (Jdg 5:17; 1 Ki 22:48 f,
and many other places).
The collective term for "a navy of ships" is 'oni (1 Ki 9:26
f; 10:22, 'oni Tharshish, "a navy (of ships) of Tarshish";
but Isa 33:21, 'oni shayit, a "galley with oars").
(2) tsi (Nu 24:24; Ezek 30:9; Isa 33:21), tsi 'addir,
"gallant ship"; Dan 11:30, tsiyim Kittim, "ships of Kittim.'
(3) cephinah, "innermost parts of the ship" the Revised
Version (British and American), "sides of the ship" the King
James Version (Jon 1:5, the only place where the word is
found).
In Apocrypha ploion, is the usual word (The Wisdom of
Solomon 14:1; Ecclesiasticus 33:2, etc.), translated
"vessel" in The Wisdom of Solomon 14:1, but "ship"
elsewhere. For "ship" The Wisdom of Solomon 5:10 has naus.
"Boat" in 2 Macc 12:3,6 is for skaphos, and "navy" in 1 Macc
1:17; 2 Macc 12:9; 14:1 for stolos. In The Wisdom of Solomon
14:6 Noah's ark is called a schedia, a "clumsy ship" (the
literal translation "raft" in the Revised Version (British
and American) is impossible).
In the New Testament there are four words in use: (1) naus
(Acts 27:41, the only place where it occurs, designating the
large sea-going vessel in which Paul suffered shipwreck).
(2) ploiarion, "a little boat" (Mk 3:9 and two other places,
Jn 6:22 ff; 21:8). (3) ploion, "boat" (Mt 4:21,22 and many
other places in the Gospels--the ordinary fishingboat of the
Sea of Galilee rendered "boat" uniformly in the Revised
Version (British and American) instead of "ship" the King
James Version), "ship" (Acts 20:13, and all other places
where the ship carrying Paul is mentioned, except 27:41, as
above). In Jas 3:4; Rev 8:9; 18:17 ff, it is rendered
"ship." (4) skaphe, "boat" (Acts 27:16,30,32, where it means
the small boat of the ship in which Paul was being conveyed
as a prisoner to Rome).
Cognate expressions are: "shipmen," 'anshe 'oniyoth (1 Ki
9:27); nautai (Acts 27:27,30 the King James Version,
"sailors" the Revised Version (British and American));
"mariners," mallachim (Jon 1:15; Ezek 27:9,27,29), shaTim
(Ezek 27:8 the King James Version, "rowers" the Revised
Version (British and American); Ezek 27:26, the King James
Version and the Revised Version (British and American));
"pilot," chobhel (Jon 1:6; Ezek 27:8,27,28,29); "sailing,"
"voyage," plous (Acts 21:7; 27:9,10, the Revised Version
(British and American) "voyage" in all verses).
I. The Hebrews and the Sea.
The Hebrews were a pastoral and agricultural people, and had
no inducements to follow a seafaring life. They were
possessed of a considerable seaboard along the
Mediterranean, but the character of their coast gave little
encouragement to navigation. The coast line of the land of
Israel from Carmel southward had no bays and no estuaries or
river-mouths to offer shelter from storm or to be havens of
ships. Solomon landed his timber and other materials for the
Temple at Joppa, and tradition has handed down what is
called "Solomon's Harbor" there. The builders of the second
temple also got timber from Lebanon and conveyed it to
Joppa. It was Simon Maccabeus, however, who built its
harbor, and the harbor at Joppa was...
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Built
By Noah
Ge 6:13-22
By Solomon
1Ki 9:26; 2Ch 8:17
By Jehoshaphat
1Ki 22:48; 2Ch 20:35,36
Of gopher wood
Ge 6:1,4
Of fir wood
Eze 27:5
Of bulrushes
Isa 18:2
Sealed with pitch (tar?)
Ge 6:15
-Equipped with
A helm
Jas 3:4
A rudder
Ac 27:40
Tackling
Isa 33:23; Ac 27:19
-Sails
Isa 33:23; Ac 27:1,9,17,40
-Sails embroidered
Eze 27:7
-Masts
Isa 33:23; Eze 27:5
-Oars
Jon 1:13; Mr 6:48
-Figurehead
Ac 28:11
-An anchor
Ac 27:29,30,40; Heb 6:19
-Lifeboats
Ac 27:30,32
-Used in commerce
Ac 21:3; 27:10
-Used in commerce
With Tarshish
1Ki 22:48; Isa 60:9; Jon 1:3
With Ophir
1Ki 10:11; 2Ch 8:18
With Adramyttium
Ac 27:2
For passenger traffic
Isa 60:9; Jon 1:3; Ac 20:13; 27:2,37; 28:11
For ferriage
2Sa 19:18
-Repaired by caulking
Eze 27:9
-Wrecked at Ezion-geber
1Ki 22:48; 2Ch 20:35-37
-At Melita (Malta)
Ac 27:14,44
-Warships used by Chittim
Nu 24:24; Da 11:30
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No one writer in the whole range of Greek and Roman
literature has supplied us with so much information
concerning the merchant-ships of the ancients as St. Luke in
the narrative of St. Paul's voyage to Rome. Acts 27,28. It
is important to remember that he accomplished it in three
ships: first, the Adramyttian vessel which took him from
Caesarea to Myra, and which was probably a coasting-vessel
of no great size, Ac 27:1-6 secondly, the large Alexandrian
corn-ship, in which he was wrecked on the coast of Malta Ac
27:6-28 :1; and thirdly, another large Alexandrian corn-
ship, in which he sailed from Malta by Syracuse and Rhegium
to Puteoli. Ac 28:11-13
1. Size of ancient ships. --The narrative which we
take as our chief guide affords a good standard for
estimating this. The ship, in which St. Paul was wrecked had
persons on board, Ac 27:37 besides a cargo of wheat, ibid.
Ac 27:10,38 and all these passengers seem to have been taken
on to Puteoli in another ship, ibid, Ac 28:11 which had its
own crew and its own cargo. Now, in modern transport-ships,
prepared far carrying troops, it is a common estimate to
allow a toll and a half per man. On the whole, if we say
that an ancient merchant-ship might range from 500 to 1000
tons, we are clearly within the mark.
2. Steering apparatus. --Some commentators have
fallen into strange perplexities from observing that in Ac
27:40 ("the fastenings of the rudders") St. Luke uses the
plural. Ancient ships were in truth not steered at all by
rudders fastened or hinged to the stern, but by means of two
paddle-rudders one on each quarter, acting in a rowlock or
through a port-hole as the vessel might be small or large.
3. Build and ornaments of the hull. --It is probable
that there was no very marked difference between the bow and
the stern. The "hold," Jon 1:5 would present no special
peculiarities. That personification of ships which seems to
be instinctive led the ancients to paint an eye on each side
of the bow. Comp. Ac 27:15 An ornament of the ship which
took Paul from Malta to Pozzuoli is more explicitly referred
to. The "sign" of that ship, Ac 28:11 was Castor and Pollux;
and the symbols of those heroes were doubtless painted or
sculptured on each side of the bow.
4. Under-girders. --The imperfection of the build,
and still more (see below, 6) the peculiarity of the rig, in
ancient ships, resulted in a greater tendency than in our
times to the starting of the pranks and consequently to
leaking and foundering. Hence it was customary to take on
board peculiar contrivances, suitable called helps," Ac
27:17 as precautions against such dangers. These were simply
cables or chains, which in case of necessity could be passed
round the frame of the ship, at right angles to its length,
and made tight.
5. Anchors. --Ancient anchors were similar in form
to those which we use now. except that they were without
flukes. The ship in which Paul was sailing had four anchors
on board. The sailors on this occasion anchored by the
stern. Ac 27:29
6. Masts, sails, ropes and yards. -The rig of an
ancient ship was more simple and clumsy than that employed
in modern times. Its great feature was one large mast, with
one large square sail fastened to a yard of great length.
Hence the strain upon the hull, and the danger of starting
the planks, were greater than under the present system,
which distributes the mechanical pressure more evenly over
the whole ship. Not that there...
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early used in foreign commerce by the Phoenicians (Gen.
49:13).
Moses (Deut. 28:68) and Job (9:26) make reference to
them, and
Balaam speaks of the "ships of Chittim" (Num.
24:24). Solomon
constructed a navy at Ezion-geber by the assistance
of Hiram's
sailors (1 Kings 9:26-28; 2 Chr. 8:18). Afterwards,
Jehoshaphat
sought to provide himself with a navy at the same
port, but his
ships appear to have been wrecked before they set
sail (1 Kings
22:48, 49; 2 Chr. 20:35-37).
In our Lord's time fishermen's boats on the Sea of
Galilee
were called "ships." Much may be learned regarding
the
construction of ancient merchant ships and
navigation from the
record in Acts 27, 28.
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Among the earliest shipbuilders were the Phoenicians, whose
commerce and voyages made them foremost in the maritime
science of early ages, and traces of whose ships are
frequently met with. (On PAUL'S voyage, see EUROCLYDON;
MELITA; CNIDUS; CRETE; FAIR HAVENS.) Paul was first in the
Adramyttian coasting vessel from Caesarea to Myra; then in
the large Alexandrian grain ship wrecked at Malta; then in
another Alexandrian grain ship from Malta by Syracuse and
Rhegium to Purcell. Luke shows accurate nautical knowledge,
yet not professional, but of an observer, telling what was
done but not the how or the why.
Fourteen different verbs he uses of the progression
of a ship, peculiar to himself and appropriate to each case:
pleoo; Luke 8:23; Acts 21:3; apopleo; Acts 13:4; Acts 14:26;
Acts 20:15; Acts 27:1; bradupleoo; Acts 27:7; diapleoo; Acts
27:5; ekpleoo; Acts 15:39; katapleoo; Luke 8:26; hupopleoo;
Acts 27:4; Acts 27:7; parapleoo; Acts 20:16; euthudromeoo;
Acts 16:11; Acts 21:1; hupotrechoo; Acts 27:16; paralegomai;
Acts 27:8; Acts 27:13; feromai; Acts 27:15; diaferomai; Acts
27:27; diaperaoo; Acts 21:2. Paul's ship, besides cargo of
wheat, carried 276 persons, so she would be of 600 tons.
Lucian (Ploion e Euche) describes an Alexandrian wheat ship,
180 ft. long (including end projections) by 45 ft. broad,
i.e. 1,300 tons.
The largest on record was Ptolemy Philopator's war
galley, 420 ft. long by 57 ft. broad, under 5,000 tons. "The
governor" in James 3:4 is the "helmsman" (kuberneetees; the
"owner" was naukleeros). There were two paddle rudders, one
on each quarter, acting in a rowlock or through a porthole.
As the helmsman used only one at a time, "the helm" is in
the singular in James 3:4. In Acts 27:29; Acts 27:40, after
letting go the four anchors at the stern, they lashed up
both the rudder paddles lest they should interfere with the
ground tackle. When they wished to steer again and the
anchor ropes were cut (margin), they unfastened the lashings
or bands of the paddles. The ship's run from Rhegium to
Puteoli, 180 miles in two days, the wind being full from the
S., illustrates the rate of sailing. The bow and the stern
were much alike, except that on each side of the bow was
painted "the sign" (paraseemon), as for instance "Castor and
Pollux" (Acts 28:11).
An eye was painted on each side of the bow; so
Luke's phrase (antofthalmein), "bear up into," literally,
"eye the wind" directly (Acts 27:15). The imperfect build of
ships caused the need of "undergirders" to pass round the
frame, at right angles to its length, when the planks were
in danger of starting. The anchors resembled ours, but had
no flukes. Spiritually they symbolize the Christian hope
(Hebrews 6:19). The soul is the ship; the world the sea; the
bliss beyond the distant coast; hope resting on faith the
anchor which prevents the vessel being tossed to and fro;
the consolation through God's promise and hope is the cable
connecting the ship and anchor. The soul clings, as one in
fear of shipwreck, to the anchor, and sees not where the
cable runs, where it is fastened; she knows it is fastened
behind the veil which hides the future glory; if only she
hold on to the anchor, she shall in due time be drawn in
where it is, into the holiest, by the Saviour.
Anchoring by the stern, the ancients were prepared
to anchor in the gale such as Paul encountered; and Purdy
(Sailing Directions, 180) says that the holding ground at
Malta where Paul was wrecked is quite good enough to have
secured the anchors and ship in spite of the severe night.
In Acts 27:40, for "mainsail" translated "foresail," which
was needed to put the ship about and to run it aground.
Vessels were propelled by oars as well as by sails (Ezekiel
27:29; Isaiah 33:21; Jonah 1:13). Of the 32 parts or points
of the compass card a modern ship will sail within six
points of the wind. The clumsier ancient ship probably could
sail within seven points. In a heavy gale the ship would lie
to, with the right side to the storm, the object being not
progress but safety; as under the lee of Clauda (Acts 27:14-
17).
To anchor was impossible; to drift would have
brought the ship to the fatal Syrtis off Africa. The wind
was E.N.E. (Euraquilo); the direction of drift being W. by
N., and the rate of drift one mile and a half an hour; the
shipwreck must have been off Malta. Having no compass or
charts, they seldom ventured voyaging in winter (Acts 27:9),
and the absence of visible sun or stars seriously
embarrassed them (Acts 27:20). In the intricate passages
between islands and mainland they did not sail by night when
the moon was dark (Acts 20:13-16; Acts 21:1). Thomson (Land
and Book, 401-404) mentions seeing but one rickety boat on
the sea of Galilee, which was once covered with fishermen's
boats; contrast the fact that Josephus (B. J., 2:21, section
8-10) mentions his collecting here 280 boats, with four men
in each.
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For the ships of Chittim shall come against him: therefore he
shall be grieved, and return, and have indignation against the
holy covenant: so shall he do; he shall even return, and have
intelligence with them that forsake the holy covenant.
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Then said Ahaziah the son of Ahab unto Jehoshaphat, Let my
servants go with thy servants in the ships. But Jehoshaphat
would not.
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And Huram sent him by the hands of his servants ships, and
servants that had knowledge of the sea; and they went with the
servants of Solomon to Ophir, and took thence four hundred and
fifty talents of gold, and brought [them] to king Solomon.
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And they cast dust on their heads, and cried, weeping and
wailing, saying, Alas, alas, that great city, wherein were
made rich all that had ships in the sea by reason of her
costliness! for in one hour is she made desolate.
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Then Eliezer the son of Dodavah of Mareshah prophesied against
Jehoshaphat, saying, Because thou hast joined thyself with
Ahaziah, the LORD hath broken thy works. And the ships were
broken, that they were not able to go to Tarshish.
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And the LORD shall bring thee into Egypt again with ships, by
the way whereof I spake unto thee, Thou shalt see it no more
again: and there ye shall be sold unto your enemies for
bondmen and bondwomen, and no man shall buy [you].
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And at the time of the end shall the king of the south push at
him: and the king of the north shall come against him like a
whirlwind, with chariots, and with horsemen, and with many
ships; and he shall enter into the countries, and shall
overflow and pass over.
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Zebulun shall dwell at the haven of the sea; and he [shall be]
for an haven of ships; and his border [shall be] unto Zidon.
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And the third part of the creatures which were in the sea, and
had life, died; and the third part of the ships were
destroyed.
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The ancients of Gebal and the wise [men] thereof were in thee
thy calkers: all the ships of the sea with their mariners were
in thee to occupy thy merchandise.
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sik'-'l (chermesh (Dt 16:9; 23:25), maggal; compare Arabic
minjal (Jer 50:16; Joel 3:13); drepanon (Mk 4:29; Rev 14:14-
19)): Although the ancients pulled much of their grain by
hand, we know that they also used sickles. The form of this
instrument varied, as is evidenced by the Egyptian sculptures.
The earliest sickle was probably of wood, shaped like the
modern scythe, although much smaller, with the cutting edge
made of sharp flints set into the wood. Sickle flints were
found at Tel el-Chesy. Crescent-shaped iron sickles were found
in the same mound. In Israel and Syria the sickle varies in
size. It is usually made wholly of iron or steel and shaped
much like the instrument used in western lands. The smaller-
sized sickles are used both for pruning and for reaping.
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An agricultural implement used for cutting grain
De 23:25; Jer 50:16; Mr 4:29
-FIGURATIVE
Of the judgments of God
Joe 3:13; Re 14:14-19
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of the Egyptians resembled that in modern use. The ears of
corn
were cut with it near the top of the straw. There was
also a
sickle used for warlike purposes, more correctly,
however,
called a pruning-hook (Deut. 16:9; Jer. 50:16, marg.,
"scythe;"
Joel 3:13; Mark 4:29).
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When thou comest into the standing corn of thy neighbour, then
thou mayest pluck the ears with thine hand; but thou shalt not
move a sickle unto thy neighbour's standing corn.
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Seven weeks shalt thou number unto thee: begin to number the
seven weeks from [such time as] thou beginnest [to put] the
sickle to the corn.
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And another angel came out of the temple, crying with a loud
voice to him that sat on the cloud, Thrust in thy sickle, and
reap: for the time is come for thee to reap; for the harvest
of the earth is ripe.
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And he that sat on the cloud thrust in his sickle on the
earth; and the earth was reaped.
Read More
And I looked, and behold a white cloud, and upon the cloud
[one] sat like unto the Son of man, having on his head a
golden crown, and in his hand a sharp sickle.
Read More
And the angel thrust in his sickle into the earth, and
gathered the vine of the earth, and cast [it] into the great
winepress of the wrath of God.
Read More
Cut off the sower from Babylon, and him that handleth the
sickle in the time of harvest: for fear of the oppressing
sword they shall turn every one to his people, and they shall
flee every one to his own land.
Read More
Put ye in the sickle, for the harvest is ripe: come, get you
down; for the press is full, the fats overflow; for their
wickedness [is] great.
Read More
But when the fruit is brought forth, immediately he putteth in
the sickle, because the harvest is come.
Read More
And another angel came out of the temple which is in heaven,
he also having a sharp sickle.
Read More
And another angel came out from the altar, which had power
over fire; and cried with a loud cry to him that had the sharp
sickle, saying, Thrust in thy sharp sickle, and gather the
clusters of the vine of the earth; for her grapes are fully
ripe.
Read More
sik, sik'-nes (chalah (Gen 48:1, etc.), choli (Dt 28:61,
etc.), tachalu' (Dt 29:21, etc.), machalah (Ex 23:25, etc.),
daweh (Lev 15:33, etc.), 'anash (2 Sam 12:15, etc.);
astheneo (Mt 10:8, etc.;. compare 2 Macc 9:22), [@kakos
echon (Lk 7:2), kakos echontas (Mt 4:24, etc.), arrhostos
(Sirach 7:35; Mt 14:14, etc.), arrhostema (Sirach 10:10,
etc.), with various cognates, kamno (Jas 5:15); Latin morbus
(2 Esdras 8:31)): Compared with the number of deaths
recorded in the historical books of the Bible the instances
in which diseases are mentioned are few. "Sick" and
"sickness" (including "disease," etc.) are the translations
of 6 Hebrew and 9 Greek words and occur 56 times in the Old
Testament and 57 times in the New Testament. The number of
references in the latter is significant as showing how much
the healing of the sick was characteristic of the Lord's
ministry. The diseases specified are varied. Of infantile
sickness there is an instance in Bath-sheba's child (2 Sam
12:15), whose disease is termed 'anash, not improbably
trismus nascentium, a common disease in Israel. Among
adolescents there are recorded the unspecified sickness of
Abijah (1 Ki 14:1), of the widow's son at Zarephath (1 Ki
17:17), the sunstroke of the Shunammite's son (2 Ki 4:19),
the epileptic boy (Mt 17:15), Jairus' daughter (Mt 9:18),
and the nobleman's son (Jn 4:46). At the other extreme of
life Jacob's death was preceded by sickness (Gen 48:1).
Sickness resulted from accident (Ahaziah, 2 Ki 1:2), wounds
(Joram, 2 Ki 8:29), from the violence of passion (Amnon, 2
Sam 13:2), or mental emotion (Dan 8:27); see also in this
connection Song 2:5; 5:8. Sickness the result of drunkenness
is mentioned (Hos 7:5), and as a consequence of famine (Jer
14:18) or violence (Mic 6:13). Daweh or periodic sickness is
referred to (Lev 15:33; 20:18), and an extreme case is that
of Lk 8:43.
In some examples the nature of the disease is specified, as
Asa's disease in his feet (1 Ki 15:23), for which he sought
the aid of physicians in vain (2 Ch 16:12). Hezekiah and Job
suffered from sore boils, Jehoram from some severe
dysenteric attack (2 Ch 21:19), as did Antiochus Epiphanes
(2 Macc 9:5). Probably the sudden and fatal disease of Herod
was similar, as in both cases there is reference to the
presence of worms (compare Acts 12:23 and 2 Macc 9:9). The
disease of Publius' father was also dysentery (Acts 28:8).
Other diseases specified are paralysis (Mt 8:6; 9:2), and
fever (Mt 8:14). Not improbably the sudden illness of the
young Egyptian at Ziklag (1 Sam 30:11), and the illness of
Ben-hadad which weakened him so that he could not resist the
violence of Hazael, were also the common Israel fever (2 Ki
8:15) of whose symptoms and effects there is a graphic
description in Ps 38. Unspecified fatal illnesses were those
of Elisha (2 Ki 13:14), Lazarus (Jn 11:1), Tabitha (Acts
9:37). In the language of the Bible, leprosy is spoken of as
a defilement to be cleansed, rather than as a disease to be
cured.
The proverb concerning the sick quoted by the Lord at
Capernaum (Mk 2:17) has come down to us in several forms in
apocryphal and rabbinical writings (Babha' Qamma' 26:13;
Sanhedhrin 176), but is nowhere so terse as in the form in
which He expresses it. The Lord performed His healing of the
sick by His word or touch, and one of the most emphatic
charges which He gave to His disciples when sending them out
was to heal the sick. One of the methods used by them, the
anointing with oil, is mentioned in Mk 6:13 and enjoined by
James (5:15). In later times the anointing which was at
first used as a remedial agent became a ceremonial in
preparation for death, one of the seven sacraments of the
Roman church (Aquinas, Summa Theologia suppl. ad Piii. 29).
The duty of visiting the sick is referred to in Ezek
34:4,16, and by the Lord in the description of the Judgment
scene (Mt 25:36,43). It is inculcated in several of the
rabbinical tracts. "He that visits the sick lengthens his
life, he who refrains shortens it," says Rabbi Ischanan in
Nedharim 29. In Shulchan `Arukh, Yoreh De`ah there is a
chapter devoted to this duty, which is regarded as incumbent
on the Jew, even though the sick person be a Gentile (Gittin
61a). The church's duty to the sick, so long neglected, has,
within the last century, been recognized in the mission
field, and has proved, in heathen lands, to be the most
important of all pioneer agressive methods.
While we find that the apostles freely exercised their gifts
of healing, it is noteworthy that we read of the sickness of
two of Paul's companions, Epaphroditus (Phil 2:26) and
Trophimus (2 Tim 4:20), for whose recovery he seems to have
used no other means than prayer.
See also DISEASE.
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di-zez', di-zez'-iz (chalah, choli; nosos): Israel, from its
position and physical conditions, ought to be a healthy
country. That it is not so depends on the unsanitary
conditions in which the people live and the absence of any
attempts to check the introduction or development of zymotic
diseases. The number of marshes or pools is fairly small,
and the use of active measures to destroy the larvae of
mosquitos might easily diminish or abolish the malarial
fevers which now prevail all over the country. The freeing
of Ismailieh and Port Said from these pests is an object-
lesson in sanitation. When one examines the conditions of
life in towns and villages all over the country, the
evidences of the ravages of these fevers and their sequelae
appear on every hand as they affect all ages from infancy to
middle age, and one meets but few individuals of extreme old
age. The absence of any adequate system of drainage and the
pollution of the water supplies are also factors of great
importance in preserving this unhealthiness.
In ancient times it was regarded as healthier than Egypt, as
it well might be, hence, the diseases of Egypt are referred
to as being worse than those of Israel (Dt 7:15; 28:60; Am
4:10). The sanitary regulations and restrictions of the
Priestly Code would doubtless have raised the standard of
public health, but it is unlikely that these were ever
observed over any large area.
The types of disease which are referred to in the Bible are
those that still prevail. Fevers of several kinds,
dysentery, leprosy, intestinal worms, plague, nervous
diseases such as paralysis and epilepsy, insanity,
ophthalmia and skin diseases are among the commonest and
will be described under their several names. Methods of
treatment are described under MEDICINE; PHYSICIAN. The word
"disease" or "diseases" in the King James Version is changed
to "sickness" in the Revised Version (British and American)
in 2 Ki 1:2; 8:8; Mt 9:35, and left out in Jn 5:4; while in
Mt 8:17 "sicknesses" is replaced by "diseases." the Revised
Version (British and American) also changes "infirmity" in
Lk 7:21 to "diseases," and in Ps 38:7 "a loathsome disease"
is changed to "burning."
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Sent from God
Le 14:34
-As judgments
Ps 107:17; Isa 3:17
-INSTANCES OF
Upon the Egyptians
See PLAGUES;
Upon Nabal
1Sa 25:38
David's child
2Sa 12:15
Gehazi
2Ki 5:27
Jeroboam
2Ch 13:20
Jehoram
2Ch 21:12-19
Uzziah
2Ch 26:17-20
Threatened as judgments
Le 26:16; De 7:15; 28:22,27,28,35; 29:22
Healing of, from God
Ex 15:26; 23:25; De 7:15; 2Ch 16:12; Ps 103:3;
107:20
In answer to prayer
Of Hezekiah
2Ki 20:1-11; Isa 38:1-8
Of David
Ps 21:4; 116:8
Miraculous healing of, a sign to accompany the preaching
of
the word
Mr 16:18
See MIRACLES
Physicians employed for
2Ch 16:12; Jer 8:22; Mt 9:12; Mr 5:26; Lu 4:23
Remedies used
Pr 17:22; 20:30; Isa 38:21; Jer 30:13; 46:11
Poultices
2Ki 20:7
Ointments
Isa 1:6; Jer 8:22
Emulsions
Lu 10:34
Of the sexual organs
Le 15; 22:4; Nu 5:2; De 23:10
See CIRCUMCISION
See MENSTRUATION
See GONORRHEA
Treatment of fractures
Eze 30:21
See AFFLICTION
-FIGURATIVE
Ps 38:7; Isa 1:6; Jer 30:12
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The effect of sin's entrance. Healed by the Lord Jesus, as
Isaiah foretold, "Himself took our infirmities and bore our
sicknesses" (Matthew 8:17; Isaiah 53:4; 1 Peter 2:24). His
bearing our guilt in His manhood, assumed with all its
infirmities, was the ground of His sympathetically feeling for
and relieving our sickness by His miraculous power. At His
second coming His people "shall not say, I am sick," for "they
shall be forgiven their iniquity" (Isaiah 33:24).
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Now Elisha was fallen sick of his sickness whereof he died.
And Joash the king of Israel came down unto him, and wept over
his face, and said, O my father, my father, the chariot of
Israel, and the horsemen thereof.
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When Ephraim saw his sickness, and Judah [saw] his wound, then
went Ephraim to the Assyrian, and sent to king Jareb: yet
could he not heal you, nor cure you of your wound.
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If there be in the land famine, if there be pestilence,
blasting, mildew, locust, [or] if there be caterpiller; if
their enemy besiege them in the land of their cities;
whatsoever plague, whatsoever sickness [there be];
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And the LORD will take away from thee all sickness, and will
put none of the evil diseases of Egypt, which thou knowest,
upon thee; but will lay them upon all [them] that hate thee.
Read More
And it came to pass, that in process of time, after the end of
two years, his bowels fell out by reason of his sickness: so
he died of sore diseases. And his people made no burning for
him, like the burning of his fathers.
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If there be dearth in the land, if there be pestilence, if
there be blasting, or mildew, locusts, or caterpillers; if
their enemies besiege them in the cities of their land;
whatsoever sore or whatsoever sickness [there be]:
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And if a man shall lie with a woman having her sickness, and
shall uncover her nakedness; he hath discovered her fountain,
and she hath uncovered the fountain of her blood: and both of
them shall be cut off from among their people.
Read More
And Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their
synagogues, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and
healing all manner of sickness and all manner of disease among
the people.
Read More
And Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their
synagogues, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and
healing all manner of sickness and all manner of disease among
the people.
Read More
And when he had called unto [him] his twelve disciples, he
gave them power [against] unclean spirits, to cast them out,
and to heal all manner of sickness and all manner of disease.
Read More
Mine age is departed, and is removed from me as a shepherd's
tent: I have cut off like a weaver my life: he will cut me off
with pining sickness: from day [even] to night wilt thou make
an end of me.
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(Anglo-Saxon, Hring, "ring"): The word renders (the American
Standard Revised Version) two Hebrew words (in the King
James Version and the English Revised Version three) and two
Greek words. Tabba`ath, the principal Hebrew word, is from
Tabha`, "sink," either because the ring is something "cast"
or molded, or, more probably, since the principal use of the
ring was as a seal, because it "sank" into the wax or clay
that received the impression. In Exodus, Tabba`ath, "ring,"
is a detail of furniture or equipment, as the rings of the
ark through which the staves were thrust (Ex 25:12, etc.),
rings for curtains, in the high priest's ephod (Ex 28:28;
39:21), etc. Its other use was perhaps the original, to
describe the article of personal adornment worn on the
finger, apparently in the Old Testament always a signet-
ring, and as such an indispensable article of masculine
attire. Such a ring Pharaoh gave Joseph as a symbol of
authority (Gen 41:42); and Ahasuerus gave Haman (Est 3:10);
with it the royal missive was sealed (Est 3:12; 8:8
twice,10). It was also a feminine ornament in Isaiah's list
of the fashionable feminine paraphernalia, "the rings and
the nose-jewels" (quite likely rings also) (Isa 3:21).
Either as ornaments or for their intrinsic value, or both,
rings were used as gifts for sacred purposes from both men
and women: "brooches, and ear-rings, and signet-rings"
(margin "nose-rings") (Ex 35:22); "bracelets, rings (the
American Standard Revised Version "signet-rings"), ear-
rings" (Nu 31:50 the King James Version). chotham, "signet,"
mentioned in Gen 38:18,25; Ex 28:11,21,36; Ex 39:6,14,30;
Jer 22:24; Hag 2:23, etc., was probably usually a seal ring,
but in Gen 38 and elsewhere the seal may have been swung on
wire, and suspended by a cord from the neck. It was not only
an identification, but served as a stamp for signature.
galil, "circle" (compare "Galilee," "Circle" of the
Gentiles), rendered "ring" in Est 1:6; Song 5:14, may rather
mean "cylinder" or "rod" of metal. Earring (which see) in
the King James Version is from totally different words:
nezem, whose etymology is unknown, aghil, "round," or
lachash, "amulet"; so the Revised Version (British and
American). The "rings" of the wheels in Ezek 1:18 (the King
James Version) are gabh, "curved," and mean "rims" (American
Standard Revised Version), "felloes." Egyptians especially
wore a great profusion of rings, principally of silver or
gold, engraved with scarabaei, or other devices. In the New
Testament the ring, daktulios, "finger-ring," is a token of
means, position, standing: "put a ring on his hand" (Lk
15:22). Perhaps also it included the right to give orders in
his father's name. To be chrusodaktulios, "golden-ringed,"
perhaps with more than one, indicated wealth and social
rank: "a man with a gold ring" (Jas 2:2).
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Of gold
Nu 31:50
-Worn as a badge of office
Ge 41:42
-Given as a token
Es 3:10,12; 8:2-10
-Worn in the nose
Pr 11:22; Isa 3:21
-Offerings of, to the tabernacle
Ex 35:22; Nu 31:50
Read More
The ring was regarded as an indispensable article of a
Hebrew's attire, inasmuch as it contained his signet. It was
hence the symbol of authority. Ge 41:42; Es 3:10 Rings were
worn not only by men, but by women. Isa 3:21 We may conclude
from Ex 28:11 that the rings contained a stone engraven with a
device or with the owner's name. The custom appears also to
have prevailed among the Jews of the apostolic age. Jas 2:2
Read More
a seal used to attest documents (Dan. 6:8-10, 12). In 6:17,
this
word properly denotes a ring. The impression of a
signet ring on
fine clay has recently been discovered among the
ruins at
Nineveh. It bears the name and title of an Egyptian
king. Two
actual signet rings of ancient Egyptian monarchs
(Cheops and
Horus) have also been discovered.
When digging a shaft close to the south wall of the
temple
area, the engineers of the Israel Exploration Fund,
at a
depth of 12 feet below the surface, came upon a
pavement of
polished stones, formerly one of the streets of the
city. Under
this pavement they found a stratum of 16 feet of
concrete, and
among this concrete, 10 feet down, they found a
signet stone
bearing the inscription, in Old Hebrew characters,
"Haggai, son
of Shebaniah." It has been asked, Might not this be
the actual
seal of Haggai the prophet? We know that he was in
Jerusalem
after the Captivity; and it is somewhat singular
that he alone
of all the minor prophets makes mention of a signet
(Hag. 2:23).
(See SEAL -T0003246.)
Read More
tabaath, "to impress with a seal." frontEARRING.) Used as "a
signet" (Genesis 38:18, chothem), worn on the hand, or
suspended, as the Arabs do, by a cord from the neck.
Pharaoh's transfer of his ring from his finger to Joseph
betokened his investing him with royal authority (Genesis
41:42; a device, as the beetle or the owner's name, was
engraven on it, Exodus 28:11). So Ahasuerus in the case of
Haman (Esther 3:8-10), and Mordecai (Esther 8:2). In Luke
15:22 it is the father's token of favor, dignity, and
sonship to the prodigal; Roman slaves wore no gold rings. We
are no longer slaves, but God's free sons when we believe,
and receive the Holy Spirit as the pledge of sonship and
earnest of sharing the Father's glory (Galatians 4:3-7).
Rich men (especially Romans of the equestrian order, whose
badge the ring was) wore many rings on the left hand (James
2:2). Greek "golden-ringed," not merely with one ring.
Christians derived the usage of the wedding ring
from the Jews. The ring was treasured much, and so
symbolizes what is most precious to us (Jeremiah 22:24,
Jehoiachin's popularity is alluded to); the signet ring was
worn on the right hand (contrast Haggai 2:23). A costly
sacrifice to the Lord (Exodus 35:22). Song of Solomon 5:14,
"his hands" bent are compared to "rings" in which "beryls"
are set, as the nails in the fingers; compare as to our
names being "sealed" upon His heart, Song of Solomon 8:6,
and palms, Isaiah 49:16. The bride desires herself to be a
signet ring on His arm. God in turn seals us with His signet
(Revelation 7:2-4), "I will make thee as a signet" (Haggai
2:23), i.e. an object of constant regard, as the ring is
ever before the eye. Christ the Antitype is always in the
Father's presence, ever pleasing in His sight; so we,
through Him our representative. The signet represents
legally the owner; so Christ wields the Father's delegated
authority (Matthew 28:18; John 5:22-23).
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In that day, saith the LORD of hosts, will I take thee, O
Zerubbabel, my servant, the son of Shealtiel, saith the LORD,
and will make thee as a signet: for I have chosen thee, saith
the LORD of hosts.
Read More
And the stones shall be with the names of the children of
Israel, twelve, according to their names, [like] the
engravings of a signet; every one with his name shall they be
according to the twelve tribes.
Read More
And the stones [were] according to the names of the children
of Israel, twelve, according to their names, [like] the
engravings of a signet, every one with his name, according to
the twelve tribes.
Read More
With the work of an engraver in stone, [like] the engravings
of a signet, shalt thou engrave the two stones with the names
of the children of Israel: thou shalt make them to be set in
ouches of gold.
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And they made the plate of the holy crown [of] pure gold, and
wrote upon it a writing, [like to] the engravings of a signet,
HOLINESS TO THE LORD.
Read More
The offering up of sacrifices is to be regarded as a divine
institution. It did not originate with man. God
himself
appointed it as the mode in which acceptable worship
was to be
offered to him by guilty man. The language and the
idea of
sacrifice pervade the whole Bible.
Sacrifices were offered in the ante-diluvian age.
The Lord
clothed Adam and Eve with the skins of animals,
which in all
probability had been offered in sacrifice (Gen.
3:21). Abel
offered a sacrifice "of the firstlings of his flock"
(4:4; Heb.
11:4). A distinction also was made between clean and
unclean
animals, which there is every reason to believe had
reference to
the offering up of sacrifices (Gen. 7:2, 8), because
animals
were not given to man as food till after the Flood.
The same practice is continued down through the
patriarchal
age (Gen. 8:20; 12:7; 13:4, 18; 15:9-11; 22:1-18,
etc.). In the
Mosaic period of Old Testament history definite laws
were
prescribed by God regarding the different kinds of
sacrifices
that were to be offered and the manner in which the
offering was
to be made. The offering of stated sacrifices became
indeed a
prominent and distinctive feature of the whole
period (Ex.
12:3-27; Lev. 23:5-8; Num. 9:2-14). (See ALTAR
-T0000185.)
We learn from the Epistle to the Hebrews that
sacrifices had
in themselves no value or efficacy. They were only
the "shadow
of good things to come," and pointed the worshippers
forward to
the coming of the great High Priest, who, in the
fullness of the
time, "was offered once for all to bear the sin of
many."
Sacrifices belonged to a temporary economy, to a
system of types
and emblems which served their purposes and have now
passed
away. The "one sacrifice for sins" hath "perfected
for ever them
that are sanctified."
Sacrifices were of two kinds: 1. Unbloody, such as
(1)
first-fruits and tithes; (2) meat and drink-
offerings; and (3)
incense. 2. Bloody, such as (1) burnt-offerings; (2)
peace-offerings; and (3) sin and trespass offerings.
(See
OFFERINGS -T0002770.)
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Every sacrifice was assumed to be vitally connected with the
spirit of the worshipper. Unless the heart accompanied the
sacrifice God rejected the gift (Isaiah 1:11; Isaiah 1:13).
Corban included all that was given to the Lord's service,
whether firstfruits, tithes (Leviticus 2:12; Leviticus
27:30), and gifts, for maintaining the priests and endowing
the sanctuary (Numbers 7:3; Numbers 31:50), or offerings for
the altar. The latter were:
1. Animal
(1) burnt offerings,
(2) peace offerings,
(3) sin offerings.
2. Vegetable:
(1) meat and drink offerings for the altar outside,
(2) incense and meat offerings for the holy place
within.
Besides there were the peculiar offerings, the
Passover lamb, the scape-goat, and the red heifer; also the
chagigah peace offering during the Passover. (See PASSOVER.)
The public sacrifice as the morning and evening lamb, was at
the cost of the nation. The private sacrifice was offered by
the individual, either by the ordinance of the law or by
voluntary gift. Zebach is the general term for "a
slaughtered animal", as distinguished from minchah, "gift,"
a vegetable offering, our "meat (i.e. food) offering."
'Owlah is the "burnt offering", that which ascends (from
'alah) or "is burnt"; also kaleel, "whole," it all being
consumed on the altar; "whole burnt sacrifice." Shelem is
the "peace offering". Todah the "thank offering". Chattath
("sin and punishment") the "sin offering". 'Asham, "trespass
offering", accompanied by pecuniary fine or forfeit, because
of injury done to some one (it might be to the Lord Himself)
in respect to property. The burnt offering was wholly burnt
upon the altar; the sin offering was in part burnt upon the
altar, in part given to the priests, or burnt outside the
camp. The peace offering was shared between the altar, the
priests, and the sacrificer.
The five animals in Abraham's sacrifice of the
covenant (Genesis 15:9) are the five alone named in the law
for sacrifice: the ox, sheep, goat, dove, and pigeon. They
fulfilled the three legal conditions: (1) they were clean;
(2) used for food; (3) part of the home property of the
sacrificers. They must be without spot or blemish; but a
disproportioned victim was allowed in a free will peace
offering (Leviticus 7:16-17; Leviticus 22:23). The age was
from a week to three years old; Judges 6:25 is exceptional.
The sacrificer (the offerer generally, but in public
sacrifice the priests or Levites) slew the victim at the N.
side of the altar. The priest or his assistant held a bowl
under the cut throat to receive the blood. The sacrificial
meal was peculiar to the peace offering. The priest
sprinkled the blood of the burnt offering, the peace
offering, and the trespass offering "round about upon the
altar."
But in the sin offering, for one of the common
people or a ruler, he took of the blood with his finger and
put it upon the horns of the altar of burnt offering, and
poured out what blood remained at the bottom of the altar;
in the sin offering for the congregation and for the high
priest he brought some of the blood into the sanctuary and
sprinkled it seven times before the veil, and put some on
the horns of the altar of incense...
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And it shall be Aaron's and his sons' by a statute for ever
from the children of Israel: for it [is] an heave offering:
and it shall be an heave offering from the children of Israel
of the sacrifice of their peace offerings, [even] their heave
offering unto the LORD.
Read More
And thou shalt go down before me to Gilgal; and, behold, I
will come down unto thee, to offer burnt offerings, [and] to
sacrifice sacrifices of peace offerings: seven days shalt thou
tarry, till I come to thee, and shew thee what thou shalt do.
Read More
If he offer it for a thanksgiving, then he shall offer with
the sacrifice of thanksgiving unleavened cakes mingled with
oil, and unleavened wafers anointed with oil, and cakes
mingled with oil, of fine flour, fried.
Read More
If this people go up to do sacrifice in the house of the LORD
at Jerusalem, then shall the heart of this people turn again
unto their lord, [even] unto Rehoboam king of Judah, and they
shall kill me, and go again to Rehoboam king of Judah.
Read More
The voice of joy, and the voice of gladness, the voice of the
bridegroom, and the voice of the bride, the voice of them that
shall say, Praise the LORD of hosts: for the LORD [is] good;
for his mercy [endureth] for ever: [and] of them that shall
bring the sacrifice of praise into the house of the LORD. For
I will cause to return the captivity of the land, as at the
first, saith the LORD.
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Sacrifice and offering thou didst not desire; mine ears hast
thou opened: burnt offering and sin offering hast thou not
required.
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And the four tables [were] of hewn stone for the burnt
offering, of a cubit and an half long, and a cubit and an half
broad, and one cubit high: whereupon also they laid the
instruments wherewith they slew the burnt offering and the
sacrifice.
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But who is able to build him an house, seeing the heaven and
heaven of heavens cannot contain him? who [am] I then, that I
should build him an house, save only to burn sacrifice before
him?
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Beside the burnt offering of the month, and his meat offering,
and the daily burnt offering, and his meat offering, and their
drink offerings, according unto their manner, for a sweet
savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.
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And the other lamb shalt thou offer at even: as the meat
offering of the morning, and as the drink offering thereof,
thou shalt offer [it], a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet
savour unto the LORD.
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Mentioned only in Mark 6:9 and Acts 12:8. The sandal was
simply
a sole, made of wood or palm-bark, fastened to the
foot by
leathern straps. Sandals were also made of seal-skin
(Ezek.
16:10; lit. tahash, "leather;" A.V., "badger's skin;"
R.V.,
"sealskin," or marg., "porpoise-skin"). (See SHOE
-T0003404.)
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was the article ordinarily used by the Hebrews for protecting
the feet. It consisted simply of a sole attached to the foot
by thongs. We have express notice of the thong (Authorized
Version "shoe latchet") in several passages, notably Ge 14:23;
Isa 5:27; Mr 1:7 Sandals were worn by all classes of society
in Israel, even by the very poor; and both the sandal and the
thong or shoe-latchet were so cheap and common that they
passed into a proverb for the most insignificant thing. Ge
14:23 Ecclus. 46;13, They were dispensed with in-doors, and
were only put on by persons about to undertake some business
away from their homes. During mealtimes the feet were
uncovered. Lu 7:38; Joh 13:5,6 It was a mark of reverence to
cast off the shoes in approaching a place or person of eminent
sanctity. Ex 3:5; Jos 5:15 It was also an indication of
violent emotion, or of mourning, if a person appeared barefoot
in public. 2Sa 15:30 To carry or to unloose a person's sandal
was a menial office, betokening great inferiority on the part
of the person performing it. Mt 3:11
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na'al. A sole attached to the foot by thongs, Greek hupodema
(Mark 6:9; Acts 12:8). Often ornamentally inlaid with gold,
silver, jewels, and silk (Song of Solomon 7:1). The
materials were leather, felt, cloth, or wood, occasionally
shod with iron. A shoe was delivered in token of
transferring property: "over Edom will I cast My shoe." i.e.
I will take possession of it, treading on its pride as it
had trodden Israel as an invader (Psalm 60:8; Psalm 60:12; 2
Samuel 8:14; Joshua 10:24). The custom, which existed among
the Indians and the ancient Germans, arose from the taking
possession of property by treading the soil (Genesis 13:17),
hence handing the shoe symbolized renunciation and transfer
of ownership (Deuteronomy 25:9; Rth 4:7-8). When a Bedouin
husband divorces a runaway wife, he says, "She was my
slipper, I have cast her off." (Burckhardt). In Matthew
3:11; Acts 13:25, the image is, one about to wash his feet
getting the slave to untie his shoe or else sandal.
Hengstenberg so explains Psalm 60:8, "Moab is My washing
tub; to Edom will I cast My shoe," namely, to "bear" as My
slave.
The latchet was the strap across the instep,
securing it on the foot, of small value (Genesis 14:23; Amos
2:6; Amos 8:6). "Buy the needy for a pair of shoes," i.e. by
oppression compel them to sell themselves to us as bondmen,
in order that our great women may have elaborately
ornamented sandals. Sandals were laid aside indoors, and
only put on in a journey or military expedition (Joshua 9:5;
Joshua 9:13; Isaiah 5:27; Ephesians 6:15). "Your feet shod
with the preparation (Psalm 10:17) of the gospel of peace,"
i.e. preparedness for the good warfare, produced by the
gospel, which brings peace within though there is conflict
outside with Satan and the world (Luke 1:79; Romans 10:15;
Isaiah 26:3; Philemon 4:7). The shoes and sandals were taken
off during meals (Luke 7:38; John 13:5-6); but the Jews wore
sandals on their feet at the Passover, as ready for the
journey (Exodus 12:11).
They put off sandals in reverence at a sacred place
(Exodus 3:5; Joshua 5:15). So the priests in the temple
officiated barefoot; so the Mahometans of Israel before
entering a mosque or the Kaaba at Mecca, and the
Mesopotamian Yezidis before entering the tomb of a patron
saint, and the Samaritans before treading Mount Gerizim. A
sign of mourning (2 Samuel 15:30; Ezekiel 24:17);
humiliation (Isaiah 20:2; Isaiah 20:4; Ezekiel 16:10), "I
shod thee with badgers' skins" or seal skins, and skins of
other marine animals of the Red Sea; the material of the
Hebrew shoes and of the tabernacle covering. (See BADGER.)
Matthew 10:10, "provide not shoes," but Mark 6:9, "be shod
with sandals"; Luke 10:4 harmonizes them, "carry not shoes,"
i.e., do not, as most travelers, carry an extra pair in case
the pair in use became worn out.
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And the angel said unto him, Gird thyself, and bind on thy
sandals. And so he did. And he saith unto him, Cast thy
garment about thee, and follow me.
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But [be] shod with sandals; and not put on two coats.
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I. THE HEBREWS AND THE SEA
II. SHIPS IN THE OLD TESTAMENT AND THE APOCRYPHA
1. Among the Hebrews
(1) In Early Times
(2) During the Monarchy
(3) In Later Times
2. Among Neighboring Nations
(1) Egypt
(2) Assyria and Babylonia
(3) Phoenicia
3. General References
III. SHIPS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
1. In the Gospels
2. In the Acts of the Apostles
3. In Other Books
LITERATURE
In the Old Testament the following words are found:
(1) The word most commonly used in Hebrew for "a ship" is
'oniyah (Prov 30:19; Jon 1:3,4), of which the plural
'oniyoth is found most frequently (Jdg 5:17; 1 Ki 22:48 f,
and many other places).
The collective term for "a navy of ships" is 'oni (1 Ki 9:26
f; 10:22, 'oni Tharshish, "a navy (of ships) of Tarshish";
but Isa 33:21, 'oni shayit, a "galley with oars").
(2) tsi (Nu 24:24; Ezek 30:9; Isa 33:21), tsi 'addir,
"gallant ship"; Dan 11:30, tsiyim Kittim, "ships of Kittim.'
(3) cephinah, "innermost parts of the ship" the Revised
Version (British and American), "sides of the ship" the King
James Version (Jon 1:5, the only place where the word is
found).
In Apocrypha ploion, is the usual word (The Wisdom of
Solomon 14:1; Ecclesiasticus 33:2, etc.), translated
"vessel" in The Wisdom of Solomon 14:1, but "ship"
elsewhere. For "ship" The Wisdom of Solomon 5:10 has naus.
"Boat" in 2 Macc 12:3,6 is for skaphos, and "navy" in 1 Macc
1:17; 2 Macc 12:9; 14:1 for stolos. In The Wisdom of Solomon
14:6 Noah's ark is called a schedia, a "clumsy ship" (the
literal translation "raft" in the Revised Version (British
and American) is impossible).
In the New Testament there are four words in use: (1) naus
(Acts 27:41, the only place where it occurs, designating the
large sea-going vessel in which Paul suffered shipwreck).
(2) ploiarion, "a little boat" (Mk 3:9 and two other places,
Jn 6:22 ff; 21:8). (3) ploion, "boat" (Mt 4:21,22 and many
other places in the Gospels--the ordinary fishingboat of the
Sea of Galilee rendered "boat" uniformly in the Revised
Version (British and American) instead of "ship" the King
James Version), "ship" (Acts 20:13, and all other places
where the ship carrying Paul is mentioned, except 27:41, as
above). In Jas 3:4; Rev 8:9; 18:17 ff, it is rendered
"ship." (4) skaphe, "boat" (Acts 27:16,30,32, where it means
the small boat of the ship in which Paul was being conveyed
as a prisoner to Rome).
Cognate expressions are: "shipmen," 'anshe 'oniyoth (1 Ki
9:27); nautai (Acts 27:27,30 the King James Version,
"sailors" the Revised Version (British and American));
"mariners," mallachim (Jon 1:15; Ezek 27:9,27,29), shaTim
(Ezek 27:8 the King James Version, "rowers" the Revised
Version (British and American); Ezek 27:26, the King James
Version and the Revised Version (British and American));
"pilot," chobhel (Jon 1:6; Ezek 27:8,27,28,29); "sailing,"
"voyage," plous (Acts 21:7; 27:9,10, the Revised Version
(British and American) "voyage" in all verses).
I. The Hebrews and the Sea.
The Hebrews were a pastoral and agricultural people, and had
no...
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Built
By Noah
Ge 6:13-22
By Solomon
1Ki 9:26; 2Ch 8:17
By Jehoshaphat
1Ki 22:48; 2Ch 20:35,36
Of gopher wood
Ge 6:1,4
Of fir wood
Eze 27:5
Of bulrushes
Isa 18:2
Sealed with pitch (tar?)
Ge 6:15
-Equipped with
A helm
Jas 3:4
A rudder
Ac 27:40
Tackling
Isa 33:23; Ac 27:19
-Sails
Isa 33:23; Ac 27:1,9,17,40
-Sails embroidered
Eze 27:7
-Masts
Isa 33:23; Eze 27:5
-Oars
Jon 1:13; Mr 6:48
-Figurehead
Ac 28:11
-An anchor
Ac 27:29,30,40; Heb 6:19
-Lifeboats
Ac 27:30,32
-Used in commerce
Ac 21:3; 27:10
-Used in commerce
With Tarshish
1Ki 22:48; Isa 60:9; Jon 1:3
With Ophir
1Ki 10:11; 2Ch 8:18
With Adramyttium
Ac 27:2
For passenger traffic
Isa 60:9; Jon 1:3; Ac 20:13; 27:2,37; 28:11
For ferriage
2Sa 19:18
-Repaired by caulking
Eze 27:9
-Wrecked at Ezion-geber
1Ki 22:48; 2Ch 20:35-37
-At Melita (Malta)
Ac 27:14,44
-Warships used by Chittim
Nu 24:24; Da 11:30
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No one writer in the whole range of Greek and Roman
literature has supplied us with so much information
concerning the merchant-ships of the ancients as St. Luke in
the narrative of St. Paul's voyage to Rome. Acts 27,28. It
is important to remember that he accomplished it in three
ships: first, the Adramyttian vessel which took him from
Caesarea to Myra, and which was probably a coasting-vessel
of no great size, Ac 27:1-6 secondly, the large Alexandrian
corn-ship, in which he was wrecked on the coast of Malta Ac
27:6-28 :1; and thirdly, another large Alexandrian corn-
ship, in which he sailed from Malta by Syracuse and Rhegium
to Puteoli. Ac 28:11-13
1. Size of ancient ships. --The narrative which we
take as our chief guide affords a good standard for
estimating this. The ship, in which St. Paul was wrecked had
persons on board, Ac 27:37 besides a cargo of wheat, ibid.
Ac 27:10,38 and all these passengers seem to have been taken
on to Puteoli in another ship, ibid, Ac 28:11 which had its
own crew and its own cargo. Now, in modern transport-ships,
prepared far carrying troops, it is a common estimate to
allow a toll and a half per man. On the whole, if we say
that an ancient merchant-ship might range from 500 to 1000
tons, we are clearly within the mark.
2. Steering apparatus. --Some commentators have
fallen into strange perplexities from observing that in Ac
27:40 ("the fastenings of the rudders") St. Luke uses the
plural. Ancient ships were in truth not steered at all by
rudders fastened or hinged to the stern, but by means of two
paddle-rudders one on each quarter, acting in a rowlock or
through a port-hole as the vessel might be small or large.
3. Build and ornaments of the hull. --It is probable
that there was no very marked difference between the bow and
the stern. The "hold," Jon 1:5 would present no special
peculiarities. That personification of ships which seems to
be instinctive led the ancients to paint an eye on each side
of the bow. Comp. Ac 27:15 An ornament of the ship which
took Paul from Malta to Pozzuoli is more explicitly referred
to. The "sign" of that ship, Ac 28:11 was Castor and Pollux;
and the symbols of those heroes were doubtless painted or
sculptured on each side of the bow.
4. Under-girders. --The imperfection of the build,
and still more (see below, 6) the peculiarity of the rig, in
ancient ships, resulted in a greater tendency than in our
times to the starting of the pranks and consequently to
leaking and foundering. Hence it was customary to take on
board peculiar contrivances, suitable called helps," Ac
27:17 as precautions against such dangers. These were simply
cables or chains, which in case of necessity could be passed
round the frame of the ship, at right angles to its length,
and made tight.
5. Anchors. --Ancient anchors were similar in form
to those which we use now. except that they were without
flukes. The ship in which Paul was sailing had four anchors
on board. The sailors on this occasion anchored by the
stern. Ac 27:29
6. Masts, sails, ropes and yards. -The rig of an
ancient ship was more simple and clumsy than that employed
in modern times. Its great feature was one large mast, with
one large square sail fastened to a yard of great length.
Hence the strain upon the hull, and the danger of starting
the planks, were greater than under the present system,
which distributes the mechanical pressure more evenly over
the whole ship. Not that there were never more masts than
one, or more sails than one on the same mast, in an ancient
merchantman; but these were repetitions, so to speak, of the
same general unit of rig. Another feature of the ancient, as
of the modern , feature of the ancient, as of ship is the
flag at the top of the mast. Isai l.c., and Isa 30:17 We
must remember that the ancients...
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early used in foreign commerce by the Phoenicians (Gen.
49:13).
Moses (Deut. 28:68) and Job (9:26) make reference to
them, and
Balaam speaks of the "ships of Chittim" (Num.
24:24). Solomon
constructed a navy at Ezion-geber by the assistance
of Hiram's
sailors (1 Kings 9:26-28; 2 Chr. 8:18). Afterwards,
Jehoshaphat
sought to provide himself with a navy at the same
port, but his
ships appear to have been wrecked before they set
sail (1 Kings
22:48, 49; 2 Chr. 20:35-37).
In our Lord's time fishermen's boats on the Sea of
Galilee
were called "ships." Much may be learned regarding
the
construction of ancient merchant ships and
navigation from the
record in Acts 27, 28.
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Among the earliest shipbuilders were the Phoenicians, whose
commerce and voyages made them foremost in the maritime
science of early ages, and traces of whose ships are
frequently met with. (On PAUL'S voyage, see EUROCLYDON;
MELITA; CNIDUS; CRETE; FAIR HAVENS.) Paul was first in the
Adramyttian coasting vessel from Caesarea to Myra; then in
the large Alexandrian grain ship wrecked at Malta; then in
another Alexandrian grain ship from Malta by Syracuse and
Rhegium to Purcell. Luke shows accurate nautical knowledge,
yet not professional, but of an observer, telling what was
done but not the how or the why.
Fourteen different verbs he uses of the progression
of a ship, peculiar to himself and appropriate to each case:
pleoo; Luke 8:23; Acts 21:3; apopleo; Acts 13:4; Acts 14:26;
Acts 20:15; Acts 27:1; bradupleoo; Acts 27:7; diapleoo; Acts
27:5; ekpleoo; Acts 15:39; katapleoo; Luke 8:26; hupopleoo;
Acts 27:4; Acts 27:7; parapleoo; Acts 20:16; euthudromeoo;
Acts 16:11; Acts 21:1; hupotrechoo; Acts 27:16; paralegomai;
Acts 27:8; Acts 27:13; feromai; Acts 27:15; diaferomai; Acts
27:27; diaperaoo; Acts 21:2. Paul's ship, besides cargo of
wheat, carried 276 persons, so she would be of 600 tons.
Lucian (Ploion e Euche) describes an Alexandrian wheat ship,
180 ft. long (including end projections) by 45 ft. broad,
i.e. 1,300 tons.
The largest on record was Ptolemy Philopator's war
galley, 420 ft. long by 57 ft. broad, under 5,000 tons. "The
governor" in James 3:4 is the "helmsman" (kuberneetees; the
"owner" was naukleeros). There were two paddle rudders, one
on each quarter, acting in a rowlock or through a porthole.
As the helmsman used only one at a time, "the helm" is in
the singular in James 3:4. In Acts 27:29; Acts 27:40, after
letting go the four anchors at the stern, they lashed up
both the rudder paddles lest they should interfere with the
ground tackle. When they wished to steer again and the
anchor ropes were cut (margin), they unfastened the lashings
or bands of the paddles. The ship's run from Rhegium to
Puteoli, 180 miles in two days, the wind being full from the
S., illustrates the rate of sailing. The bow and the stern
were much alike, except that on each side of the bow was
painted "the sign" (paraseemon), as for instance "Castor and
Pollux" (Acts 28:11).
An eye was painted on each side of the bow; so
Luke's phrase (antofthalmein), "bear up into," literally,
"eye the wind" directly (Acts 27:15). The imperfect build of
ships caused the need of "undergirders" to pass round the
frame, at right angles to its length, when the planks were
in danger of starting. The anchors resembled ours, but had
no flukes. Spiritually they symbolize the Christian hope
(Hebrews 6:19). The soul is the ship; the world the sea; the
bliss beyond the distant coast; hope resting on faith the
anchor which prevents the vessel being tossed to and fro;
the consolation through God's promise and hope is the cable
connecting the ship and anchor. The soul clings, as one in
fear of shipwreck, to the anchor, and sees not where the
cable runs, where it is fastened; she knows it is fastened
behind the veil which hides the future glory; if only she
hold on to the anchor, she shall in due time be drawn in
where it is, into the holiest, by the Saviour.
Anchoring by the stern, the ancients were prepared
to anchor in the gale such as Paul encountered; and Purdy
(Sailing Directions, 180) says that the holding ground at
Malta where Paul was wrecked is quite good enough to have
secured the anchors and ship in spite of the severe night.
In Acts 27:40, for "mainsail" translated "foresail," which
was needed to put the ship about and to run it aground.
Vessels were propelled by oars as well as by sails (Ezekiel
27:29; Isaiah 33:21; Jonah 1:13). Of the 32 parts or points
of the compass card a modern ship will sail within six
points of the wind. The clumsier ancient ship probably could
sail within seven points. In a heavy gale the ship would lie
to, with the right side to the storm, the object being not
progress but safety; as under the lee of Clauda (Acts 27:14-
17).
To anchor was impossible; to drift would have
brought the ship to the fatal Syrtis off Africa. The wind...
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But Jonah rose up to flee unto Tarshish from the presence of
the LORD, and went down to Joppa; and he found a ship going to
Tarshish: so he paid the fare thereof, and went down into it,
to go with them unto Tarshish from the presence of the LORD.
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Now when we had discovered Cyprus, we left it on the left
hand, and sailed into Syria, and landed at Tyre: for there the
ship was to unlade her burden.
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And going on from thence, he saw other two brethren, James
[the son] of Zebedee, and John his brother, in a ship with
Zebedee their father, mending their nets; and he called them.
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When Jesus heard [of it], he departed thence by ship into a
desert place apart: and when the people had heard [thereof],
they followed him on foot out of the cities.
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And he began again to teach by the sea side: and there was
gathered unto him a great multitude, so that he entered into a
ship, and sat in the sea; and the whole multitude was by the
sea on the land.
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And he said unto them, Cast the net on the right side of the
ship, and ye shall find. They cast therefore, and now they
were not able to draw it for the multitude of fishes.
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And falling into a place where two seas met, they ran the ship
aground; and the forepart stuck fast, and remained unmoveable,
but the hinder part was broken with the violence of the waves.
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But there the glorious LORD [will be] unto us a place of broad
rivers [and] streams; wherein shall go no galley with oars,
neither shall gallant ship pass thereby.
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Then the whole multitude of the country of the Gadarenes round
about besought him to depart from them; for they were taken
with great fear: and he went up into the ship, and returned
back again.
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And entering into a ship of Adramyttium, we launched, meaning
to sail by the coasts of Asia; [one] Aristarchus, a Macedonian
of Thessalonica, being with us.
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sel (substantive chotham, "seal," "signet," Tabba`ath,
"signet-ring"; Aramaic `izqa'; sphragis; verb chatham,
(Aramaic chatham); (sphragizo), (katasphragizomai, "to
seal"):
I. Literal Sense.
A seal is an instrument of stone, metal or other hard
substance (sometimes set in a ring), on which is engraved
some device or figure, and is used for making an impression
on some soft substance, as clay or wax, affixed to a
document or other object, in token of authenticity.
1. Prevalence in Antiquity:
The use of seals goes back to a very remote antiquity,
especially in Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria. Herodotus
(i.195) records the Babylonian custom of wearing signets. In
Babylonia the seal generally took the form of a cylinder cut
in crystal or some hard stone, which was bored through from
end to end and a cord passed through it. The design, often
accompanied by the owner's name, was engraved on the curved
part. The signet was then suspended by the cord round the
neck or waist (compare the Revised Version (British and
American) "cord" in Gen 38:18; "upon thy heart .... upon
thine arm," i.e. one seal hanging down from the neck and
another round the waist; Song 8:6). In Egypt, too, as in
Babylonia, the cylinder was the earliest form used for the
purpose of a seal; but this form was in Egypt gradually
superseded by the scarab (= beetle-shaped) as the prevailing
type. Other forms, such as the cone-shaped, were also in
use. From the earliest period of civilization the finger-
ring on which some distinguishing badge was engraved was in
use as a convenient way of carrying the signet, the earliest
extant rings being those found in Egyptian tombs. Other
ancient peoples, such as the Phoenicians, also used seals.
From the East the custom passed into Greece and other
western countries. Devices of a variety of sorts were in use
at Rome, both by the emperors and by private individuals. In
ancient times, almost every variety of precious stones was
used for seals, as well as cheaper material, such as
limestone or terra-cotta. In the West wax came early into
use as the material for receiving the impression of the
seal, but in the ancient East clay was the medium used
(compare Job 38:14). Pigment and ink also came into use.
2. Seals among the Hebrews:
That the Israelites were acquainted with the use in Egypt of
signets set in rings is seen in the statement that Pharaoh
delivered to Joseph his royal signet as a token of deputed
authority (Gen 41:41 f). They were also acquainted with the
use of seals among the Persians and Medes (Est 3:12; 8:8-10;
Dan 6:17). The Hebrews themselves used them at an early
period, the first recorded instance being Gen 38:18,25,
where the patriarch Judah is said to have pledged his word
to Tamar by leaving her his signet, cord and staff. We have
evidence of engraved signets being in important use among
them in early times in the description of the two stones on
the high priest's ephod (Ex 28:11; 39:6), of his golden
plate (Ex 28:36; 39:30), and breastplate (Ex 39:14). Ben-
Sirach mentions as a distinct occupation the work of
engraving on signets (Sirach 38:27). From the case of Judah
and the common usage in other countries, we may infer that
every Hebrew of any standing wore a seal. In the case of the
signet ring, it was usual to wear it on one of the fingers
of the right hand (Jer 22:24). The Hebrews do not seem to
have developed an original type of signets. The seals so far
discovered in Israel go to prove that the predominating type
was the Egyptian, and to a less degree the Babylonian.
3. Uses of Sealing:
(1) One of the most important uses of sealing in antiquity
was to give a proof...
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1. A stamp used for signifying documents
Given as a pledge
Ge 38:18
Engraved
Ex 28:11,21,36; 39:6,14,30; 2Ti 2:19
Decrees signified by
1Ki 21:8; Es 8:8
Documents sealed with
Ahab's letter
1Ki 21:8
Covenants
Ne 9:38; 10:1; Isa 8:16
Decrees
Es 8:8; Da 6:9
Deeds
Jer 32:10
Treasures secured by
De 32:34
Lion's den secured by
Da 6:17
The gravesite of Jesus
Mt 27:66
Circumcision was regarded as a seal of righteousness
Ro 4:11
-FIGURATIVE
Of secrecy
Da 12:9; Re 5:1
Of certainty of divine approval
Joh 6:27; Ro 15:28; 2Co 1:22; Eph 1:13; 4:30; Re
7:3,4
-2. An amphibious animal
Skins of, according to the Revised Version, were used as
a
covering of the tabernacle
Ex 25:5; 26:14; 35:7,23; 36:19; 39:34; Nu 4:25
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The importance attached to seals in the East is so great
that without one no document is regarded as authentic. Among
the methods of sealing used in Egypt at a very early period
were engraved stones, graved stones, pierced through their
length and hung by a string or chain from the arm or neck,
or set in rings for the finger. The most ancient form used
for this purpose was the scarabaeus, formed of precious or
common stone, or even of blue pottery or porcelain, on the
flat side of which the inscription or device was engraved.
In many cases the seal consisted of a lump of clay,
impressed with the seal and attached to the document,
whether of papyrus or other material, by strings. In other
cases wax was used. In sealing a sepulchre or box, the
fastening was covered with clay or wax, and the impression
from a seal of one in authority was stamped upon it, so that
it could not be broken open without discovery. The signet-
ring was an ordinary part of a man's equipment. Ge 38:18 The
ring or the seal as an emblem of authority in Egypt, Persia
and elsewhere is mentioned in Ge 41:42; 1Ki 21:8; Es
3:10,12; 8:2; Da 6:17 and as an evidence of a covenant, in
Jer 32:10,44; Ne 9:38; 10:1; Hag 2:23 Engraved signets were
in use among the Hebrews in early times. Ex 28:11,36; 39:6
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commonly a ring engraved with some device (Gen. 38:18, 25).
Jezebel "wrote letters in Ahab's name, and sealed
them with his
seal" (1 Kings 21:8). Seals are frequently mentioned
in Jewish
history (Deut. 32:34; Neh. 9:38; 10:1; Esther 3:12;
Cant. 8:6;
Isa. 8:16; Jer. 22:24; 32:44, etc.). Sealing a
document was
equivalent to the signature of the owner of the
seal. "The use
of a signet-ring by the monarch has recently
received a
remarkable illustration by the discovery of an
impression of
such a signet on fine clay at Koyunjik, the site of
the ancient
Nineveh. This seal appears to have been impressed
from the bezel
of a metallic finger-ring. It is an oval, 2 inches
in length by
1 inch wide, and bears the image, name, and titles
of the
Egyptian king Sabaco" (Rawlinson's Hist. Illus. of
the O.T., p.
46). The actual signet-rings of two Egyptian kings
(Cheops and
Horus) have been discovered. (See SIGNET -T0003426.)
The use of seals is mentioned in the New Testament
only in
connection with the record of our Lord's burial
(Matt. 27:66).
The tomb was sealed by the Pharisees and chief
priests for the
purpose of making sure that the disciples would not
come and
steal the body away (ver. 63, 64). The mode of doing
this was
probably by stretching a cord across the stone and
sealing it at
both ends with sealing-clay. When God is said to
have sealed the
Redeemer, the meaning is, that he has attested his
divine
mission (John 6:27). Circumcision is a seal, an
attestation of
the covenant (Rom. 4:11). Believers are sealed with
the Spirit,
as God's mark put upon them (Eph. 1:13; 4:30).
Converts are by
Paul styled the seal of his apostleship, i.e., they
are its
attestation (1 Cor. 9:2). Seals and sealing are
frequently
mentioned in the book of Revelation (5:1; 6:1; 7:3;
10:4;
22:10).
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Used to stamp a document, giving it legal validity. Judah
probably wore his suspended from the neck over the breast
(Genesis 38:18; Song of Solomon 8:6; Job 38:14). As the
plastic clay presents various figures impressed on it by the
revolving cylinder seal (one to three inches long, of terra
cotta or precious stone, such as is found in Assyria), as
"it is turned," so the morning light rolling on over the
earth, previously void of form through the darkness, brings
out to view hills, valleys, etc. Treasures were sealed up
(Deuteronomy 32:34); the lions' den in Daniel's case (Daniel
6:17); so our Lord's tomb (Matthew 27:66).
Sealing up was also to ensure secrecy (Daniel 12:4;
Revelation 5:1). The signet ring was the symbol of royal
authority (Genesis 12:41-42; Esther 3:10; Esther 8:10). Clay
hardens in the heat, and was therefore used in Assyria and
Babylon rather than wax, which melts. A stone cylinder in
the Alnwick Museum bears the date of Osirtasin I, between
2,000 and 3,000 B.C. The Assyrian documents were often of
baked clay, sealed while wet and burnt afterwards. Often the
seal was a lump of clay impressed with a seal and tied the
document. Such is the seal of Sabacho or So, king of Egypt
(711 B.C.), found at Nimrud (2 Kings 17:4).
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And they sung a new song, saying, Thou art worthy to take the
book, and to open the seals thereof: for thou wast slain, and
hast redeemed us to God by thy blood out of every kindred, and
tongue, and people, and nation;
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And one of the elders saith unto me, Weep not: behold, the
Lion of the tribe of Juda, the Root of David, hath prevailed
to open the book, and to loose the seven seals thereof.
Read More
And I saw a strong angel proclaiming with a loud voice, Who is
worthy to open the book, and to loose the seals thereof?
Read More
And I saw in the right hand of him that sat on the throne a
book written within and on the backside, sealed with seven
seals.
Read More
And I saw when the Lamb opened one of the seals, and I heard,
as it were the noise of thunder, one of the four beasts
saying, Come and see.
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In those days saw I in Judah [some] treading wine presses on
the sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and lading asses; as
also wine, grapes, and figs, and all [manner of] burdens,
which they brought into Jerusalem on the sabbath day: and I
testified [against them] in the day wherein they sold
victuals.
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Behold, I am pressed under you, as a cart is pressed [that is]
full of sheaves.
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And when she was risen up to glean, Boaz commanded his young
men, saying, Let her glean even among the sheaves, and
reproach her not:
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And she said, I pray you, let me glean and gather after the
reapers among the sheaves: so she came, and hath continued
even from the morning until now, that she tarried a little in
the house.
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He that goeth forth and weepeth, bearing precious seed, shall
doubtless come again with rejoicing, bringing his sheaves
[with him].
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Wherewith the mower filleth not his hand; nor he that bindeth
sheaves his bosom.
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But they know not the thoughts of the LORD, neither understand
they his counsel: for he shall gather them as the sheaves into
the floor.
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For, behold, we [were] binding sheaves in the field, and, lo,
my sheaf arose, and also stood upright; and, behold, your
sheaves stood round about, and made obeisance to my sheaf.
Read More
shep:
1. Names:
The usual Hebrew word is tso'n, which is often translated
"flock," e.g. "Abel .... brought of the firstlings of his
flock" (Gen 4:4); "butter of the herd, and milk of the
flock" (Dt 32:14). The King James Version and the English
Revised Version have "milk of sheep." Compare Arabic da'n.
The Greek word is probaton. For other names, see notes under
CATTLE; EWE; LAMB; RAM.
2. Zoology:
The origin of domestic sheep is unknown. There are 11 wild
species, the majority of which are found in Asia, and it is
conceivable that they may have spread from the highlands of
Central Asia to the other portions of their habitat. In
North America is found the "bighorn," which is very closely
related to a Kamschatkan species. One species, the urial or
sha, is found in India. The Barbary sheep, Ovis tragelaphus,
also known as the aoudad or arui, inhabits the Atlas
Mountains of Northwest Africa. It is thought by Tristram to
be zemer, English Versions of the Bible "chamois" of Dt
14:5, but there is no good evidence that this animal ranges
eastward into Bible lands. Geographically nearest is the
Armenian wild sheep, Ovis gmelini, of Asia Minor and Persia.
The Cyprian wild sheep may be only a variety of the last,
and the mouflon of Corsica and Sardinia is an allied
species. It is not easy to draw the line between wild sheep
and wild goats. Among the more obvious distinctions are the
chin beard and strong odor of male goats. The pelage of all
wild sheep consists of hair, not wool, and this indeed is
true of some domestic sheep as the fat-rumped short-tailed
sheep of Abyssinia and Central Asia. The young lambs of this
breed have short curly wool which is the astrachan of
commerce. Sheep are geologically recent, their bones and
teeth not being found in earlier deposits than the pleiocene
or pleistocene. They were, however, among the first of
domesticated animals.
3. Sheep of Israel:
The sheep of Syria and Israel are characterized by the
possession of an enormous fat tail which weighs many pounds
and is known in Arabic as 'alyat, or commonly, liyat. This
is the 'alyah, "fat tail" (the King James Version "rump")
(Ex 29:22; Lev 3:9; 7:3; 8:25; 9:19), which was burned in
sacrifice. This is at the present day esteemed a great
delicacy. Sheep are kept in large numbers by the Bedouin,
but a large portion of the supply of mutton for the cities
is from the sheep of Armenia and Kurdistan, of which great
droves are brought down to the coast in easy stages. Among
the Moslems every well-to-do family sacrifices a sheep at
the feast of al-'adcha', the 10th day of the month dhu-l-
chijjat, 40 days after the end of ramadan, the month of
fasting. In Lebanon every peasant family during the summer
fattens a young ram, which is literally crammed by one of
the women of the household, who keeps the creature's jaw
moving with one hand while with the other she stuffs its
mouth with vine or mulberry leaves. Every afternoon she
washes it at the village fountain. When slaughtered in the
fall it is called ma`luf, "fed," and is very fat and the
flesh very tender. Some of the meat and fat are eaten at
once, but the greater part, fat and lean, is cut up fine,
cooked together in a large vessel with pepper and salt, and
stored in an earthen jar. This, the so-called qauramat, is
used as needed through the winter.
In the mountains the sheep are gathered at night into folds,
which may be caves or enclosures...
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Offered in sacrifice
By Abel
Ge 4:4
By Noah
Ge 8:20
By Abraham
Ge 22:13
-See OFFERINGS
-Required in the Mosaic offerings
See OFFERINGS
-The land of Bashan adapted to the raising of
De 32:14
-Also
Bozrah
Mic 2:12
Kedar
Eze 27:21
Nebaioth
Isa 60:7
Sharon
Isa 65:10
Jacob's management of
Ge 30:32-40
-Milk of, used for food
De 32:14
-Shearing of
Ge 31:19; 38:12-17; Isa 53:7
-Feasting at the time of shearing
1Sa 25:11,36; 2Sa 13:23
-The first fleece of, belonged to the priests and the
Levites
De 18:4
-Tribute (taxes) paid in
2Ki 3:4; 1Ch 5:21; 2Ch 17:11
-FIGURATIVE
1Ch 21:17; Ps 74:1; Jer 13:20
Of backsliders
Jer 50:6
Of lost sinners
Mt 9:36; 10:6
Of the righteous
Jer 50:17; Eze 34; Mt 26:31; Mr 14:27; Joh 10:1-16
Of the defenselessness of servants of God (Greek:
diakonoi)
Mt 10:16
Parable of the lost
Mt 18:11-13; Lu 15:4-7
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Sheep were an important part of the possessions of the
ancient Hebrews and of eastern nations generally. The first
mention of sheep occurs in Ge 4:2 They were used in the
sacrificial offering,as, both the adult animal, Ex 20:24 and
the lamb. See Ex 29:28; Le 9:3; 12:6 Sheep and lambs formed
an important article of food. 1Sa 25:18 The wool was used as
clothing. Le 13:47 "Rams skins dyed red" were used as a
covering for the tabernacle. Ex 25:5 Sheep and lambs were
sometimes paid as tribute. 2Ki 3:4 It is very striking to
notice the immense numbers of sheep that were reared in
Israel in biblical times. (Chardin says he saw a clan of
Turcoman shepherds whose flock consisted of 3,000,000 sheep
and goats, besides 400,000 Feasts of carriage, as horses,
asses and camels.) Sheep-sheering is alluded to Ge 31:19
Sheepdogs were employed in biblical times. Job 30:1
Shepherds in Israel and the East generally go before their
flocks, which they induce to follow by calling to them,
comp. Joh 10:4; Ps 77:20; 80:1 though they also drive them.
Ge 33:13 The following quotation from Hartley's "Researches
in Greece and the Levant," p. 321, is strikingly
illustrative of the allusions in Joh 10:1-16 "Having had my
attention directed last night to the words in Joh 10:3 I
asked my man if it was usual in Greece to give names to the
sheep. He informed me that it was, and that the sheep obeyed
the shepherd when he called them by their names. This
morning I had an opportunity of verifying the truth of this
remark. Passing by a flock of sheep I asked the shepherd the
same question which I had put to the servant, and he gave me
the same answer. I then had him call one of his sheep. He
did so, and it instantly left its pasturage and its
companions and ran up to the hands of the shepherd with
signs of pleasure and with a prompt obedience which I had
never before observed in any other animal. It is also true
in this country that a stranger will they not follow, but
will flee from him. The shepherd told me that many of his
sheep were still wild, that they had not yet learned their
names, but that by teaching them they would all learn them."
The common sheer, of Syria and Israel are the broad-tailed.
As the sheep is an emblem of meekness, patience and
submission, it is expressly mentioned as typifying these
qualities in the person of our blessed Lord. Isa 53:7; Ac
8:32 etc. The relation that exists between Christ, "the
chief Shepherd," and his members is beautifully compared to
that which in the East is so strikingly exhibited by the
shepherds to their flocks [SHEPHERD]
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are of different varieties. Probably the flocks of Abraham
and
Isaac were of the wild species found still in the
mountain
regions of Persia and Kurdistan. After the Exodus,
and as a
result of intercourse with surrounding nations,
other species
were no doubt introduced into the herds of the
people of Israel.
They are frequently mentioned in Scripture. The care
of a
shepherd over his flock is referred to as
illustrating God's
care over his people (Ps. 23:1, 2; 74:1; 77:20; Isa.
40:11;
53:6; John 10:1-5, 7-16).
"The sheep of Israel are longer in the head than
ours, and
have tails from 5 inches broad at the narrowest part
to 15
inches at the widest, the weight being in
proportion, and
ranging generally from 10 to 14 lbs., but sometimes
extending to
30 lbs. The tails are indeed huge masses of fat"
(Geikie's Holy
Land, etc.). The tail was no doubt the "rump" so
frequently
referred to in the Levitical sacrifices (Ex. 29:22;
Lev. 3:9;
7:3; 9:19). Sheep-shearing was generally an occasion
of great
festivity (Gen. 31:19; 38:12, 13; 1 Sam. 25:4-8, 36;
2 Sam.
13:23-28).
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Genesis 4:2. Abounded in the pastures of Israel. Shepherds
go before them and call them by name to follow (John 10:4;
Psalm 77:20; Psalm 80:1). The ordinary sheep are the broad
tailed sheep, and the Ovis aries, like our own except that
the tail is longer and thicker, and the ears larger; called
bedoween. Centuries B.C. Aristotle mentions Syrian sheep
with tails a cubit wide. The fat tail is referred to in
Leviticus 3:9; Leviticus 7:3. The Syrian cooks use the mass
of fat instead of the rancid Arab butter.
The sheep symbolizes meekness, patience, gentleness,
and submission (Isaiah 53:7; Acts 8:32). (See LAMB.) Tsown
means sheep"; ayil, the full-grown "ram," used for the male
of other ruminants also; rachel, the adult "ewe"; kebes
(masculine), kibsah (feminine), the half grown lamb; seh,
"sheep" or paschal "lamb"; char, "young ram"; taleh,
"sucking lamb"; 'atod (Genesis 31 "ram") means "he-goat";
imrin, "lambs for sacrifice."
The sheep never existed in a wild state, but was
created expressly for man, and so was selected from the
first for sacrifice. The image is frequent in Scripture:
Jehovah the Shepherd, His people the flock (Psalm 23:1;
Isaiah 40:11; Jeremiah 23:1-2; Ezekiel 34). Sinners are the
straying sheep whom the Good Shepherd came to save (Psalm
119:176; Isaiah 53:6; Jeremiah 50:6; Luke 15:4-6; John 10:8;
John 10:11). False teachers are thieves and wolves in
sheep's clothing (Matthew 7:15). None can pluck His sheep
from His hand and the Father's (John 10:27-29).
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And they took away their cattle; of their camels fifty
thousand, and of sheep two hundred and fifty thousand, and of
asses two thousand, and of men an hundred thousand.
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And it came to pass, when Jacob saw Rachel the daughter of
Laban his mother's brother, and the sheep of Laban his
mother's brother, that Jacob went near, and rolled the stone
from the well's mouth, and watered the flock of Laban his
mother's brother.
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He saith unto him the third time, Simon, [son] of Jonas,
lovest thou me? Peter was grieved because he said unto him the
third time, Lovest thou me? And he said unto him, Lord, thou
knowest all things; thou knowest that I love thee. Jesus saith
unto him, Feed my sheep.
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And thou shalt bestow that money for whatsoever thy soul
lusteth after, for oxen, or for sheep, or for wine, or for
strong drink, or for whatsoever thy soul desireth: and thou
shalt eat there before the LORD thy God, and thou shalt
rejoice, thou, and thine household,
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And he will love thee, and bless thee, and multiply thee: he
will also bless the fruit of thy womb, and the fruit of thy
land, thy corn, and thy wine, and thine oil, the increase of
thy kine, and the flocks of thy sheep, in the land which he
sware unto thy fathers to give thee.
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But the firstling of a cow, or the firstling of a sheep, or
the firstling of a goat, thou shalt not redeem; they [are]
holy: thou shalt sprinkle their blood upon the altar, and
shalt burn their fat [for] an offering made by fire, for a
sweet savour unto the LORD.
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Thine ox [shall be] slain before thine eyes, and thou shalt
not eat thereof: thine ass [shall be] violently taken away
from before thy face, and shall not be restored to thee: thy
sheep [shall be] given unto thine enemies, and thou shalt have
none to rescue [them].
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And Solomon offered a sacrifice of peace offerings, which he
offered unto the LORD, two and twenty thousand oxen, and an
hundred and twenty thousand sheep. So the king and all the
children of Israel dedicated the house of the LORD.
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And from above the gate of Ephraim, and above the old gate,
and above the fish gate, and the tower of Hananeel, and the
tower of Meah, even unto the sheep gate: and they stood still
in the prison gate.
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All the firstling males that come of thy herd and of thy flock
thou shalt sanctify unto the LORD thy God: thou shalt do no
work with the firstling of thy bullock, nor shear the
firstling of thy sheep.
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shep'-erd (ro`eh, ro`i; poimen, "a feeder"): The sheep owner
frequently tends the flocks himself (Gen 4:4; 30:40; compare
Ezek 34:12), but more often he delegates the work to his
children (Gen 29:9; 1 Sam 16:19; 17:15) or relatives (Gen
31:6). In such cases the sheep have good care because the
keepers have a personal interest in the well-being of the
animals, but when they are attended by a hireling (1 Sam
17:20) the flocks may be neglected or abused (Isa 56:10,11;
Ezek 34:8,10; Zec 11:15,17; Jn 10:12). The chief care of the
shepherd is to see that the sheep find plenty to eat and
drink. The flocks are not fed in pens or folds, but, summer
and winter, must depend upon foraging for their sustenance
(Ps 23:2). In the winter of 1910-11 an unprecedented storm
ravaged Northern Syria. It was accompanied by a snowfall of
more than 3 ft., which covered the ground for weeks. During
that time, hundreds of thousands of sheep and goats
perished, not so much from the cold as from the fact that
they could get no food. Goats hunt out the best feeding-
grounds, but sheep are more helpless and have to be led to
their food (compare Nu 27:16,17); nor do they possess the
instinct of many other animals for finding their way home
(compare Ezek 34:6-8). Flocks should be watered at least
once a day. Where there are springs or streams this is an
easy matter. Frequently the nearest water is hours away. One
needs to travel in the dry places in Syria or Israel, and
then enter the watered valleys like those in Edom where the
flocks are constantly being led for water, to appreciate the
Psalmist's words, "He leadcth me beside still waters."
Sometimes water can be obtained by digging shallow wells
(Gen 26:18-22,25,32). The shepherd frequently carries with
him a pail from which the sheep can drink when the water is
not accessible to them. On the mountain tops the melting
snows supply the needed water. In other districts it is
drawn from deep wells (Gen 29:2; Jn 4:6). The usual time for
watering is at noon, at which time the flocks are led to the
watering-places (Gen 29:2,3). After drinking, the animals
lie down or huddle together in the shade of a rock while the
shepherd sleeps. At the first sound of his call, which is
usually a peculiar guttural sound, hard to imitate, the
flock follow off to new feeding-grounds. Even should two
shepherds call their flocks at the same time and the sheep
be intermingled, they never mistake their own master's voice
(Jn 10:3-5).
The shepherd's equipment is a simple one. His chief garment
is a cloak woven from wool or made from sheepskins. This is
sleeveless, and so made that it hangs like a cloak on his
shoulders. When he sleeps he curls up under it, head and
all. During the summer a lighter, short-sleeved `aba or coat
is worn. He carries a staff or club (see STAFF), and a
characteristic attitude is to make a rest for his arms by
placing his staff on his shoulders against the back of his
neck. When an especially productive spot is found, the
shepherd may pass the time, while the animals are grazing,
by playing on his pipe (Jdg 5:16). He sometimes carries a
sling (qela`) of goat's hair (1 Sam 17:40). His chief
belongings are kept in a skin pouch or bag (keli) (1 Sam
17:40). This bag is usually a whole tawed skin turned wrong
side out, with the legs tied up and the neck forming the
opening. He is usually aided in the keeping and the
defending of the sheep by a dog (Job 30:1). In Syria the
Kurdish dogs make the best protectors of the sheep, as,
unlike the cowardly city dogs, they are fearless and will
drive away the wild beasts. The shepherd is often called
upon to aid the dogs in defending the sheep (Gen 31:39; 1
Sam 17:34,35; Isa 31:4; Jer 5:6; Am 3:12).
Figurative:
The frequent use of the word "shepherd" to indicate a
spiritual overseer is familiar to Bible readers (Ps 23:1;
80:1; Eccl 12:11; Isa 40:4; 63:14; Jer 31:10; Ezek 34:23;
37:24; Jn 21:15-17; Eph 4:11; 1 Pet 5:1-4). We still use the
term "pastor," literally, "a shepherd." Leaders in temporal
affairs were also called shepherds (Gen 47:17 margin; Isa
44:28; 63:11). "Sheep without a shepherd" typified
individuals or nations who had forgotten Yahweh (Nu 27:17; 1
Ki 22:17; 2 Ch 18:16; Ezek 34:5,8; Zec 10:2; Mt 9:36; Mk
6:34).
Jesus is spoken of as the good shepherd (Jn 10:14); chief
shepherd (1 Pet 5:4); great shepherd (Heb 13:20); the one
shepherd (Jn 10:16). "He will feed his flock like a
shepherd, he will gather the lambs in his arm, and carry
them in his bosom, and will gently lead those that have
their young" (Isa 40:11) is a picture drawn from pastoral
life of Yahweh's care over His children. A strong sympathy
for helpless animals, though sometimes misdirected, is a
marked characteristic of the people of Bible lands. The
birth of offspring in a flock often occurs far off on the
mountain side. The shepherd solicitously guards the mother
during her helpless moments and picks up the lamb and
carries it to the fold. For the few days, until it is able
to walk, he may carry it in his arms or in the loose folds
of his coat above his girdle.
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One who cares for flocks of sheep
Ge 31:38-40; Ps 78:52,53; Jer 31:10; Am 3:12; Lu 2:8
-David the, defends his flock against a lion and a bear
1Sa 17:34,35
-Causes the flock to rest
Ps 23:2; So 1:7; Jer 33:12
-Counts the flock
Le 27:32; Jer 33:13
-Knows each one of his flock by name
Joh 10:3-5
-Keeps the sheep and goats apart
Mt 25:32
-Waters the flocks
Ge 29:2-10
-Keeps the flocks in folds
Nu 32:16; 1Sa 24:3; 2Sa 7:8; Joh 10:1
-Watch towers of
2Ch 26:10; Mic 4:8
-Dogs of
Job 30:1
-Was an abomination to the Egyptians
Ge 46:34
-Angels appeared to
Lu 2:8-20
-INSTANCES OF
Abel
Ge 4:2
Rachel
Ge 29:9
The daughters of Jethro
Ex 2:16
Moses
Ex 3:1
David
1Sa 16:11; 2Sa 7:8; Ps 78:70
-FIGURATIVE
Ge 49:24
Of God's care
Ps 23; 78:52; 80:1
Of prophets, priests, Levites, and civil authorities
Eze 34
Of Christ
Zec 13:7; Mt 26:31; Joh 10:1-16; Heb 13:20; 1Pe 2:25
A name given to Jesus
Isa 40:11; Mr 14:27; Joh 10:11; 1Pe 2:25; 5:4
A name given to Cyrus
Isa 44:28
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In a nomadic state of society every man, from the sheikh
down to the slave, is more or less a shepherd. The
progenitors of the Jews in the patriarchal age were nomads,
and their history is rich in scenes of pastoral life. The
occupation of tending the flocks was undertaken,not only by
the sons of wealthy chiefs, Ge 30:29 ff.; Gene 37:12 ff.,
but even by their daughters. Ge 29:6,8; Ex 2:10 The Egyptian
captivity did march to implant a love of settled abode, and
consequently we find the tribes which still retained a taste
for shepherd life selecting their own quarters apart from
their brethren in the transjordanic district. Nu 32:1 ff.
Thenceforward in Israel proper the shepherd held a
subordinate position. The office of the eastern shepherd, as
described in the Bible, was attended with much hardship, and
even danger. He was exposed to the extremes of heat and
cold, Ge 31:40 his food frequently consisted of the
precarious supplies afforded by nature, such as the fruit of
the "sycamore" or Egyptian fig, Am 7:14 the "husks" of the
carob tree, Lu 15:16 and perchance the locusts and wild
honey which supported the Baptist, Mt 3:4 he had to
encounter the attacks of wild beasts, occasionally of the
larger species, such as lions, nerves, panthers and bears,
1Sa 17:34; Isa 31:4 Jer 5:6 Am 5:12 nor was he free from the
risk of robbers or predators hordes. Ge 31:39 To meet these
various foes the shepherd's equipment consisted of the
following articles: a mantle, made probably of sheep skin
with the fleece on, which he turned inside out in cold
weather, as implied in the comparison in Jer 43:12 (cf. Juv.
xiv. 187.); a scrip or wallet, containing a small amount of
food 1Sa 17:40 a sling, which is still the favorite weapon
of the Bedouin shepherd, 1Sa 17:40 and lastly, a which
served the double purpose of a weapon against foes and a
crook for the management of the flock. 1Sa 17:40; Ps 23:4;
Zec 11:7 If the shepherd was at a distance from his home, he
was provided with a light tent, So 1:8; Jer 35:7 the removal
of which was easily effected. Isa 38:12 In certain
localities, moreover, towers were erected for the double
purpose of spying an enemy at a distance and of protecting
the flock; such towers were erected by Uzziah and Jotham,
2Ch 26:10; 27:4 while their existence in earlier times is
testified by the name Migdal-edar Ge 35:21 Authorized
Version "a tower of Edar;" Mic 4:8 Authorized Version "tower
of the flock." The routine of the shepherd's duties appears
to have been as follows: In the morning he led forth his
flock from the fold Joh 10:4 which he did by going before
them and calling to them, as is still usual in the East;
arrived at the pasturage he watched the flock with the
assistance of dogs, Job 30:1 and should any sheep stray, he
had to search for it until he found it, Eze 34:12; Lu 15:4
he supplied them with water, either at a running stream or
at troughs attached to wells, Ge 29:7; 30:38; Ex 2:16; Ps
23:2 at evening he brought them back to the fold, and
reckoned them to see that none were missing, by passing them
"under the rod" as they entered the door of the enclosure Le
27:32; Eze 20:37 checking each sheep, as it passed, by a
motion of the hand, Jer 33:13 and, finally, he watched the
entrance of the fold throughout the night, acting as porter.
Joh 10:3 [See Sheepfold, under SHEEP] The shepherd's office
thus required great watchfulness, particularly by night.
Lu 2:8 cf. Nahu 3:18
It also required tenderness toward the young and
feeble, Isa 40:11 particularly in driving them to and from
the pasturage. Ge 33:13 In large establishments there are
various grades of shepherds, the highest being styled
"rulers," Ge 47:6 or "chief shepherds," 1Pe 5:4 in a royal
household the title of abbir "mighty," was bestowed on the
person who held the post. 1Sa 21:7 [SHEEP]
Read More
a word naturally of frequent occurence in Scripture.
Sometimes
the word "pastor" is used instead (Jer. 2:8; 3:15;
10:21; 12:10;
17:16). This word is used figuratively to represent
the relation
of rulers to their subjects and of God to his people
(Ps. 23:1;
80:1; Isa. 40:11; 44:28; Jer. 25:34, 35; Nahum 3:18;
John 10:11,
14; Heb. 13:20; 1 Pet. 2:25; 5:4).
The duties of a shepherd in an unenclosed country
like
Israel were very onerous. "In early morning he led
forth the
flock from the fold, marching at its head to the
spot where they
were to be pastured. Here he watched them all day,
taking care
that none of the sheep strayed, and if any for a
time eluded his
watch and wandered away from the rest, seeking
diligently till
he found and brought it back. In those lands sheep
require to be
supplied regularly with water, and the shepherd for
this purpose
has to guide them either to some running stream or
to wells dug
in the wilderness and furnished with troughs. At
night he
brought the flock home to the fold, counting them as
they passed
under the rod at the door to assure himself that
none were
missing. Nor did his labours always end with sunset.
Often he
had to guard the fold through the dark hours from
the attack of
wild beasts, or the wily attempts of the prowling
thief (see 1
Sam. 17:34).", Deane's David.
Read More
Arise and thresh, O daughter of Zion: for I will make thine
horn iron, and I will make thy hoofs brass: and thou shalt
beat in pieces many people: and I will consecrate their gain
unto the LORD, and their substance unto the Lord of the whole
earth.
Read More
But if the ox were wont to push with his horn in time past,
and it hath been testified to his owner, and he hath not kept
him in, but that he hath killed a man or a woman; the ox shall
be stoned, and his owner also shall be put to death.
Read More
And it shall come to pass, that when they make a long [blast]
with the ram's horn, [and] when ye hear the sound of the
trumpet, all the people shall shout with a great shout; and
the wall of the city shall fall down flat, and the people
shall ascend up every man straight before him.
Read More
He also exalteth the horn of his people, the praise of all his
saints; [even] of the children of Israel, a people near unto
him. Praise ye the LORD.
Read More
And Hannah prayed, and said, My heart rejoiceth in the LORD,
mine horn is exalted in the LORD: my mouth is enlarged over
mine enemies; because I rejoice in thy salvation.
Read More
Then said I, What come these to do? And he spake, saying,
These [are] the horns which have scattered Judah, so that no
man did lift up his head: but these are come to fray them, to
cast out the horns of the Gentiles, which lifted up [their]
horn over the land of Judah to scatter it.
Read More
All these [were] the sons of Heman the king's seer in the
words of God, to lift up the horn. And God gave to Heman
fourteen sons and three daughters.
Read More
And the LORD said unto Samuel, How long wilt thou mourn for
Saul, seeing I have rejected him from reigning over Israel?
fill thine horn with oil, and go, I will send thee to Jesse
the Bethlehemite: for I have provided me a king among his
sons.
Read More
The adversaries of the LORD shall be broken to pieces; out of
heaven shall he thunder upon them: the LORD shall judge the
ends of the earth; and he shall give strength unto his king,
and exalt the horn of his anointed.
Read More
re-lij'-un: "Religion" and "religious" in Elizabethan English
were used frequently to denote the outward expression of
worship. This is the force of threskeia, translated "religion"
in Acts 26:5; Jas 1:26,27 (with adjective threskos,
"religious"), while the same noun in Col 2:18 is rendered
"worshipping" ("cult" would give the exact meaning). And in
the same external sense "religion" is used by the King James
Version for latreia, "worship" (so the Revised Version
(British and American)), in I Macc 1:43; 2:19,22. Otherwise
"Jews' religion" (or "religion of the Jews") appears in 2 Macc
8:1; 14:38 (the Revised Version (British and American) bis);
Gal 1:13,14 (Ioudaismos, "Judaism"); and "an alien religion"
in 2 Macc 6:24 (allophulismos, "that belonging to another
tribe"). The neglect of the external force of "religion" has
led to much reckless misquoting of Jas 1:26,27. Compare Acts
17:22.
Read More
FALSE
De 32:31-33
See IDOLATRY
See INTOLERANCE
See TEACHERS, FALSE
-FAMILY
See FAMILY
-NATIONAL
Supported by taxes
Ex 30:11-16; 38:26
Priests supported by the State
1Ki 18:19; 2Ch 11:13-15
Subverted by Jeroboam
1Ki 12:26-33; 2Ch 11:13-15
Established by Jeroboam
1Ki 12:26-33
-NATURAL
Job 12:7-16; 35:10-12; 37:1-24; Ps 8:1-9; 19:1-6; Ac
14:17;
17:23-28; Ro 1:18-20; 10:16-18
See REVIVALS
-TRUE
Mt 5:1-48; 6:1-34; 7:1-29; 22:36-40; Ac 10:34,35; Ro
8:1-18; 10:1-13; 12:1-21; 1Co 13:1-13; Ga 5:22-25;
1Th
5:15-23; Jas 1:27; 2:8-26; 2Pe 1:5-9; Jude 1:20,21
See BLESSINGS, SPIRITUAL
See COMMANDMENTS
See DUTY
See GRACES
See REGENERATION
See REPENTANCE
See SANCTIFICATION
See SIN, FORGIVENESS OF
-INSTANCES OF OUTSTANDING RELIGIOUS PERSONS
Abel
Ge 4:4-8; Heb 11:4
Noah
Ge 6; 7; 8; 9
Abraham
Ge 12:1-8; 15; 17; 18:22-33
Jacob
Ge 28:10-22; 32:24-32
Moses
Ex 3:2-22; De 32; 33
Jethro
Ex 18:12
Joshua
Jos 1
Gideon
Jud 6; 7
Samuel
1Sa 3
David
See PSALMS OF DAVID
Solomon
1Ki 5:3-5; 2Ch 6
Jehu
2Ki 10:16-30
Hezekiah
2Ki 18:3-7; 19:14-19
Jehoshaphat
2Ch 17:3-9; 19; 20
Jabez
1Ch 4:9,10
Asa
2Ch 14; 15
Josiah
2Ki 22; 23
Daniel
Da 6:4-22
The three Hebrews (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego)
Da 3
Zacharias
Lu 1:13,67-79
Simeon
Lu 2:25-35
Anna, the prophetess
Lu 2:36,37
The Roman centurion
Lu 7:1-10
Cornelius, another centurion
Ac 10
Eunice and Lois
2Ti 1:5
Read More
RELIGIOUS. James 1:26-27, threeskos, threeskeia; distinct from
eulabees ("reverent"; from the Old Testament standpoint;
"cautious fear toward God"), "devout" (Luke 2:25); theosebees,
"godly"; eusebees, "pious." "If any man seem a diligent
observer of the offices of religion (threeskos) ... pure and
undefiled religion (not the sum total or inner essentials of
religion, but its outer manifestations) is to visit the
fatherless," etc. The Old Testament cult or "religious
service" (threeskeia) was ceremony and ritual; the New
Testament religious service consists in acts of mercy, love,
and holiness. "Religion" refers to the external service,
"godliness" being the soul. James as president of the
Jerusalem council (Acts 15:13-21) had decided against
ritualism; so he teaches, instead of Judaic ceremonialism,
true religious service is (1) active, (2) passive (Micah 6:7-
8; Matthew 23:23); compare Acts 26:5, "our religion";
Colossians 2:18, "worshipping," threeskeia.
Read More
Of righteousness
2Ch 6:41; Isa 61:10; Re 6:11; 7:9,13
-The parable of the man who was not dressed in a wedding
garment
Mt 22:11
Read More
And the king of Israel said unto Jehoshaphat, I will disguise
myself, and will go to the battle; but put thou on thy robes.
So the king of Israel disguised himself; and they went to the
battle.
Read More
And the king of Israel said unto Jehoshaphat, I will disguise
myself, and enter into the battle; but put thou on thy robes.
And the king of Israel disguised himself, and went into the
battle.
Read More
And the king of Israel and Jehoshaphat king of Judah sat
either of them on his throne, clothed in [their] robes, and
they sat in a void place at the entering in of the gate of
Samaria; and all the prophets prophesied before them.
Read More
And the king of Israel and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah sat
each on his throne, having put on their robes, in a void place
in the entrance of the gate of Samaria; and all the prophets
prophesied before them.
Read More
After this I beheld, and, lo, a great multitude, which no man
could number, of all nations, and kindreds, and people, and
tongues, stood before the throne, and before the Lamb, clothed
with white robes, and palms in their hands;
Read More
Beware of the scribes, which desire to walk in long robes, and
love greetings in the markets, and the highest seats in the
synagogues, and the chief rooms at feasts;
Read More
And [she had] a garment of divers colours upon her: for with
such robes were the king's daughters [that were] virgins
apparelled. Then his servant brought her out, and bolted the
door after her.
Read More
Then all the princes of the sea shall come down from their
thrones, and lay away their robes, and put off their broidered
garments: they shall clothe themselves with trembling; they
shall sit upon the ground, and shall tremble at [every]
moment, and be astonished at thee.
Read More
And I said unto him, Sir, thou knowest. And he said to me,
These are they which came out of great tribulation, and have
washed their robes, and made them white in the blood of the
Lamb.
Read More
And white robes were given unto every one of them; and it was
said unto them, that they should rest yet for a little season,
until their fellowservants also and their brethren, that
should be killed as they [were], should be fulfilled.
Read More
So the people went forth, and brought [them], and made
themselves booths, every one upon the roof of his house, and
in their courts, and in the courts of the house of God, and in
the street of the water gate, and in the street of the gate of
Ephraim.
Read More
When thou buildest a new house, then thou shalt make a
battlement for thy roof, that thou bring not blood upon thine
house, if any man fall from thence.
Read More
Now the house was full of men and women; and all the lords of
the Philistines [were] there; and [there were] upon the roof
about three thousand men and women, that beheld while Samson
made sport.
Read More
And I will make thy tongue cleave to the roof of thy mouth,
that thou shalt be dumb, and shalt not be to them a reprover:
for they [are] a rebellious house.
Read More
Then Jesus went with them. And when he was now not far from
the house, the centurion sent friends to him, saying unto him,
Lord, trouble not thyself: for I am not worthy that thou
shouldest enter under my roof:
Read More
And David sat between the two gates: and the watchman went up
to the roof over the gate unto the wall, and lifted up his
eyes, and looked, and behold a man running alone.
Read More
The tongue of the sucking child cleaveth to the roof of his
mouth for thirst: the young children ask bread, [and] no man
breaketh [it] unto them.
Read More
The centurion answered and said, Lord, I am not worthy that
thou shouldest come under my roof: but speak the word only,
and my servant shall be healed.
Read More
And the roof of thy mouth like the best wine for my beloved,
that goeth [down] sweetly, causing the lips of those that are
asleep to speak.
Read More
If I do not remember thee, let my tongue cleave to the roof of
my mouth; if I prefer not Jerusalem above my chief joy.
Read More
ash'-iz: Among the ancient Hebrews #and other Orientals, to
sprinkle with or sit in ashes was a mark or token of grief,
humiliation, or penitence. Ashes on the head was one of the
ordinary signs of mourning for the dead, as when "Tamar put
ashes on her head .... and went on crying" (2 Sam 13:19 the
King James Version), and of national humiliation, as when
the children of Israel were assembled under Nehemiah "with
fasting, and with sackcloth, and earth (ashes) upon them"
(Neh 9:1), and when the people of Nineveh repented in
sackcloth and ashes at the preaching of Jonah (Jon 3:5,6;
compare 1 Macc 3:47). The afflicted or penitent often sat in
ashes (compare Job 2:8; 42:6: "I abhor myself, and repent in
dust and ashes"), or even wallowed in ashes, as Jeremiah
exhorted sinning Israel to do: "O daughter of my people ....
wallow thyself in ashes" (Jer 6:26), or as Ezekiel in his
lamentation for Tyre pictures her mariners as doing, crying
bitterly and `casting up dust upon their heads' and
`wallowing themselves in the ashes' (in their weeping for
her whose head was lifted up and become corrupted because of
her beauty), "in bitterness of soul with bitter mourning"
(Ezek 27:30,31).
However, these and various other modes of expressing grief,
repentance, and humiliation among the Hebrews, such as
rending the garments, tearing the hair and the like, were
not of Divine appointment, but were simply the natural
outbursts of the impassioned oriental temperament, and are
still customary among eastern peoples.
Figurative: The term "ashes" is often used to signify
worthlessness, insignificance or evanescence (Gen 18:27; Job
30:19). "Proverbs of ashes," for instance, in Job 13:12, is
Job's equivalent, says one writer, for our modern "rot." For
the ritual use of the ashes of the Red Heifer by the
priests, see RED HEIFER.
Read More
Uses of, in purification
Nu 19:9,10,17; Heb 9:13
-A symbol of mourning
2Sa 13:19; Es 4:1,3
-Sitting in
Job 2:8
-Repenting in
Job 42:6; Da 9:3; Jon 3:6; Mt 11:21; Lu 10:13
-Disguises in
1Ki 20:38,41
Read More
The ashes on the altar of burnt offering were gathered into a
cavity in its surface. The ashes of a red heifer burnt entire,
according to regulations prescribed in Numb. 19, had the
ceremonial efficacy of purifying the unclean, Heb 9:13 but of
polluting the clean. [SACRIFICE]
Ashes about the person, especially on the head, were
used as a sign of sorrow. [MOURNING]
Read More
The ashes of a red heifer burned entire (Num. 19:5) when
sprinkled on the unclean made them ceremonially clean
(Heb.
9:13).
To cover the head with ashes was a token of self-
abhorrence
and humiliation (2 Sam. 13:19; Esther 4:3; Jer. 6:26,
etc.).
To feed on ashes (Isa. 44:20), means to seek that
which will
prove to be vain and unsatisfactory, and hence it
denotes the
unsatisfactory nature of idol-worship. (Comp. Hos.
12:1).
Read More
Sitting down in, or covering one's self with, is the symbol of
mourning (Job 2:8; Job 42:6; Esther 4:1; Isaiah 61:3; Matthew
11:21). To eat asides expresses figuratively mourning is one's
food, i.e. one's perpetual portion (Psalm 102:9). "He feedeth
on ashes," i.e., tries to feed his soul with what is at once
humiliating and unsatisfying, on an idol which ought to have
been reduced to ashes, like the rest of the tree of which it
is made (Isaiah 44:20). The ashes of a red heifer burnt entire
(Numbers 19), when sprinkled upon, purified ceremonially the
unclean (Hebrews 9:13) but defiled the clean person.
Read More
Thou hast defiled thy sanctuaries by the multitude of thine
iniquities, by the iniquity of thy traffick; therefore will I
bring forth a fire from the midst of thee, it shall devour
thee, and I will bring thee to ashes upon the earth in the
sight of all them that behold thee.
Read More
And thou shalt make his pans to receive his ashes, and his
shovels, and his basons, and his fleshhooks, and his firepans:
all the vessels thereof thou shalt make [of] brass.
Read More
And the king commanded Hilkiah the high priest, and the
priests of the second order, and the keepers of the door, to
bring forth out of the temple of the LORD all the vessels that
were made for Baal, and for the grove, and for all the host of
heaven: and he burned them without Jerusalem in the fields of
Kidron, and carried the ashes of them unto Bethel.
Read More
And the priest shall put on his linen garment, and his linen
breeches shall he put upon his flesh, and take up the ashes
which the fire hath consumed with the burnt offering on the
altar, and he shall put them beside the altar.
Read More
Your remembrances [are] like unto ashes, your bodies to bodies
of clay.
Read More
Is it such a fast that I have chosen? a day for a man to
afflict his soul? [is it] to bow down his head as a bulrush,
and to spread sackcloth and ashes [under him]? wilt thou call
this a fast, and an acceptable day to the LORD?
Read More
O daughter of my people, gird [thee] with sackcloth, and
wallow thyself in ashes: make thee mourning, [as for] an only
son, most bitter lamentation: for the spoiler shall suddenly
come upon us.
Read More
And a man [that is] clean shall gather up the ashes of the
heifer, and lay [them] up without the camp in a clean place,
and it shall be kept for the congregation of the children of
Israel for a water of separation: it [is] a purification for
sin.
Read More
Woe unto thee, Chorazin! woe unto thee, Bethsaida! for if the
mighty works had been done in Tyre and Sidon, which have been
done in you, they had a great while ago repented, sitting in
sackcloth and ashes.
Read More
When Mordecai perceived all that was done, Mordecai rent his
clothes, and put on sackcloth with ashes, and went out into
the midst of the city, and cried with a loud and a bitter cry;
Read More
A symbol of mourning
1Ki 20:31,32; Job 16:15; Isa 15:3; Jer 4:8; 6:26;
49:3; La
2:10; Eze 7:18; Da 9:3; Joe 1:8
-Worn by Jacob when it was reported to him that Joseph had
been
devoured by wild animals
Ge 37:34
-Animals covered with, at a time of national mourning
Jon 3:8
Read More
cloth used in making sacks or bags, a coarse fabric, of a
dark color, made of goat's hair, Isa 50:3; Re 6:12 end
resembling the eilicium of the Romans. It, was used also for
making the rough garments used by mourners, which were in
extreme cases worn next the skin. 1Ki 21:27; 2Ki 6:30; Job
16:15; Isa 32:11
Read More
cloth made of black goats' hair, coarse, rough, and thick,
used
for sacks, and also worn by mourners (Gen. 37:34;
42:25; 2 Sam.
3:31; Esther 4:1, 2; Ps. 30:11, etc.), and as a sign
of
repentance (Matt. 11:21). It was put upon animals by
the people
of Nineveh (Jonah 3:8).
Read More
Of coarse, dark goat's hair. Used for sacks, also for close
fitting raiment in mourning; secured by a girdle (Genesis
42:25; 1 Kings 21:27; 2 Samuel 3:31).
Read More
And came even before the king's gate: for none [might] enter
into the king's gate clothed with sackcloth.
Read More
And his servants said unto him, Behold now, we have heard that
the kings of the house of Israel [are] merciful kings: let us,
I pray thee, put sackcloth on our loins, and ropes upon our
heads, and go out to the king of Israel: peradventure he will
save thy life.
Read More
And David lifted up his eyes, and saw the angel of the LORD
stand between the earth and the heaven, having a drawn sword
in his hand stretched out over Jerusalem. Then David and the
elders [of Israel, who were] clothed in sackcloth, fell upon
their faces.
Read More
Thou hast turned for me my mourning into dancing: thou hast
put off my sackcloth, and girded me with gladness;
Read More
The elders of the daughter of Zion sit upon the ground, [and]
keep silence: they have cast up dust upon their heads; they
have girded themselves with sackcloth: the virgins of
Jerusalem hang down their heads to the ground.
Read More
Gird yourselves, and lament, ye priests: howl, ye ministers of
the altar: come, lie all night in sackcloth, ye ministers of
my God: for the meat offering and the drink offering is
withholden from the house of your God.
Read More
Is it such a fast that I have chosen? a day for a man to
afflict his soul? [is it] to bow down his head as a bulrush,
and to spread sackcloth and ashes [under him]? wilt thou call
this a fast, and an acceptable day to the LORD?
Read More
O daughter of my people, gird [thee] with sackcloth, and
wallow thyself in ashes: make thee mourning, [as for] an only
son, most bitter lamentation: for the spoiler shall suddenly
come upon us.
Read More
And I will turn your feasts into mourning, and all your songs
into lamentation; and I will bring up sackcloth upon all
loins, and baldness upon every head; and I will make it as the
mourning of an only [son], and the end thereof as a bitter
day.
Read More
Woe unto thee, Chorazin! woe unto thee, Bethsaida! for if the
mighty works had been done in Tyre and Sidon, which have been
done in you, they had a great while ago repented, sitting in
sackcloth and ashes.
Read More
hu'-man: As an expression of religious devotion, human
sacrifice has been widespread at certain stages of the
race's development. The tribes of Western Asia were deeply
affected by the practice, probably prior to the settlement
of the Hebrews in Israel, and it continued at least down to
the 5th century BC. At times of great calamity, anxiety and
danger, parents sacrificed their children as the greatest
and most costly offering which they could make to propitiate
the anger of the gods and thus secure their favor and help.
There is no intimation in the Bible that enemies or captives
were sacrificed; only the offering of children by their
parents is mentioned. The belief that this offering
possessed supreme value is seen in Mic 6:6 f, where the
sacrifice of the firstborn is the climax of a series of
offerings which, in a rising scale of values, are suggested
as a means of propitiating the angry Yahweh. A striking
example of the rite as actually practiced is seen in 2 Ki
3:27, where Mesha the king of Moab (made famous by the
Moabite Stone), under the stress of a terrible siege,
offered his eldest son, the heir-apparent to the throne, as
a burnt offering upon the wall of Kir-hareseth. As a matter
of fact this horrid act seems to have had the effect of
driving off the allies.
Human sacrifice was ordinarily resorted to, no doubt, only
in times of great distress, but it seems to have been
practiced among the old Canaanitish tribes with some
frequency (Dt 12:31). The Israelites are said to have
borrowed it from their Canaanite neighbors (2 Ki 16:3; 2 Ch
28:3), and as a matter of fact human sacrifices were never
offered to Yahweh, but only to various gods of the land. The
god who was most frequently worshipped in this way was
Moloch or Molech, the god of the Ammonites (2 Ki 23:10; Lev
18:21; 20:2), but from Jeremiah we learn that the Phoenician
god Baal was, at least in the later period of the history,
also associated with Molech in receiving this worship (Jer
19:5; 31:35).
As in the case of the Canaanites, the only specific cases of
human sacrifice mentioned among the Israelites are those of
the royal princes, sons of Ahaz and Manasseh, the two kings
of Judah who were most deeply affected by the surrounding
heathen practices and who, at the same time, fell into great
national distress (2 Ki 16:3; 2 Ch 28:3; 2 Ki 21:6; 2 Ch
33:6). But it is clear from many general statements that the
custom was widespread among the masses of the people as
well. It is forbidden in the Mosaic legislation (Lev 18:21;
20:2-5; Dt 18:10); it is said in 2 Ki 17:17 that the
sacrifice of sons and daughters was one of the causes of the
captivity of the ten tribes. Jeremiah charges the people of
the Southern Kingdom with doing the same thing (Jer 7:31;
19:5; 31:35); with these general statements agree Isa 57:5;
Ezek 16:2 f; 20:31; 23:37; Ps 106:37 f. A study of these
passages makes it certain that in the period immediately
before the captivity of Judah, human sacrifice was by no
means confined to the royal family, but was rather common
among the people. Daughters as well as sons were sacrificed.
It is mentioned only once in connection with the Northern
Kingdom, and then only in the summary of the causes of their
captivity (2 Ki 17:17), but the Southern Kingdom in its
later years was evidently deeply affected. There were
various places where the bloody rite was celebrated (Jer
19:5), but the special high place, apparently built for the
purpose, was in the Valley of Tophet or Hinnom (ge-hinnom,
Gehenna) near Jerusalem (2 Ch 28:3; 33:6). This great high
place, built for the special purpose of human sacrifice (Jer
7:31; 32:35), was defiled by the good king Josiah in the
hope of eradicating the cruel practice (2 Ki 23:10).
The Biblical writers without exception look upon the
practice with horror as the supreme point of national and
religious apostasy, and a chief cause of national disaster.
They usually term the rite "passing through fire," probably
being unwilling to use the sacred term "sacrifice" in
reference to such a revolting custom. There is no evidence
of a continuance of the practice in captivity nor after the
return. It is said, however, that the heathen Sepharvites,
settled by the Assyrian kings in the depopulated territory
of the Northern Kingdom, "burnt their children in the fire
to Adrammelech and Anammelech, the gods of Sepharvaim" (2 Ki
17:31). The practice is not heard of again, and probably
rapidly died out. The restored Israelites were not affected
by it.
Compare SACRIFICE (Old Testament), VI, 10.
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IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
I. TERMS OF SACRIFICE EPITOMIZED
II. ATTITUDE OF JESUS AND NEW TESTAMENT WRITERS TO THE OLD
TESTAMENT SACRIFICIAL SYSTEM
1. Jesus' Attitude
2. Paul's Attitude
3. Attitude of the Author of Hebrews
III. THE SACRIFICIAL IDEA IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
1. Teaching of John the Baptist
2. Teaching of Jesus
3. Teaching of Peter
4. Paul's Teaching
5. Teaching of Hebrews
6. Johannine Teaching
IV. RELATION OF CHRIST'S SACRIFICE TO MAN'S SALVATION
1. Redemption or Deliverance from Curse of Sin
2. Reconciliation
3. Remission of Sins
4. The Cancellation of Guilt
5. Justification or Right Standing with God
6. Cleansing or Sanctification
7. Sonship
V. HOW CHRIST'S SACRIFICE PROCURES SALVATION
1. Jesus' Teaching
2. Paul's Teaching
3. Teaching of Hebrews
4. Petrine and Johannine Teaching
VI. RATIONALE OF THE EFFICACY OF CHRIST'S SACRIFICE
1. Jesus' Teaching
2. Paul's Teaching
3. The Teaching in Hebrews
VII. THE HUMAN CONDITIONS OF APPLICATION
1. Universal in Objective Potentiality
2. Efficacious When Subjectively Applied
VIII. THE CHRISTIAN'S LIFE THE LIFE OF SACRIFICE
1. Consequence of Christ's Sacrifice
2. Christ's Death the Appeal for Christian's Sacrifice
3. Necessary to Fill Out Christ's Sacrifice
4. Content of the Christian's Sacrifice
5. The Supper as a Sacrifice
LITERATURE
I. Terms of Sacrifice Epitomized.
The word "offering" (prosphora) describes the death of
Christ, once in Paul (Eph 5:2); 5 times in Hebrews (Heb
10:5,8,10,14,18). The verb prosphero, "to offer," is also
used, 15 times in Hebrews (Heb 5:1,3; 8:3,4; 9:7,14,25,28;
10:1,8,11,12; 11:4). The noun prosphora occurs 15 times in
the Septuagint, usually as the translation of minchah,
"sacrifice." This noun in the New Testament refers to Old
Testament sacrifices in Acts 7:42; 21:26; to the offering of
money in Acts 24:17; Rom 15:16. The verb anaphero, also
occurs 3 times in Hebrews (7:27; 9:28; 13:15); also in 1 Pet
2:5.
The word "sacrifice" (thusia in the Septuagint translates 8
different Hebrew words for various kinds of sacrifice,
occurring about 350 times) refers to Christ's death, once in
Paul (Eph 5:2) 5 times in Heb (5:1; 9:23,26; 10:12,26). It
refers several times to Old Testament sacrifice and 5 times
to Christian living or giving (Phil 2:17; 4:18; Heb
13:15,16; 1 Pet 2:5). The verb "to sacrifice" (thuo) is used
once by Paul to describe Christ's death (1 Cor 5:7).
The blood (haima) of Christ is said to secure redemption or
salvation, 6 times in Paul (Rom 3:25; 5:9; 1 Cor 10:16; Eph
1:7; 2:13; Col 1:20); 3 times in Hebrews (9:12,14; 10:19;
compare also 10:29); 2 times in 1 Peter (1:2,19) and 5 times
in the Johannine writings (1 Jn 1:7; 5:62,8; Rev 1:5).
Unmistakably this figure of the blood refers to Christ's
sacrificial death. "In any case the phrase (en to autou
haimati, `in his blood,' Rom 3:25) carries with it the idea
of sacrificial blood-shedding" (Sanday, Commentary on
Epistle to Romans, 91).
(lutron, "ransom," the price paid for redeeming, occurring
in Septuagint 19 times, meaning the price paid for redeeming
the servant (Lev 25:51,52); ransom for first-born (Nu 3:46);
ransom for the life of the owner of the goring ox (Ex 21:30,
etc.)) occurs in the New Testament only twice (Mt 20:28; Mk
10:45). This word is used by Jesus to signify the
culmination of His sacrificial life in His sacrificial
death.
(antilutron, "ransom," a word not found in Septuagint,
stronger in meaning than the preceding word) occurs only
once in the New Testament (1 Tim 2:6).
(apolutrosis, "redemption," in Ex 21:8, meaning the ransom
paid by a father to redeem his daughter from a cruel master)
signifies (1) deliverance from sin by Christ's death, 5
times in Paul (Rom 3:24; 1 Cor 1:30; Eph 1:7,14; Col 1:14);
once in Hebrews (9:15); (2) general deliverance, twice (Lk
21:28; Heb 11:35); (3) the Christian's final deliverance,
physical and spiritual (Rom 8:23; Eph 4:30). The simple word
(lutrosis, "redemption," 10 times in Septuagint as the
translation of 5 Hebrew words) occurs once for spiritual
deliverance (Heb 9:12).
(exagorazo, "redeem," only once in Septuagint, Dan 2:8) in
the New Testament means (1) to deliver from the curse of the
law, twice by Paul (Gal 3:13; 4:5); (2) to use time wisely,
twice by Paul (Eph 5:16; Col 4:5). The simple verb (agorazo,
meaning in Lev 27:19 to redeem land) occurs twice in Paul (1
Cor 6:20; 7:23) and means "to redeem" (in a spiritual
sense). katallage, "reconciliation," only twice in the
Septuagint) means...
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VI. Rationale of the Efficacy of Christ's Sacrifice.
1. Jesus' Teaching:
Jesus emphasizes His voluntary spirit in making the
sacrifice. "The Son of man also came .... to give his life a
ransom." The sacrifice was voluntary, not compulsory. God
did not force Him to lay down His life; He chose to do so
(compare Jn 10:11). But Jesus gives us no philosophy on this
or any other element in His sacrifice as being the ground of
its efficacy.
2. Paul's Teaching:
Paul also emphasizes the voluntary gift of Christ (Gal
2:20), but he urges rather the dignity of Him who makes the
sacrifice as a ground of its efficacy. It is the sacrifice
of God's Son, shown to be such in His resurrection (Rom 1:4;
4:25b). It was no ordinary man but the sinless Son who gave
"himself" (Gal 2:20). It was not merely a dying Christ but
the Son who rose again "in power" (Rom 1:4), who secures our
"justification" (Rom 4:25b; 1 Cor 15:3,4,17b). Paul also
emphasizes the sinless life and character of Jesus as a
ground of efficacy in Christ's sacrifice, "who knew no sin"
in His life experience (2 Cor 5:21a).
3. The Teaching in Hebrews:
The author of Hebrews, most of all New Testament writers,
elaborates the grounds of efficacy in Christ's sacrifice.
(1) It was a personal not an animal sacrifice (9:12-14;
9:26, "sacrifice of himself"; 10:4). (2) It was the
sacrifice of the Son of God (3:5). (3) It was a royal person
who made the sacrifice (6:20b; 7:1, "after the order of
Melchizedek .... king of Salem"). (4) It was a sinless
person (7:26,27; 9:14; 10:10,12). Westcott, Commentary on
Hebrews, 298, well says, "It becomes necessary, therefore,
in order to gain a complete view of the Sacrifice of Christ,
to combine with the crowning act upon the Cross His
fulfillment of the will of God from first to last, the
Sacrifice of Life with the Sacrifice of Death." (5) It was
an eternal person (6:20, "for ever"; 7:16, "after the power
of an endless (margin "indissoluble") life"). The author of
Hebrews reaches the climax of his argument for the superior
efficacy of Christ's sacrifice when he represents Him as
entering the holy of holies in the very presence of God to
complete the offering for man's sin (8:1,2; 9:11,12,24).
Peter and John do not discuss the ground of efficacy, and so
add nothing to our conclusions above. The efficacy of the
sacrifice is suggested by describing the glory of the person
(1 Pet 1:19; 2:22,23; 1 Jn 1:7b; 2:2).
To sum up our conclusion as to the efficacy of Christ's
sacrifice: Jesus and the leading New Testament writers
intimate that the efficacy of His sacrifice centers in His
personality. Jesus, Peter and John do not discuss the
subject directly. Paul, though discussing it more
extensively, does not do so fully, but the author of Heb
centers and culminates his argument for the finality of
Christianity, in the superior efficacy of Christ's
sacrifice, which is grounded in His personality, divine,
royal, sinless, eternal (see Menegoz, Theol. de l'Ep. aux
Hebreux). It is easy to see, from the position...
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sak'-ri-fis, sak'-ri-fiz:
IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
I. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
II. ORIGIN AND NATURE OF SACRIFICES
1. Theory of a Divine Revelation
2. Theories of a Human Origin
(1) The Gift-Theory
(2) The Magic Theory
(3) The Table-Bond Theory
(4) The Sacramental Communion Theory
(5) The Homage Theory
(6) The Piacular Theory
(7) Originating Religious Instincts
III. CLASSIFICATION OF SACRIFICES
1. Maimonides
2. W.R. Smith and Others
3. Oehler
4. Paterson and Others
5. H.M. Wiener
IV. SACRIFICES IN THE PRE-MOSAIC AGE
1. In Egypt
2. In Babylonia
3. Nomads and Tribes of Arabia and Syria
4. The Offerings of Cain and Abel
5. Of Noah
6. Of Abraham
7. Of Job
8. Of Isaac
9. Of Jacob
10. Of Israel in Egypt
11. Of Jethro
12. Summary and Conclusions
V. THE MOSAIC SACRIFICIAL SYSTEM
1. The Covenant Sacrifice
2. The Common Altars
3. The Consecration of Aaron and His Sons
4. Sacrifices before the Golden Calf
5. The Law of the Burnt Offering (`Olah)
(1) Ritual for the Offerer (Leviticus 1:3-17)
(2) Ritual for the Priest (Leviticus 1:3-17)
(3) General Laws for the Priest
(4) Laws in Deuteronomy 12:6,13,14,27; 27:6
6. The Law of the Meal Offering (Minchah)...
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V. The Mosaic Sacrificial System.
1. The Covenant Sacrifice:
The fundamental function of Moses' work was to establish the
covenant between Israel and God. This important transaction
took place at Sinai and was accompanied by solemn
sacrifices. The foundation principle was obedience, not
sacrifices (Ex 19:4-8). No mention is made of these at the
time, as they were incidental--mere by-laws to the
constitution. The center of gravity in Israel's religion is
now shifted from sacrifices to obedience and loyalty to
Yahweh. Sacrifices were helps to that end and without
obedience were worthless. This is in exact accordance with
Jer 7:21 ff. God did not speak unto the fathers at this time
about sacrifices; He did speak about obedience.
The covenant having been made, the terms and conditions are
laid down by Moses and accepted by the people (Ex 24:3). The
Decalogue and Covenant Code are given, an altar is built,
burnt offerings and peace offerings of oxen are slain by
young men servants of Moses, not by priests, and blood is
sprinkled on the altar (Ex 24:4 ff). The blood would
symbolize the community of life between Yahweh and Israel,
and consecrated the altar. The Law was read, the pledge
again given, and Moses sprinkled the representatives of the
people, consecrating them also (Ex 24:7 f). Ascending the
mount, they had a vision of God, held a feast before Him,
showing the joys and privileges of the new relationship. The
striking feature of these ceremonies is the use of the
blood. It is expiatory and consecrating, it is life offered
to God, it consecrates the altar and the people: they are
now acceptable to God and dare approach Him and feast with
Him. There is no idea of God's drinking the blood. The
entire ritual is far removed from the crass features of
common Semitic worship.
2. The Common Altars:
In the Covenant Code, which the people accepted, the
customary altars are not abolished, but regulated (Ex 20:24
ff). This law expressly applies to the time when they shall
be settled in Canaan. `In the whole place where I cause my
name to be remembered,' etc. (Ex 20:24 margin). No need to
change the reading to "in every place where I cause," etc.,
as the Wellhausen school does for obvious reasons. All the
land was eligible. On such rude altars sacrifices were
allowed. This same law is implied in Dt 16:21, a passage
either ignored or explained away by the Wellhausen school
(see Wiener, Essays in Pentateuchal Criticism, 200 f). Moses
commanded Joshua in accordance with it (Dt 27:5 ff). Joshua,
Gideon, Jephthah, Samuel, Saul, David, Elijah and many
others used such altars. There were altars at Shechem (Josh
24:1,26), Mizpah in Gilead (Jdg 11:11), Gilgal (1 Sam 13:9).
High places were chiefly used until the times of Hezekiah
and Josiah, when they were abolished because of their
corruptions, etc. All such altars were perfectly legitimate
and in fact necessary, until there was a central capital and
sanctuary in Jerusalem. The customary burnt offerings and
peace offerings with the worshipper officiating were the
chief factors. Heathen sacrifices and the use of heathen
altars were strictly forbidden (Ex 22:20 (Hebrew 19); 34:15)
3. The Consecration of Aaron and His Sons:
The altar used at the consecration of Aaron and his sons was
a "horned" or official altar, the central one. The offerings
were a bullock, two rams, unleavened bread, etc. (Ex 29:1-
4), and were brought to the door of the sanctuary. The
ritual consisted of Aaron laying his hand on the bullock's
head, designating it as his substitute (Ex 29:10), killing
it before the tent of meeting (Ex 29:11), smearing some
blood on the horns of the altar, and pouring...
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VIII. Sacrifice in the "Writings."
1. Proverbs:
Dates are very uncertain here. The Psalms and Proverbs
extend from David and Solomon into the Persian period. The
sages take the same attitude as the prophets. They enjoin
the sacrifice of first-fruits (Prov 3:9). A feast usually
follows a sacrifice of peace offerings (7:14). The trespass
offering (?) has no meaning to fools (14:9), and the
sacrifices of the wicked are an abomination to God (15:8;
21:27). Righteousness and justice are more acceptable to
Yahweh than sacrifices (21:3), yet to them sacrifices are a
regular part of worship. Qoheleth speaks of sacrifices as
quite the custom, and deprecates the offerings of fools
(Eccl 5:1; 9:2).
2. The Psalms:
The Psalmist admonishes the faithful to offer the sacrifices
of righteousness, i.e. sacrifices offered in the right
spirit (Ps 4:5). The drink offerings of idolaters are well
known (Ps 16:4). Prayer is made for the acceptance of
sacrifices (Ps 20:3). It is a coveted privilege to offer
them (Ps 27:6; 84:1-4). The true relation between sacrifice
and obedience is expressed in Ps 40:6-8. As in Jer 7:21 f,
the emphasis is laid on obedience, without which sacrifices
are worthless and repugnant to God. They are not the
important thing in Israel's religion, for that religion
could exist without them as in the wilderness and exile. The
teaching corresponds exactly with that of the prophets and
is probably late. Ps 50 is even more emphatic. The Psalmist
knows that sacrifices are in the covenant regulations
(50:5), but repudiates the idea of giving anything to God or
of feeding Him (50:12,13). Everything belongs to Him, He is
not hungry, He would scorn the idea of drinking the blood of
goats, etc. The idea of the cult being of any real value to
God is scouted. Yet in the next verse the reader is
admonished to offer sacrifices of thanksgiving and pay vows
(50:14). The sacrifices that express worship, penitence,
prayer, thanksgiving and faith are acceptable. The penitent
Psalmist speaks in similar terms. Sacrifices as such are no
delight to God, the real sacrifice is a broken heart (51:16
f). When the heart is right, then, as an expression of true-
heartedness, devotion, repentance and faith, burnt offerings
are highly acceptable (51:19). Another Psalmist promises a
freewill offering to God (54:6; 66:13,15). Sacrifices of
thanksgiving are advised (96:8; 107:22; 118:27) and promised
(116:17). Prayer is likened to the evening sacrifice
(141:2).
IX. The Idea and Efficacy of Sacrifices.
That the Hebrews thoroughly believed in the efficacy of
sacrifices is without doubt. What ideas they entertained
regarding them is not so clear. No single theory can account
for all the facts. The unbloody sacrifices were regarded as
food for the Deity, or a pleasant odor, in one instance,
taking the place of a bloody offering (see above). The
bloody offerings present some difficulties, and hence, many
different views.
1. A Gift of Food to the Deity:
Included under the head of gifts of food to the Deity would
be the meal and peace offerings, in so far as they were
consumed by fire, the burnt offerings and the shewbread,
etc. They were fire-food, the fire-distilled essence or
etherealized food for God which gave Him pleasure and
disposed Him favorably toward the offerer. They were
intended either to appease wrath, to win favor, or to
express thanks and gratitude for favors experienced. The
earlier and more naive idea was probably to win the favor of
the Deity by a gift. Later, other ideas were expressed in
the offerings.
2. Expression of Adoration and Devotion, etc.:
The burnt offering best gave expression to the sentiments of
adoration and devotion, though...
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FIGURATIVE
Isa 34:6; Eze 39:17; Zep 1:7,8; Ro 12:1; Php 2:17;
4:18
Of self-denial
Php 3:7,8
Of praise
Ps 116:17; Jer 33:11; Ho 14:2; Heb 13:15
"Calves of the lips" signifying praise
Ho 14:2
See OFFERINGS
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The peculiar features of each kind of sacrifice are referred
to under their respective heads. I. (A) ORIGIN OF SACRIFICE.
--The universal prevalence of sacrifice shows it to have
been primeval, and deeply rooted in the instincts of
humanity. Whether it was first enjoined by an external
command, or whether it was based on that sense of sin and
lost communion with God which is stamped by his hand on the
heart of man, is a historical question which cannot be
determined. (B) ANTE-MOSAIC HISTORY OF SACRIFICE. --In
examining the various sacrifices recorded in Scripture
before the establishment of the law, we find that the words
specially denoting expiatory sacrifice are not applied to
them. This fact does not at all show that they were not
actually expiatory, but it justified the inference that this
idea was not then the prominent one in the doctrine of
sacrifice. The sacrifices of Cain and Abel are called
minehah, tend appear to have been eucharistic. Noah's, Ge
8:20 and Jacob's at Mizpah, were at the institution of a
covenant; and may be called federative. In the burnt
offerings of Job for his children Job 1:5 and for his three
friends ch. Job 42:8 we for the first time find the
expression of the desire of expiation for sin. The same is
the case in the words of Moses to Pharaoh. Ex 10:26 Here the
main idea is at least deprecatory. (C) THE SACRIFICES OF THE
MOSAIC PERIOD. --These are inaugurated by the offering of
the Passover and the sacrifice of Ex 24:1 ... The Passover
indeed is unique in its character but it is clear that the
idea of salvation from death by means of sacrifice is
brought out in it with a distinctness before unknown. The
law of Leviticus now unfolds distinctly the various forms of
sacrifice: (a) The burnt offering: Self-dedicatory. (b) The
meat offering: (unbloody): Eucharistic. (c) The sin
offering; the trespass offering: Expiatory. To these may be
added, (d) The incense offered after sacrifice in the holy
place and (on the Day of Atonement) in the holy of holies,
the symbol of the intercession of the priest (as a type of
the great High Priest) accompanying and making efficacious
the prayer of the people. In the consecration of Aaron and
his sons, Le 8:1 ... we find these offered in what became
ever afterward their appointed order. First came the sin
offering, to prepare access to God; next the burnt offering,
to mark their dedication to his service; and third the meat
offering of thanksgiving. Henceforth the sacrificial system
was fixed in all its parts until he should come whom it
typified. (D) POST-MOSAIC SACRIFICES. --It will not be
necessary to pursue, in detail the history of the Poet
Mosaic sacrifice, for its main principles were now fixed
forever. The regular sacrifices in the temple service were--
(a) Burnt offerings.
1, the daily burnt offerings, Ex 29:38-42
2, the double burnt offerings on the Sabbath, Nu
28:9,10
3, the burnt offerings at the great festivals; Nu
26:11 ... 29:39 (b) Meat offerings.
1, the daily meat offerings accompanying the daily
burnt offerings, Ex 29:40,41
2, the shewbread, renewed every Sabbath, Le 24:6,9
3, the special meat offerings at the Sabbath and the
great festivals, Nu 28:1 ..., 29:1 ...
4, the first-fruits, at the Passover, Le 23:10-14 at
Pentecost, Le 23:17-20 the firstfruits of the dough and
threshing-floor at the harvest time. Nu 15:20,21; De 26:1-11
(c) Sin offerings.
1, sin offering each new moon Nu 28:15
2, sin offerings at the passover, Pentecost, Feast
of Trumpets...
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And the LORD said unto me, Cast it unto the potter: a goodly
price that I was prised at of them. And I took the thirty
[pieces] of silver, and cast them to the potter in the house
of the LORD.
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Song of Moses, after the passage through the Red Sea
Ex 15:1-19
-Of Miriam
Ex 15:21
-Of Deborah, after defeating the Canaanites
Jud 5
-Of Hannah
1Sa 2:1-10
-Of David
Celebrating his deliverance from the hand of Saul
2Sa 22
On bringing the ark of the covenant to Zion
1Ch 16:8-36
At the close of his reign
1Ch 29:10-19
-The chorus when Solomon brought the ark of the covenant
into
the temple
2Ch 5:13
-Psalms of, for God's goodness to Israel
Ps 46; 48; 65; 66; 68; 76; 81; 85; 98; 105; 124;
126; 129;
135; 136
-See the Scriptures below
-For God's goodness to righteous men
Ps 23; 34; 36; 91; 100; 103; 107; 117; 121
-See printed scriptures below
-For God's goodness to individuals
Ps 9; 18; 22; 30; 40; 75; 103; 108; 116; 118; 138;
144
-For God's attributes
Ps 8; 19; 22; 24; 29; 33; 47; 50; 65; 66; 76; 77;
92; 93;
95; 96; 97; 98; 99; 104; 111; 113; 114; 115; 134;
139; 147;
148; 150
-UNCLASSIFIED SCRIPTURES RELATING TO
Ge 14:20; Ex 15:1,2; De 10:21; Jud 5:3; 2Sa 22:4;
1Ch
16:31,33,34,36; 23:30; 2Ch 7:3; Ne 9:5,6; Job 36:24;
Ps
7:17; 8:2; 9:11; 18:3; 21:13; 22:22,23,25; 24:7-10;
26:12;
28:6,7; 30:4; 32:11; 33:1-3; 34:1-3; 35:18,28;
41:13; 42:4;
43:3,4; 47:1,6,7; 48:1; 50:23; 51:15; 52:9;
56:10,12;
57:7-9; 61:8; 63:3-6; 65:1; 66:1,2,4,8; 67:3,4;
68:4,26,32-34; 69:30,34; 70:4; 71:8,14,15,22; 75:1;
79:13;
81:1; 84:4; 86:12; 89:5,52; 92:1-3; 95:1,2,6,7;
96:1-4,7-9;
97:12; 98:4-6; 99:3,5,9; 100:1-5; 101:1; 103:20-22;
104:33,34; 105:1-5; 106:1,48; 107:8,9,15,21,31,32;
108:1-3;
109:30; 111:1,10; 113:1,2; 115:18; 116:12-14,17-19;
117:1,2;
118:15,28,29; 119:7,62,108,164,171,172,175; 134:1,2;
135:1-3,19,21; 136:1-26; 138:1,2; 140:13; 144:1,2,9;
145:1-21; 146:1-10; 147:1-20; 148:1-14; 149:1-9;
150:1-6;
Isa 12:1-6; 24:14-16; 25:1; 35:10; 38:18,19; 42:10-
12;
43:21; 49:13; 51:3; 52:7-10; 61:3; Jer 31:7; 33:11;
Da
2:20,23; 4:37; Jon 2:9; Mt 26:30; Mr 14:26; Lu
1:46-55,67-75; 2:20; 17:15,16; 19:37,38; 24:52,53;
Ac
2:46,47; 4:24; 16:25; Ro 11:36; 16:27; 1Co 14:15;
15:57; Eph
1:3; 3:20,21; 5:19; Php 4:20; 1Ti 1:17; Heb 2:12;
13:15; Jas
5:13; 1Pe 1:3; 2:9; 4:11; 5:11; 2Pe 3:18; Jude 1:25;
Re 1:6;
14:7
-IN HEAVEN
Ne 9:6; Job 38:7; Ps 103:20,21; 148:2,4; Isa 6:3;
Eze 3:12;
Lu 2:13,14; 15:7,10; Re 1:6; 4:8-11; 5:9-14; 7:9-12;
11:16,17; 14:2,3; 15:3,4; 19:1-7
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praz (tehillah, "psalm," "praise," todhah, "confession"
"thanksgiving," shabhach, "to praise" "glorify," zamar,
yadhah, "to stretch out the hand," "confess"; aineo,
epaineo, (epainos):
1. Its Meaning:
The word comes from the Latin pretium, "price," or "value,"
and may be defined generally as an ascription of value or
worth. Praise may be bestowed upon unworthy objects or from
improper motives, but true praise consists in a sincere
acknowledgment of a real conviction of worth. Its type may
be seen in the representation given in the Apocalypse of the
adoration of God and of the Lamb, which is inspired by a
sense of their worthiness to be adored (Rev 4:11; 5:12).
2. With Man as Its Object:
Man may be the object of praise, and may receive it either
from God or from his fellow-men. In the former case (Rom
2:29; 1 Cor 4:5) the praise is inevitably just, as resting
on a divine estimate of worth; in the latter case its value
depends upon the grounds and motives that lie behind it.
There is a praise which is itself a condemnation (Lk 6:26),
an honor which seals the eyes in unbelief (Jn 5:44), a
careless use of the epithet "good" which is dishonoring to
God (Lk 18:19). This is the "praise of men" which Jesus
warned His followers to shun as being incompatible with the
"praise of God" (Mt 6:1-4; compare Jn 12:43; Gal 1:10; 1
Thess 2:6). On the other hand, there is a praise that is the
instinctive homage of the soul to righteousness (Lk 23:47),
the acknowledgment given to well-doing by just government
(Rom 13:3; 1 Pet 2:14), the tribute of the churches to
distinguished Christian service (2 Cor 8:18). Such praise,
so far from being incompatible with the praise of God, is a
reflection of it in human consciousness; and so Paul
associates praise with virtue as an aid and incentive to
holy living on which the mind should dwell (Phil 4:8).
3. With God as Its Object:
In the Bible it is God who is especially brought before us
as the object of praise. His whole creation praises Him,
from the angels of heaven (Ps 103:20; Rev 5:11) to those
lower existences that are unconscious or even inanimate (Ps
19:1-4; 148:1-10; Rev 5:13). But it is with the praises
offered to God by man, and with the human duty of praising
God, that the Scriptures are principally concerned. In
regard to this subject the following points may be noticed:
(1) The Grounds of Praise.
Sometimes God is praised for His inherent qualities. His
majesty (Ps 104:1) or holiness (Isa 6:3) fills the mind, and
He is "glorified as God" (Rom 1:21) in view of what He
essentially is. More frequently He is praised for His works
in creation, providence, and redemption. References may be
dispensed with here, for the evidence meets us on almost
every page of the sacred literature from Genesis to
Revelation, and the Book of Psalms in particular, from
beginning to end, is occupied with these themes. When God's
operations under these aspects present themselves, not
simply as general effects of His power and wisdom, but as
expressions of His personal love to the individual, the
nation, the church, His works become benefits, and praise
passes into blessing and thanksgiving (Pss 34; 103; Eph 1:3;
1 Pet 1:3).
(2) The Modes of Praise.
True praise of God, as distinguished from false...
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I thank thee, and praise thee, O thou God of my fathers, who
hast given me wisdom and might, and hast made known unto me
now what we desired of thee: for thou hast [now] made known
unto us the king's matter.
Read More
Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever
things [are] honest, whatsoever things [are] just, whatsoever
things [are] pure, whatsoever things [are] lovely, whatsoever
things [are] of good report; if [there be] any virtue, and if
[there be] any praise, think on these things.
Read More
Praise him, ye heavens of heavens, and ye waters that [be]
above the heavens.
Read More
Thou [art] my God, and I will praise thee: [thou art] my God,
I will exalt thee.
Read More
And Hezekiah appointed the courses of the priests and the
Levites after their courses, every man according to his
service, the priests and Levites for burnt offerings and for
peace offerings, to minister, and to give thanks, and to
praise in the gates of the tents of the LORD.
Read More
And she looked, and, behold, the king stood at his pillar at
the entering in, and the princes and the trumpets by the king:
and all the people of the land rejoiced, and sounded with
trumpets, also the singers with instruments of musick, and
such as taught to sing praise. Then Athaliah rent her clothes,
and said, Treason, Treason.
Read More
And the priests waited on their offices: the Levites also
with instruments of musick of the LORD, which David the king
had made to praise the LORD, because his mercy [endureth] for
ever, when David praised by their ministry; and the priests
sounded trumpets before them, and all Israel stood.
Read More
My heart is fixed, O God, my heart is fixed: I will sing and
give praise.
Read More
And they shall come from the cities of Judah, and from the
places about Jerusalem, and from the land of Benjamin, and
from the plain, and from the mountains, and from the south,
bringing burnt offerings, and sacrifices, and meat offerings,
and incense, and bringing sacrifices of praise, unto the house
of the LORD.
Read More
And they shall come from the cities of Judah, and from the
places about Jerusalem, and from the land of Benjamin, and
from the plain, and from the mountains, and from the south,
bringing burnt offerings, and sacrifices, and meat offerings,
and incense, and bringing sacrifices of praise, unto the house
of the LORD.
Read More
And he appointed, according to the order of David his father,
the courses of the priests to their service, and the Levites
to their charges, to praise and minister before the priests,
as the duty of every day required: the porters also by their
courses at every gate: for so had David the man of God
commanded.
Read More
wur'-ship (Anglo-Saxon: weorthscipe, wyrthscype, "honor,"
from weorth, wurth, "worthy," "honorable," and scipe,
"ship"):
1. Terms
2. Old Testament Worship
3. New Testament Worship
4. Public Christian Worship
LITERATURE
Honor, reverence, homage, in thought, feeling, or act, paid
to men, angels, or other "spiritual" beings, and
figuratively to other entities, ideas, powers or qualities,
but specifically and supremely to Deity.
1. Terms:
The principal Old Testament word is shachah, "depress," "bow
down," "prostrate" (Hithpael), as in Ex 4:31, "bowed their
heads and worshipped"; so in 94 other places. The context
determines more or less clearly whether the physical act or
the volitional and emotional idea is intended. The word is
applied to acts of reverence to human superiors as well as
supernatural. the Revised Version (British and American)
renders it according to its physical aspect, as indicated by
the context, "bowed himself down" (the King James Version
"worshipped," Gen 24:52; compare 23:7; 27:29, etc.).
Other words are: caghadh, "prostrate," occurring in Isa
44:15,17,19; 46:6, but rendered (English Versions of the
Bible) "fall down." In Dan 2:46; 3:5,6,7,10,15,18,28, it
(Aramaic ceghidh) is "worship" (English Versions of the
Bible), 7 times associated with "falling down" and 5 times
with "serve." `abhadh, "work," "labor," "serve," is rendered
"worship" by English Versions of the Bible in 2 Ki 10:19,21
ff: "the worshippers (servants) of Baal." In Isa 19:21 the
Revised Version (British and American) has "worship with
sacrifice and oblation" (the King James Version "do
sacrifice"). Isa 19:23 the King James Version has "served,"
the Revised Version (British and American) "worship."
`atsabh, "carve," "fabricate," "fashion," is once given
"worship," i.e. "make (an object of) worship" (Jer 44:19,
the American Revised Version margin "portray").
The Old Testament idea is therefore the reverential attitude
of mind or body or both, combined with the more generic
notions of religions adoration, obedience, service.
The principal New Testament word (59 times) is proskuneo,
"kiss (the hand or the ground) toward," hence, often in the
oriental fashion bowing prostrate upon the ground;
accordingly, Septuagint uses it for the Hithpael of shachah
(hishtachawah), "prostrate oneself." It is to render homage
to men, angels, demons, the Devil, the "beast," idols, or to
God. It is rendered 16 times to Jesus as a beneficent
superior; at least 24 times to God or to Jesus as God. The
root idea of bodily prostration is much less prominent than
in the Old Testament. It is always translated "worship."
Next in frequency is sebomai, "venerate," and its various
cognates, sebazomai, eusebeo, theosebes, sebasma. Its root
is sebas, "fear," but this primitive meaning is completely
merged into "reverence," "hold in awe": "In vain do they
worship me" (Mt 15:9, etc.). latreuo, is "serve"
(religiously), or "worship publicly," "perform sacred
services," "offer gifts," "worship God in the observance of
the rites instituted for His worship." It is translated
"worship" in Acts 7:42; 24:14 the King James Version, but
"serve," American Standard Revised Version: "serve the host
of heaven," "serve I the God of our fathers"; but both the
King James Version and...
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To be rendered only to God
Ex 20:3; De 5:7; 6:13; Mt 4:10; Lu 4:8; Ac 10:26;
14:15;
Col 2:18; Re 19:10; 22:8
-Of Jesus
See JESUS, WORSHIP OF
-Acceptable to God
Ge 4:4; 8:21
-Of the wicked rejected
Ge 4:5,7
-See PRAYER, OF THE WICKED
-"Iniquity of the holy things,"
Ex 28:38
-Public, in the temple
Jer 26:2; Lu 18:10; 24:53
-David's ordinances for
1Ch 23; 24; 25; 26
-Family
De 16:11,14
-Of Abraham
Ge 12:7,8; 13:4,18
-Of Jacob
Ge 35:2,3
-Of Job
Job 1:5
-Of the Philippian jailer
Ac 16:34
-In private homes
Ac 1:1,3,14; 5:42; 12:12; 20:7-9; Ro 16:5; 1Co
16:19; Col
4:15; Phm 1:2
-In the night
Isa 30:29; Ac 16:25
-Jesus prays all night long
Lu 6:12
-Postures in
Bowing
Ex 34:8; 2Ch 20:18
-Prostration
Ge 17:3; Mr 3:11
-See PRAYER, ATTITUDES IN
-Prayer in
See PRAYER
-God's presence in
Le 19:30; Ps 77:13; 84:4; Isa 56:7; Heb 10:25
-Loved by his people
Ps 27:4; 84:1-3,10; Zec 8:21
-Benedictions pronounced
See BENEDICTIONS
-The whole nation required to assemble for, including men,
women, children, servants, and foreigners
De 16:11; 31:11-13
-On Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal
Jos 8:32-35
-The word of God read in public assemblies
Ex 24:7; De 27:12-26; 31:11-13; Jos 8:33-35; 2Ki
23:1-3; Ne
8:1-8,13-18; Mt 21:23; Lu 4:16,17; 1Ti 4:13
-Of angels, forbidden
Re 19:10; 22:8,9
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homage rendered to God which it is sinful (idolatry) to
render
to any created being (Ex. 34:14; Isa. 2:8). Such
worship was
refused by Peter (Acts 10:25,26) and by an angel (Rev.
22:8,9).
Read More
Greek neokoros. "Temple keeper "; originally an attendant in
charge of a temple. Then applied to cities devoted to the
worship of some special idol, as Ephesus was to that of Diana
(Acts 19:35), In Nero's reign about the same date, A.D. 55 or
56, a coin is extant inscribed with Neocoron Ephesion, and on
the reverse Diana's temple (Mionnet Inset. 3:9; Eckhel Doctr.
Vet. Num. 2:520. (See RELIGION.) Ancient representations
strikingly confirm the picture which Isaiah gives us in
chapter 44 of the man who "hath formed a god, ... he marketh
it out with a line ... after the figure of a man ... he taketh
the cypress and the oak ... he maketh a god and worshippeth
it; he maketh it a graven image" (Isaiah 44:10-15).
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In this thing the LORD pardon thy servant, [that] when my
master goeth into the house of Rimmon to worship there, and he
leaneth on my hand, and I bow myself in the house of Rimmon:
when I bow down myself in the house of Rimmon, the LORD pardon
thy servant in this thing.
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But when the people of the land shall come before the LORD in
the solemn feasts, he that entereth in by the way of the north
gate to worship shall go out by the way of the south gate; and
he that entereth by the way of the south gate shall go forth
by the way of the north gate: he shall not return by the way
of the gate whereby he came in, but shall go forth over
against it.
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And he had power to give life unto the image of the beast,
that the image of the beast should both speak, and cause that
as many as would not worship the image of the beast should be
killed.
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All the earth shall worship thee, and shall sing unto thee;
they shall sing [to] thy name. Selah.
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Exalt the LORD our God, and worship at his holy hill; for the
LORD our God [is] holy.
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Thus saith the LORD, the Redeemer of Israel, [and] his Holy
One, to him whom man despiseth, to him whom the nation
abhorreth, to a servant of rulers, Kings shall see and arise,
princes also shall worship, because of the LORD that is
faithful, [and] the Holy One of Israel, and he shall choose
thee.
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Thus saith the LORD; Stand in the court of the LORD'S house,
and speak unto all the cities of Judah, which come to worship
in the LORD'S house, all the words that I command thee to
speak unto them; diminish not a word:
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And now, behold, I have brought the firstfruits of the land,
which thou, O LORD, hast given me. And thou shalt set it
before the LORD thy God, and worship before the LORD thy God:
Read More
And lest thou lift up thine eyes unto heaven, and when thou
seest the sun, and the moon, and the stars, [even] all the
host of heaven, shouldest be driven to worship them, and serve
them, which the LORD thy God hath divided unto all nations
under the whole heaven.
Read More
But when thou art bidden, go and sit down in the lowest room;
that when he that bade thee cometh, he may say unto thee,
Friend, go up higher: then shalt thou have worship in the
presence of them that sit at meat with thee.
Read More
prar (deesis, proseuche, (enteuxis; for an excellent
discussion of the meaning of these see Thayer's Lexicon, p.
126, under the word deesis; the chief verbs are euchomai,
proseuchomai, and deomai, especially in Luke and Acts;
aiteo, "to ask a favor" distinguished from erotao, "to ask a
question," is found occasionally): In the Bible "prayer" is
used in a simpler and a more complex a narrower and a wider
signification. In the former case it is supplication for
benefits either for one's self (petition) or for others
(intercession). In the latter it is an act of worship which
covers all soul in its approach to God. Supplication is at
the heart of it, for prayer always springs out of a sense of
need and a belief that God is a rewarder of them that
diligently seek Him (Heb 11:6). But adoration and confession
and thanksgiving also find a It place, so that the suppliant
becomes a worshipper. It is unnecessary to distinguish all
the various terms for prayer that are employed in the Old
Testament and the New Testament. But the fact should be
noticed that in the Hebrew and Greek aloe there are on the
one hand words for prayer that denote a direct petition or
short, sharp cry of the heart in its distress (Ps 30:2; 2
Cor 12:8), and on the other "prayers" like that of Hannah (1
Sam 2:1-10), which is in reality a song of thanksgiving, or
that of Paul, the prisoner of Jesus Christ, in which
intercession is mingled with doxology (Eph 3:14-21).
1. In the Old Testament:
The history of prayer as it meets us here reflects various
stages of experience and revelation. In the patriarchal
period, when `men began to call upon the name of the Lord'
(Gen 4:26; compare 12:8; 21:33), prayer is naive, familiar
and direct (Gen 15:2 ff; 17:18; 18:23 ff; 24:12). It is
evidently associated with sacrifice (Gen 12:8; 13:4; 26:25),
the underlying idea probably being that the gift or offering
would help to elicit the desired response. Analogous to this
is Jacob's vow, itself a species of prayer, in which the
granting of desired benefits becomes the condition of
promised service and fidelity (Gen 28:20 ff). In the pre-
exilic history of Israel prayer still retains many of the
primitive features of the patriarchal type (Ex 3:4; Nu
11:11-15; Jdg 6:13 ff; 11:30 f; 1 Sam 1:11; 2 Sam 15:8; Ps
66:13 f). The Law has remarkably little to say on the
subject, differing here from the later Judaism (see Schurer,
HJP, II, i, 290, index-vol, p. 93; and compare Mt 6:5 ff;
23:14; Acts 3:1; 16:13); while it confirms the association
of prayer with sacrifices, which now appear, however, not as
gifts in anticipation of benefits to follow, but as
expiations of guilt (Dt 21:1-9) or thank offerings for past
mercies (Dt 26:1-11). Moreover, the free, frank access of
the private individual to God is more and more giving place
to the mediation of the priest (Dt 21:5; 26:3), the
intercession of the prophet (Ex 32:11-13; 1 Sam 7:5-13;
12:23), the ordered approach of tabernacle and temple
services (Ex 40; 1 Ki 8). The prophet, it is true,
approaches God immediately and freely--Moses (Ex 34:34; Dt
34:10) and David (2 Sam 7:27) are to be numbered among the
prophets--but he does so in virtue of his office, and on the
ground especially of his possession of the Spirit and his
intercessory function (compare Ezek 2:2; Jer 14:15).
A new epoch in the history of prayer in Israel was brought
about by the experiences of the Exile. Chastisement...
Read More
MISCELLANY OF MINOR SUB-TOPICS
Prayer test proposed by Elijah
1Ki 18:24-39
Daily, in the morning
Ps 5:3; 88:13; 143:8; Isa 33:2
Twice daily
Ps 88:1
Thrice daily
Ps 55:17; Da 6:10
All night
Lu 6:12
Without ceasing
1Th 5:17
Boldness in
Enjoined
Heb 4:16
Exemplified by Abraham in his inquiry concerning Sodom
Ge 18:23-32
By Moses, supplicating for assistance in delivering
Israel
Ex 33:12,18
Secret
Ge 24:63; Mt 6:6
Silent
Ps 5:1
Weeping in
Ezr 10:1
In a loud voice, satirized by Elijah
1Ki 18:27
Long
Of Pharisees
Mt 23:14
Of scribes
Mr 12:40; Lu 20:47
Profuse, to be avoided
Ec 5:2; Mt 6:7
Vain repetitions of, to be avoided
Mt 6:7
Tokens asked for, as assurance of answer
By Abraham's servant
Ge 24:14
Gideon asks for a sign of dew on a fleece
Jud 6:36-40
Rebuked
Of Moses, at the Red Sea
Ex 14:15
When Moses prayed to see Canaan, the promised land
De 3:23-27
Of Joshua
Jos 7:10
Evils averted by
Jer 26:19
Unbelief in
Job 21:15
"The Lord's Prayer,"
Mt 6:9-13; Lu 11:2-4
However, see
Joh 17:1-26
Answer to, withheld
Of Balaam
De 23:5; Jos 24:10
Of Job
Job 30:20; with 42:12
Of the Israelites, when attacked by the Amorites
De 1:45
The prayer of Jesus, "Let this cup pass away,"
Mt 26:39,42,44; with 26:45-75
And
Mt 27
Answer to, delayed
Ps 22:1,2; 40:1; 80:4; 88:14; Jer 42:7; Hab 1:2; Lu
18:7
Answer to, exceeds petition
Solomon asked for wisdom; the answer included wisdom,
riches, honour, and long life
1Ki 3:7-14; 2Ch 1:10-12
The disciples prayed for Peter; the answer included
Peter's
deliverance
Ac 12:15; with 12:5
Answer to, different from the request
Moses asked to be permitted to cross the Jordan River;
the
answer was permission to view the land of promise
De 3:23-27
The Israelites lusted for the fleshpots of Egypt; the
answer
gave them, flesh, but also leanness of soul
Ps 106:14,15
Martha and Mary asked Jesus to come and heal their
brother
Lazarus; Jesus delayed, but raised Lazarus from the
dead
Joh 11
Paul asked that the "thorn in the flesh" be removed; the
answer was a promise of grace to endure it
2Co 12:8,9
In Behalf of Nations
See NATIONS, PRAYER FOR
Penitential
Of David...
Read More
The object of this article will be to touch briefly on --
1. The doctrine of Scripture as to the nature and
efficacy of prayer;
2. Its directions as to time, place and manner of
prayer;
3. Its types and examples of prayer.
1. Scripture does not give any theoretical
explanation of the mystery which attaches to prayer. The
difficulty of understanding real efficacy arises chiefly
from two sources: from the belief that man lives under
general laws, which in all cases must be fulfilled
unalterably; and the opposing belief that he is master of
his own destiny, and need pray for no external blessing.
Now, Scripture, while, by the doctrine of spiritual
influence it entirely disposes of the latter difficulty,
does not so entirely solve that part of the mystery which
depends on the nature of God. It places it clearly before
us, and emphasizes most strongly those doctrines on which
the difficulty turns. Yet while this is so, on the other
hand the instinct of prayer is solemnly sanctioned and
enforced on every page. Not only is its subjective effect
asserted, but its real objective efficacy, as a means
appointed by God for obtaining blessing, is both implied and
expressed in the plainest terms. Thus, as usual in the case
of such mysteries, the two apparently opposite truths are
emphasized, because they are needful: to man's conception of
his relation to God; their reconcilement is not, perhaps
cannot be, fully revealed. For, in fact, it is involved in
that inscrutable mystery which attends on the conception of
any free action of man as necessary for the working out of
the general laws of God's unchangeable will. At the same
time it is clearly implied that such a reconcilement exists,
and that all the apparently isolated and independent
exertions of man's spirit in prayer are in some way
perfectly subordinated to the one supreme will of God, so as
to form a part of his scheme of providence. It is also
implied that the key to the mystery lies in the fact of
man's spiritual unity with God in Christ, and of the
consequent gift of the Holy Spirit. So also is it said of
the spiritual influence of the Holy Ghost on each individual
mind that while "we know not what to pray for, "the
indwelling" Spirit makes intercession for the saints,
according to the will of God." Ro 8:26,27 Here, as probably
in still other cases, the action of the Holy Spirit on the
soul is to free agents what the laws of nature are to things
inanimate, and is the power which harmonizes free individual
action with the universal will of God.
2. There are no directions as to prayer given in the
Mosaic law: the duty is rather taken for granted, as an
adjunct to sacrifice, than enforced or elaborated. It is
hardly conceivable that, even from the beginning public
prayer did not follow every public sacrifice. Such a
practice is alluded to in Lu 1:10 as common; and in one
instance, at the offering of the first-fruits, it was
ordained in a striking form. De 26:12-15 In later times it
certainly grew into a regular service both in the temple and
in the synagogue. But, besides this public prayer, it was
the custom of all at Jerusalem to go up to the temple, at
regular hours if possible, for private prayer, see Lu 18:10;
Ac 3:1 and those who were absent were wont to "open their
windows toward Jerusalem," and pray "toward" the place...
Read More
is converse with God; the intercourse of the soul with God,
not
in contemplation or meditation, but in direct
address to him.
Prayer may be oral or mental, occasional or
constant,
ejaculatory or formal. It is a "beseeching the Lord"
(Ex.
32:11); "pouring out the soul before the Lord" (1
Sam. 1:15);
"praying and crying to heaven" (2 Chr. 32:20);
"seeking unto God
and making supplication" (Job 8:5); "drawing near to
God" (Ps.
73:28); "bowing the knees" (Eph. 3:14).
Prayer presupposes a belief in the personality of
God, his
ability and willingness to hold intercourse with us,
his
personal control of all things and of all his
creatures and all
their actions.
Acceptable prayer must be sincere (Heb. 10:22),
offered with
reverence and godly fear, with a humble sense of our
own
insignificance as creatures and of our own
unworthiness as
sinners, with earnest importunity, and with
unhesitating
submission to the divine will. Prayer must also be
offered in
the faith that God is, and is the hearer and
answerer of prayer,
and that he will fulfil his word, "Ask, and ye shall
receive"
(Matt. 7:7, 8; 21:22; Mark 11:24; John 14:13, 14),
and in the
name of Christ (16:23, 24; 15:16; Eph. 2:18; 5:20;
Col. 3:17; 1
Pet. 2:5).
Prayer is of different kinds, secret (Matt. 6:6);
social, as
family prayers, and in social worship; and public,
in the
service of the sanctuary.
Intercessory prayer is enjoined (Num. 6:23; Job
42:8; Isa.
62:6; Ps. 122:6; 1 Tim. 2:1; James 5:14), and there
are many
instances on record of answers having been given to
such
prayers, e.g., of Abraham (Gen. 17:18, 20; 18:23-32;
20:7, 17,
18), of Moses for Pharaoh (Ex. 8:12, 13, 30, 31; Ex.
9:33), for
the Israelites (Ex. 17:11, 13; 32:11-14, 31-34; Num.
21:7, 8;
Deut. 9:18, 19, 25), for Miriam (Num. 12:13), for
Aaron (Deut.
9:20), of Samuel (1 Sam. 7:5-12), of Solomon (1
Kings 8; 2 Chr.
6), Elijah (1 Kings 17:20-23), Elisha (2 Kings 4:33-
36), Isaiah
(2 Kings 19), Jeremiah (42:2-10), Peter (Acts 9:40),
the church
(12:5-12), Paul (28:8).
No rules are anywhere in Scripture laid down for the
manner of
prayer or the attitude to be assumed by the
suppliant. There is
mention made of kneeling in prayer (1 Kings 8:54; 2
Chr. 6:13;
Ps. 95:6; Isa. 45:23; Luke 22:41; Acts 7:60; 9:40;
Eph. 3:14,
etc.); of bowing and falling prostrate (Gen. 24:26,
52; Ex.
4:31; 12:27; Matt. 26:39; Mark 14:35, etc.); of
spreading out
the hands (1 Kings 8:22, 38, 54; Ps. 28:2; 63:4;
88:9; 1 Tim.
2:8, etc.); and of standing (1 Sam. 1:26; 1 Kings
8:14, 55; 2
Chr. 20:9; Mark 11:25; Luke 18:11, 13).
If we except the "Lord's Prayer" (Matt. 6:9-13),
which is,
however, rather a model or pattern of prayer than a
set prayer
to be offered up, we have no special form of prayer
for general
use given us in Scripture.
Prayer is frequently enjoined in Scripture (Ex.
22:23, 27; 1
Kings 3:5; 2 Chr. 7:14; Ps. 37:4; Isa. 55:6; Joel
2:32; Ezek.
36:37, etc.), and we have very many testimonies that
it has been
answered (Ps. 3:4; 4:1; 6:8; 18:6; 28:6; 30:2; 34:4;
118:5;
James 5:16-18, etc.).
"Abraham's servant prayed to God, and God directed
him to the
person who should be wife to his master's son and
heir (Gen.
24:10-20).
"Jacob prayed to God, and God inclined the heart of
his
irritated brother, so that they met in peace and
friendship
(Gen. 32:24-30; 33:1-4).
"Samson prayed to God, and God showed him a well
where he
quenched his burning thirst, and so lived to judge
Israel (Judg.
15:18-20).
"David prayed, and God defeated the counsel of
Ahithophel (2
Sam. 15:31; 16:20-23; 17:14-23).
"Daniel prayed, and God enabled him both to tell
Nebuchadnezzar his dream and to give the
interpretation of it
(Dan. 2: 16-23).
"Nehemiah prayed, and God inclined the heart of the
king of
Persia to grant him leave of absence to visit and
rebuild
Jerusalem (Neh. 1:11; 2:1-6).
"Esther and Mordecai prayed, and God defeated the
purpose of
Haman, and saved the Jews from destruction (Esther
4:15-17; 6:7,
8).
"The believers in Jerusalem prayed, and God opened
the prison
doors and set Peter at liberty, when Herod had
resolved upon his
death (Acts 12:1-12).
"Paul prayed that the thorn in the flesh might be
removed, and
his prayer brought a large increase of spiritual
strength, while
the thorn perhaps remained (2 Cor. 12:7-10).
"Prayer is like the dove that Noah sent forth, which
blessed
him not only when it returned with an olive-leaf in
its mouth,
but when it never returned at all.", Robinson's Job.
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(1) Techinnah, from chandra "to be gracious"; hithpael, "to
entreat grace"; Greek deesis.
(2) Tephillah, from hithpael of paalal, "to seek
judgment"; Greek proseuchee. "Prayer," proseuchee, for
obtaining blessings, implying devotion; "supplication,"
deesis, for averting evil. "Prayer" the general term;
"supplication" with imploring earnestness (implying the
suppliant's sense of need); enteuxis, intercession for
others, coming near to God, seeking an audience in person,
generally in another's behalf. Thanksgiving should always go
with prayer (1 Timothy 2:1; Ephesians 6:18; Philemon 4:6).
An instinct of every nation, even pagan (Isaiah 16:12;
Isaiah 44:17; Isaiah 45:20; 1 Kings 18:26). In Seth's days,
when Enos (frailty) was born to him, "men began to call upon
the name of Jehovah."
The name Enos embodies the Sethites' sense of human
frailty urging them to prayer, in contrast to the Cainites'
self sufficient "pride of countenance" which keeps sinners
from seeking God (Psalm 10:4). While the Cainites by
building a city and inventing arts were founding the kingdom
of this world, the Sethites by united calling upon Jehovah
constituted the first church, and laid the foundation of the
kingdom of God. The name of God is His whole self
manifestation in relation to man. On this revealed divine
character of grace and power believers fasten their prayers
(Psalm 119:49; Proverbs 18:10). The sceptic's objections to
prayer are:
(1) The immutability of nature's general laws. But
nature is only another name for the will of God; that will
provides for answers to prayer in harmony with the general
scheme of His government of the world. There are higher laws
than those observed in the material world; the latter are
subordinate to the former.
(2) God's predestinating power, wisdom and love make
prayer useless and needless. But man is made a free moral
agent; and God who predestines the blessing predestines
prayer as the means to that end (Matthew 24:20).
Prayer produces and strengthens in the mind
conscious dependence on God, faith, and love, the state for
receiving and appreciating God's blessing ordained in answer
to prayer. Moreover prayer does not supersede work; praying
and working are complementary of each other (Nehemiah 4:9).
Our weakness drives us to cast ourselves on God's fatherly
love, providence, and power. Our cf6 "Father knoweth what
things we have need of before we ask Him"; "we know not what
things we should pray for as we ought" (Matthew 6:8; Romans
8:26). Yet "the Spirit helpeth our infirmities," and Jesus
teaches us by the Lord's prayer how to pray (Luke 11). Nor
is the blessing merely subjective; but we may pray for
particular blessings, temporal and spiritual, in submission
to God's will, for ourselves. cf6 "Thy will be done,"
(Matthew 6:10) and "if we ask anything according to His
will" (1 John 5:14-15), is the limitation. Every truly
believing prayer contains this limitation. God then grants
either the petition or something better than it, so that no
true prayer is lost (2 Corinthians 12:7-10; Luke 22:42;
Hebrews 5:7).
Also "intercessions" for others (the effect of which
cannot be merely subjective) are enjoined (1 Timothy 2:1).
God promises blessings in answer to prayer, as the
indispensable condition of the gift (Matthew 7:7-8).
Examples confirm the command to pray. None prayed so often
as Jesus; early in the morning "a great while before day"
(Mark 1:35), "all the night" (Luke 6:12), in Gethsemane with
an "agony" that drew from Him "sweat as it were great drops
of blood falling to the ground" (Luke 22:44); "when He was
being baptized, and praying, the heaven was opened" (Luke
3:21); "as He prayed" He was transfigured (Luke 9:29); "as
He was praying in a certain place" (Luke 11:1) one disciple
struck by His prayer said, "Lord teach us to pray as John
also taught his disciples" (Luke 11:1) (an interesting fact
here only recorded). Above all, the intercession in John 17,
His beginning of advocacy with the Father for us; an example
of the highest and holiest spiritual communion.
The Holy Spirit in believers "maketh intercession
for the saints according to the will of God." "He that...
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Let thine ear now be attentive, and thine eyes open, that thou
mayest hear the prayer of thy servant, which I pray before
thee now, day and night, for the children of Israel thy
servants, and confess the sins of the children of Israel,
which we have sinned against thee: both I and my father's
house have sinned.
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It may be the LORD thy God will hear all the words of
Rabshakeh, whom the king of Assyria his master hath sent to
reproach the living God; and will reprove the words which the
LORD thy God hath heard: wherefore lift up [thy] prayer for
the remnant that are left.
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It may be the LORD thy God will hear the words of Rabshakeh,
whom the king of Assyria his master hath sent to reproach the
living God, and will reprove the words which the LORD thy God
hath heard: wherefore lift up [thy] prayer for the remnant
that is left.
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And the LORD said unto him, I have heard thy prayer and thy
supplication, that thou hast made before me: I have hallowed
this house, which thou hast built, to put my name there for
ever; and mine eyes and mine heart shall be there perpetually.
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Thou shalt make thy prayer unto him, and he shall hear thee,
and thou shalt pay thy vows.
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For thou, O LORD of hosts, God of Israel, hast revealed to thy
servant, saying, I will build thee an house: therefore hath
thy servant found in his heart to pray this prayer unto thee.
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That thine eyes may be open upon this house day and night,
upon the place whereof thou hast said that thou wouldest put
thy name there; to hearken unto the prayer which thy servant
prayeth toward this place.
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Prayer when he was in the cave.> I cried unto the LORD with my
voice; with my voice unto the LORD did I make my supplication.
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That thine eyes may be open toward this house night and day,
[even] toward the place of which thou hast said, My name shall
be there: that thou mayest hearken unto the prayer which thy
servant shall make toward this place.
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Turn again, and tell Hezekiah the captain of my people, Thus
saith the LORD, the God of David thy father, I have heard thy
prayer, I have seen thy tears: behold, I will heal thee: on
the third day thou shalt go up unto the house of the LORD.
Read More
shol: the Revised Version (British and American) substitutes
"shawls" for the King James Version "wimples" in Isa 3:22.
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a-gra'-ri-an loz:
1. The Sabbath Year
2. The Jubilee
3. Its Object
4. The Legal Rules
5. Ideas and Circumstances of the Legislation
6. Form of the Legislation
7. Its Operation and Extension
8. Other Laws Affecting the Land
The Mosaic provisions on this subject form one of the most
characteristic and interesting portions of the legislation.
The main institutions are two, namely, the Sabbath year and
the jubilee, and they are closely linked together.
1. The Sabbath Year:
In every seventh year the land was to lie fallow "that the
poor of thy people may eat: and what they leave the beast of
the field shall eat" (Ex 23:10 f; compare Lev 25:2-7). `And
the Sabbath of the land shall be for food for you; for thee,
and for thy servant, and for thy maid, and for thy hired
servant and for thy stranger that sojourn with thee; but for
thy cattle, and for the beasts that are in thy land, shall
all the increase thereof be for food' (Lev 25:6 f). This has
been quoted at length because the rendering of English
Versions of the Bible is misleading. "The Sabbath of the
land" does not mean that the natural increase thereof is to
be eaten by the Israelite peasant. That interpretation is
excluded by Lev. 25:3-5,20-22. What is intended is clearly
shown by the latter of these two passages, "I will command
my blessing upon you in the sixth year." The principle on
which the manna had been provided for Sabbaths was to apply
to the harvest of the sixth year, and this is the import of
the phrase.
2. The Jubilee:
After "seven sabbaths of years, even forty and tone years" a
trumpet was to be blown throughout the land on the tenth day
of the seventh month (i.e. the Day of Atonement) and the
fiftieth year was to be hallowed and celebrated as a
"jubilee." No agricultural work of any kind was to be
performed, but "ye may (so correct EVV) eat the increase
thereof out of the field" (Lev 25:12). God would so bless
the land in the sixth year that it would bring forth enough
for the Sabbath year, the ensuing jubilee and the subsequent
period to the harvest of the ninth year (Lev 25:20-22).
3. Its Object:
In addition to being a period in which the land was left
fallow, the jubilee was intended to meet the economic evils
that befell peasants in ancient societies. Wars or
unfavorable seasons would soon reduce a farmer to a
condition in which he would have to borrow. But money is
rarely to be had without interest and security, and in early
communities the rates of interest were very high indeed,
while the only security the farmer could offer would consist
of his land and the persons of himself and his children.
Hence we find insolvency giving rise to the alienation of
land and to slavery all over the world--sometimes with the
retention of civil rights (as in Rome and Israel), at others
in a more unalloyed form. The jubilee aims at both these
evils. It is provided that in that year the peasants who had
lost their full freedom through insolvency should be free
(see Wiener, Studies in Biblical Law, 5 ff) and all lands
that had been sold should return to the original owner or
his family. "And the land shall not be sold in perpetuity;
for the land is mine: for ye are strangers and sojourners
with me" (lev 25:23). To this theory...
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land'-mark (gebhul, literally, "boundary"): The boundary may
have been marked, as at present, simply by a furrow or stone.
The iniquity of removing a landmark is frequently insisted on
(Dt 19:14; 27:17; Prov 22:28; 23:10; Job 24:2 gebhulah), its
removal being equivalent to theft.
Read More
Protected from fraudulent removal
De 19:14; 27:17; Job 24:9; Pr 22:28; 23:10; Ho 5:10
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a boundary line indicated by a stone, stake, etc. (Deut.
19:14;
27:17; Prov. 22:28; 23:10; Job 24:2). Landmarks could
not be
removed without incurring the severe displeasure of
God.
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ran (maTar, Arabic (?), maTar, "rain" geshem, "heavy rain"
moreh, "early rain," yoreh, "former rain," malqosh, "latter
rain"; brecho, huetos):
1. Water-Supply in Egypt and Israel:
In Egypt there is little or no rainfall, the water for
vegetation being supplied in great abundance by the river
Nile; but in Syria and Israel there are no large rivers, and
the people have to depend entirely on the fall of rain for
water for themselves, their animals and their fields. The
children of Israel when in Egypt were promised by Yahweh a
land which "drinketh water of the rain of heaven" (Dt
11:11). Springs and fountains are found in most of the
valleys, but the flow of the springs depends directly on the
fall of rain or snow in the mountains.
2. Importance of Rain in Season:
The cultivation of the land in Israel is practically dry
farming in most of the districts, but even then some water
is necessary, so that there may be moisture in the soil. In
the summer months there is no rain, so that the rains of the
spring and fall seasons are absolutely essential for
starting and maturing the crops. The lack of this rain in
the proper time has often been the cause of complete failure
of the harvest. A small difference in the amount of these
seasonal rains makes a large difference in the possibility
of growing various crops without irrigation. Ellsworth
Huntington has insisted on this point with great care in his
very important work, Israel and Its Transformation. The
promise of prosperity is given in the assurance of "rain in
due season" (Lev 26:4 the King James Version). The
withholding of rain according to the prophecy of Elijah (1
Ki 17:1) caused the mountain streams to dry up (1 Ki 17:7),
and certain famine ensued. A glimpse of the terrible
suffering for lack of water at that time is given us. The
people were uncertain of another meal (1 Ki 17:12), and the
animals were perishing (1 Ki 18:5).
3. Amount of Rainfall:
Israel and Syria are on the borderland between the sea and
the desert, and besides are so mountainous, that they not
only have a great range of rainfall in different years, but
a great variation in different parts of the country.
The amount of rain on the western slopes is comparable with
that in England and America, varying from 25 to 40 inches
per annum, but it falls mostly in the four winter months,
when the downpour is often very heavy, giving oftentimes
from 12 to 16 inches in a month. On the eastern slopes it is
much less, varying from 8 to 20 inches per annum. The
highest amount falls in the mountains of Lebanon where it
averages about 50 inches. In Beirut the yearly average is
35,87 inches. As we go South from Syria, the amount
decreases (Haifa 27,75, Jaffa 22,39, Gaze 17,61), while in
the Sinaitic Peninsula there is little or none. Going from
West to East the change is much more sudden, owing to the
mountains which stop the clouds. In Damascus the average is
less than 10 inches. In Jerusalem the average for 50 years
is 26,16 in., and the range is from 13,19 in 1870 to 41,62
in 1897. The yearly records as given by J. Glaisher and A.
Datzi in Israel Exploration Fund Quarterly from 1861 to
1910, 50 years, are given in the accompanying table.
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Forty days of, at the time of the great flood of Noah
Ge 7:4,10-12,17-24
-The plague of, upon Egypt
Ex 9:22-26,33,34
-Miraculously caused
By Samuel
1Sa 12:16-19
By Elijah
1Ki 18:41-45
-David delivered by
2Sa 5:17-21; Isa 28:21
-North wind unfavorable to
Pr 25:23
-Withheld as judgment
De 11:17; 28:24; 1Ki 8:35; 2Ch 7:13; Jer 3:3; Am
4:7; Zec
14:17
-The earth will never again be destroyed by
Ge 9:8-17
-Sent by God
De 11:13,14; Job 37:6; Isa 30:23; Jer 5:24; 14:22
-Contingent upon obedience
Le 26:3,4; De 11:13,14
-Prayer for
1Ki 8:35,36; 2Ch 6:26,27
-Answer to prayer for, promised
2Ch 7:13,14; Zec 10:1
-Withheld, in answer to prayer
Jas 5:17,18
-Rainy season in Palestine is in the ninth month,
corresponding
to December
Ezr 10:9,13
-See METEOROLOGY
-FIGURATIVE
Ps 72:6
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In the Bible "early rain" signifies the rain of the autumn,
De 11:14 and "latter rain" the rain of spring. Pr 16:1,5 For
six months in the year, from May to October, no rain falls,
the whole land becomes dry, parched and brown. The autumnal
rains are eagerly looked for, to prepare the earth for the
reception of the seed. These, the early rains, commence
about the latter end of October continuing through November
and December. January and February are the coldest months,
and snow falls, sometimes to the depth of a foot or more, at
Jerusalem, but it does not lie long; it is very seldom seen
along the coast and in the low plains. Rain continues to
fall more or less during the month of March it is very rare
in April. Robinson observes that there are not, at the
present day, "any particular periods of rain or succession
of showers which might be regarded as distinct rainy
seasons. The whole period from October to March now
constitutes only one continued season of rain, without any
regularly-intervening term of prolonged fine weather. Unless
therefore, there has been some change in the climate, the
early and the latter rains, for which the husbandman waited
with longing, seem rather to hare implied the first showers
of autumn--which revived the parched and thirsty soil and
prepared it for the seed --and the later showers of spring,
which continued to refresh and forward both the ripening
crops and the vernal products of the fields." Jas 5:7; Pr
16:15
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There are three Hebrew words used to denote the rains of
different seasons, (1.) Yoreh (Hos. 6:3), or moreh
(Joel 2:23),
denoting the former or the early rain. (2.) Melqosh,
the "latter
rain" (Prov. 16:15). (3.) Geshem, the winter rain,
"the rains."
The heavy winter rain is mentioned in Gen. 7:12;
Ezra 10:9;
Cant. 2:11. The "early" or "former" rains commence
in autumn in
the latter part of October or beginning of November
(Deut.
11:14; Joel 2:23; comp. Jer. 3:3), and continue to
fall heavily
for two months. Then the heavy "winter rains" fall
from the
middle of December to March. There is no prolonged
fair weather
in Israel between October and March. The "latter" or
spring
rains fall in March and April, and serve to swell
the grain then
coming to maturity (Deut. 11:14; Hos. 6:3). After
this there is
ordinarily no rain, the sky being bright and
cloudless till
October or November.
Rain is referred to symbolically in Deut. 32:2; Ps.
72:6; Isa.
44:3, 4; Hos. 10:12.
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(See PALESTINE; Climate.) Matar. Geshem, "violent rain" or
generically "the early and latter rain" (Jeremiah 5:24; Joel
2:23). Yoreh, "the early rain of autumn"; malkosh, "the
latter rain of spring" (Proverbs 16:15; Job 29:23; Jeremiah
3:3; Hosea 6:3; Zechariah 10:1). Rebibim, from rab "many,"
from the multitude of drops; "showers" (Deuteronomy 32:2).
Zerem, "violent rain," "hailstorm" (Job 24:8). Sagrir only
in Proverbs 27:15. As compared with Egypt, Israel was a land
of rain (Deuteronomy 11:10-11), but for six months no rain
falls so that "rain in harvest" and "thunder" were marvelous
phenomena, and out of time and place (Proverbs 26:1; 1
Samuel 12:16-18). The early rain begins gradually, the
latter end of October or beginning of November. Generally
from the W. or S.W. (Luke 12:54); the wind then changes to
the N. or E. At no period in the winter, from the end of
October to the end of March, does rain entirely cease. In
January and February snow falls, but lies only a short time.
"The early rain" means the first autumnal showers
which prepare the arid soil for the seed; "the latter rain"
the later spring showers, especially in March, which Bring
forward the crop toward harvest (James 5:7; Proverbs 16:15).
Showers fall occasionally in April and May. God claims as
His peculiar prerogative the sending or withholding of rain,
which He made dependent on the obedience or disobedience of
Israel (Leviticus 26:3-5; Leviticus 26:19; Deuteronomy
11:13-15; Deuteronomy 28:23-24; Jeremiah 3:3; Jeremiah 5:24;
Jeremiah 14:22). "The latter rain in the first (month)" in
Joel 2:23 means in the month when first it is needed; or
else, as Vulgate and Septuagint, "as at the first" (compare
Isaiah 1:26; Hosea 2:15; Malachi 3:4); or in Nisan or Abib,
the Passover month, the first, namely, the end of March and
beginning of April. The departure of winter was marked by
the cessation of rain (Song of Solomon 2:11-13). Rain is the
beautiful image of the Spirit's refreshing influences in
Messiah's kingdom (Hosea 6:3; 2 Samuel 23:4; Psalm 72:6).
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Then hear thou from heaven, and forgive the sin of thy
servants, and of thy people Israel, when thou hast taught them
the good way, wherein they should walk; and send rain upon thy
land, which thou hast given unto thy people for an
inheritance.
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For yet seven days, and I will cause it to rain upon the earth
forty days and forty nights; and every living substance that I
have made will I destroy from off the face of the earth.
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So Samuel called unto the LORD; and the LORD sent thunder and
rain that day: and all the people greatly feared the LORD and
Samuel.
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Then hear thou in heaven, and forgive the sin of thy servants,
and of thy people Israel, that thou teach them the good way
wherein they should walk, and give rain upon thy land, which
thou hast given to thy people for an inheritance.
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The LORD shall open unto thee his good treasure, the heaven to
give the rain unto thy land in his season, and to bless all
the work of thine hand: and thou shalt lend unto many nations,
and thou shalt not borrow.
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Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, whereby thou didst
confirm thine inheritance, when it was weary.
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And every plant of the field before it was in the earth, and
every herb of the field before it grew: for the LORD God had
not caused it to rain upon the earth, and [there was] not a
man to till the ground.
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As the appearance of the bow that is in the cloud in the day
of rain, so [was] the appearance of the brightness round
about. This [was] the appearance of the likeness of the glory
of the LORD. And when I saw [it], I fell upon my face, and I
heard a voice of one that spake.
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Then all the men of Judah and Benjamin gathered themselves
together unto Jerusalem within three days. It [was] the ninth
month, on the twentieth [day] of the month; and all the people
sat in the street of the house of God, trembling because of
[this] matter, and for the great rain.
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And [then] the LORD'S wrath be kindled against you, and he
shut up the heaven, that there be no rain, and that the land
yield not her fruit; and [lest] ye perish quickly from off the
good land which the LORD giveth you.
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horn (Hebrew and Aramaic qeren; keras; for the "ram's horn"
(yobhel) of Josh 6 see MUSIC, and for the "inkhorn" of Ezek
9 (qeceth) see separate article):
(1) Qeren and keras represent the English "horn" exactly,
whether on the animal (Gen 22:13), or used for musical
purposes (Josh 6:5; 1 Ch 25:5), or for containing a liquid
(1 Sam 16:1,13; 1 Ki 1:39), but in Ezek 27:15 the horns of
ivory are of course tusks and the "horns" of ebony are small
(pointed?) logs. Consequently most of the usages require no
explanation.
(2) Both the altar of burnt offering (Ex 27:2; 38:2; compare
Ezek 43:15) and the incense altar (Ex 30:2; 37:25,26;
compare Rev 9:13) had "horns," which are explained to be
projections "of one piece with" the wooden framework and
covered with the brass (or gold) that covered the altar.
They formed the most sacred part of the altar and were
anointed with the blood of the most solemn sacrifices (only)
(Ex 30:10; Lev 4:7,18,25,30,34; 16:18; compare Ezek 43:20),
and according to Lev 8:15; 9:9, the first official
sacrifices began by anointing them. Consequently cutting off
the horns effectually desecrated the altar (Am 3:14), while
"sin graven on them" (Jer 17:1) took all efficacy from the
sacrifice. On the other hand they offered the highest
sanctuary (1 Ki 1:50,51; 2:28). Of their symbolism nothing
whatever is said, and the eventual origin is quite obscure.
"Remnants of a bull-cult" and "miniature sacred towers" have
been suggested, but are wholly uncertain. A more likely
origin is from an old custom of draping the altar with skins
of sacrificed animals (RS, 436). That, however, the "horns"
were mere conveniences for binding the sacrificial animals
(Ps 118:27, a custom referred to nowhere else in the Old
Testament), is most unlikely.
See ALTAR.
(3) The common figurative use of "horn" is taken from the
image of battling animals (literal use in Dan 8:7, etc.) to
denote aggressive strength. So Zedekiah ben Chenaanah
illustrates the predicted defeat of the enemies by pushing
with iron horns (1 Ki 22:11; 2 Ch 18:10), while "horns of
the wildox" (Dt 33:17; Ps 22:21; 92:10, the King James
Version "unicorn") represent the magnitude of power, and in
Zec 1:18-21 "horns" stand for power in general. In Hab 3:4
the "horns coming out of his hand" denote the potency of
Yahweh's gesture (the Revised Version (British and American)
"rays" may be smoother, but is weak). So to "exalt the horn"
(1 Sam 2:1,10; Ps 75:4, etc.) is to clothe with strength,
and to "cut off the horn" (not to be explained by Am 3:14)
is to rob of power (Ps 75:10; Jer 48:25). Hence, the "horn
of salvation" in 2 Sam 22:3; Ps 18:2; Lk 1:69 is a means of
active defense and not a place of sanctuary as in 1 Ki 1:50.
When, in Dan 7:7-24; 8:3,8,9,20,21; Rev 13:1; 17:3,7,12,16,
many horns are given to the same animal, they figure
successive nations or rulers. But the seven horns in Rev
5:6; 12:3 denote the completeness of the malevolent or
righteous power. In Rev 13:11, however, the two horns point
only to the external imitation of the harmless lamb, the
"horns" being mere stubs.
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Used to containi the anointing oil
1Sa 16:1; 1Ki 1:39
-Used for a trumpet
See TRUMPET
-FIGURATIVE
Of divine protection
2Sa 22:3
Of power
1Ki 22:11; Ps 89:24; 92:10; 132:17
-SYMBOLICAL
Da 7:7-24; 8:3-9,20; Am 6:13; Mic 4:13; Hab 3:4; Zec
1:18-21; Re 5:6; 12:3; 13:1,11; 17:3-16
Horns of the altar
See ALTAR
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The word "horn" is often used metaphorically to signify
strength and honor, because horns are the chief weapons and
ornaments of the animals which possess them; hence they are
also used as a type of victory. Of strength the horn of the
unicorn was the most frequent representative, De 33:17 etc.,
but not always; comp. 1Ki 22:11 where probably horns of iron,
worn defiantly and symbolically on the head, are intended.
Among the Druses upon Mount Lebanon the married women wear
silver horns on their heads. In the sense of honor, the word
horn stands for the abstract "my horn," Job 16:16 "all the
horn of Israel," 1Sa 2:3 and so for the supreme authority. It
also stands for the concrete, whence it comes to mean king,
kingdom. Da 8:2 etc.; Zech 1:18
Out of either or both of these last two metaphors
sprang the idea of representing gods with horns.
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Trumpets were at first horns perforated at the tip, used for
various purposes (Josh. 6:4,5).
Flasks or vessels were made of horn (1 Sam. 16:1,
13; 1 Kings
1:39).
But the word is used also metaphorically to denote
the
projecting corners of the altar of burnt offerings
(Ex. 27:2)
and of incense (30:2). The horns of the altar of
burnt offerings
were to be smeared with the blood of the slain
bullock (29:12;
Lev. 4:7-18). The criminal, when his crime was
accidental, found
an asylum by laying hold of the horns of the altar
(1 Kings
1:50; 2:28).
The word also denotes the peak or summit of a hill
(Isa. 5:1,
where the word "hill" is the rendering of the same
Hebrew word).
This word is used metaphorically also for strength
(Deut.
33:17) and honour (Job 16:15; Lam. 2:3). Horns are
emblems of
power, dominion, glory, and fierceness, as they are
the chief
means of attack and defence with the animals endowed
with them
(Dan. 8:5, 9; 1 Sam. 2:1; 16:1, 13; 1 Kings 1:39;
22:11; Josh.
6:4, 5; Ps. 75:5, 10; 132:17; Luke 1:69, etc.). The
expression
"horn of salvation," applied to Christ, means a
salvation of
strength, or a strong Saviour (Luke 1:69). To have
the horn
"exalted" denotes prosperity and triumph (Ps. 89:17,
24). To
"lift up" the horn is to act proudly (Zech. 1:21).
Horns are also the symbol of royal dignity and power
(Jer.
48:25; Zech. 1:18; Dan. 8:24).
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qeren. Trumpets were perhaps at first merely horns
perforated at the tip. In Joshua 6:4-5, instead of "trumpets
of rams' horns," translated "Jubilee trumpets." Rams' horns
would scarcely have been effective enough. Hajobeel, from
jabal "to stream violently with noise," is the name for a
long wind instrument like a horn. Used for summoning to war,
or for public proclamations (Judges 3:27; Judges 7:18). The
horn was also used for a flask to contain oil (1 Samuel
16:1); also to contain stibium or antimony to beautify the
eyelashes and eyelids of women; from whence Job's daughter
drew her name Keren-happuch, "horn of stibium," in contrast
to Job's "horn defiled in the dust" formerly (Job 16:15).
The "horn" being the instrument of the oxen's
strength is the symbol of power (1 Kings 22:11). The "horns
of the (See ALTAR" were simply projections from the four
corners. The peak of a hill is called a horn. Isaiah 5:1, "a
very fruitful hill" Hebrew "a horn of the son of oil," as
the Swiss Shreckhorn, Wetterhorn, Celtic cairn. In Habakkuk
3:4, "He had horns coming out of His hand" means, He had the
emblems of power wielded by His hand (L. de Dieu), or else
rays" (i.e. lightnings): Psalm 18:8 (Maurer). So Exodus
34:29-30; Exodus 34:35, qaaran, "to horn," is used in the
sense to emit rays. Livingstone mentions a horn-shaped cap
as worn by Africans; married Druse women wear silver horns
on their heads.
The ram with two horns (Daniel 8:3) represents the
Medo-Persian double power. The "notable horn" of the "he
goat" (Daniel 8:5) is Alexander the Great who on coins is
represented with horns. The four horns in Zechariah 1:18
represent the four ruling powers of the world, to be
superseded finally by Messiah's kingdom: Babylon, Medo-
Persia, Greece, and Rome. (On "the little horn" of the third
and of the fourth world powers (Daniel 7:8; Daniel 8:9).
(See ANTICHRIST.) On Egyptian and Roman coins, and in
Assyrian sculptures, are figures of gods with horns,
symbolical of power. "A horn of salvation" means mighty
instrument of salvation (Luke 1:69).
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The LORD hath done [that] which he had devised; he hath
fulfilled his word that he had commanded in the days of old:
he hath thrown down, and hath not pitied: and he hath caused
[thine] enemy to rejoice over thee, he hath set up the horn of
thine adversaries.
Read More
(Gr. phulakteria; i.e., "defences" or "protections"),
called by
modern Jews tephillin (i.e., "prayers") are
mentioned only in
Matt. 23:5. They consisted of strips of parchment on
which were
inscribed these four texts: (1.) Ex. 13:1-10; (2.)
11-16; (3.)
Deut. 6:4-9; (4.) 11:18-21, and which were enclosed
in a square
leather case, on one side of which was inscribed the
Hebrew
letter shin, to which the rabbis attached some
significance.
This case was fastened by certain straps to the
forehead just
between the eyes. The "making broad the
phylacteries" refers to
the enlarging of the case so as to make it
conspicuous. (See
FRONTLETS -T0001386.)
Another form of the phylactery consisted of two
rolls of
parchment, on which the same texts were written,
enclosed in a
case of black calfskin. This was worn on the left
arm near the
elbow, to which it was bound by a thong. It was
called the
"Tephillah on the arm."
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nezem, which also includes the nose ring hanging on one side
of the nose (Genesis 24:47, where the words "upon her face"
imply either a nose ring or one to be hung from her
forehead, Genesis 35:4). Circular, as its other name 'agil
implies. Oriental men wore them as well as women. Judges
8:24 seems to imply that the Israelite men did not wear
them, as did the Ishmaelites; but Exodus 32:2 proves that
young "sons" wore them. There were besides netiphot (Judges
8:26), not "collars" but pearlshaped "ear drops," or jewels
attached to the rings, or else pendent scent bottles, or
pendants from the neck on the breast, "Chains" KJV (Isaiah
3:19; Isaiah 3:21), "earrings" (leehashim, from laachash "to
whisper"), AMULETS with magic inscriptions, and so
surrendered along with the idols by Jacob's household
(Genesis 35:4).
The best use made of them was that in Numbers 31:50,
an offering to the Lord to "make atonement for souls"; not
that our gifts can wipe away guilt, but acknowledgments of
God's grace not being offered in loving gratitude evince an
unatoned state, and so a state of guilt. When offered in
loving faith, they evidence and seal visibly our reception
of the atonement (Luke 7:44-47). The "phylacteries,"
headbands, totapkot (Matthew 23:5) in the Talmudists'
opinion were the sanctioned antidote to the idolatrous
amulets and "earrings" (Deuteronomy 6:7-8; Deuteronomy
11:18-19; contrast Hosea 2:13; Isaiah 3:21, lechashim. But
the language in Deuteronomy and in Exodus 13:9; Exodus 13:16
is rightly taken by the Karaite Jews as proverbial, not
literal; as is apparent from the reason added, "that the law
of Jehovah may be in thy mouth"; for it is by receiving the
law into the heart, and by keeping it, that it would be
naturally on the tongue continually.
God does not say that His law was to be written upon
scrolls, but to be "for a sign upon thine hand, and for a
memorial between thine eyes," i.e., was to be kept in view
like memorials upon the forehead and the hand, the prominent
visible parts symbolizing respectively open confession and
action (Revelation 13:16; Revelation 22:4). This view is
proved by Proverbs 3:3; Proverbs 4:21; Proverbs 6:21-22;
Proverbs 7:3. But latterly the Jews used the "phylacteries,"
totaphot, or tephillim, prayer fillets, parchment strips
with sentences of the law, bound on the forehead or left arm
during prayer.
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But all their works they do for to be seen of men: they make
broad their phylacteries, and enlarge the borders of their
garments,
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And it shall be for a token upon thine hand, and for frontlets
between thine eyes: for by strength of hand the LORD brought
us forth out of Egypt.
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And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thine hand, and they
shall be as frontlets between thine eyes.
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Therefore shall ye lay up these my words in your heart and in
your soul, and bind them for a sign upon your hand, that they
may be as frontlets between your eyes.
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fi-zish'-an (rophi; iatros): To the pious Jew at all times
God was the healer (Dt 32:39): "It was neither herb nor
mollifying plaister that cured them, but thy word, O Lord,
which healeth all things" (The Wisdom of Solomon 16:12). The
first physicians mentioned in Scripture are those of Egypt.
Long before the sojourn of the Hebrews in that land, Egypt
had a priestly class of physicians (snu) and a god of
healing (Imchtp). From the ancient medical papyri which have
been preserved, the largest of which is the Papyrus Ebers,
we know that the medical knowledge of these physicians was
purely empirical, largely magical and wholly unscientific.
In spite of their ample opportunities they knew next to
nothing of human anatomy, their descriptions of diseases are
hopelessly crude, and three-fourths of the hundreds of
prescriptions in the papyri are wholly inert. Even their art
of embalming was so imperfect that few of their mummies
would have remained in any other climate than that of Egypt.
Physicians of this kind who were Joseph's servants embalmed
Jacob (Gen 50:2) and Joseph (Gen 50:26). It was not until
the foundation of the School of Alexandria, which was purely
Greek, that Egypt became a place of medical education and
research.
There is no evidence that at any time the priests of Israel
were reputed to be the possessors of medical knowledge or
tradition. In the ceremonial law they had explicit
instructions as to the isolation of those suffering from
skin eruptions, so that they might recognize certain
obstinate and infectious forms which caused ceremonial
uncleanness, but with this duty as sanitary police their
function ended and they used no means to cure these
diseases. There is, as far as I know, no record or tradition
of a priest-physician in Bible times. The records of cure by
the prophets, especially Elisha, are mostly recorded as
miracles, not as cures by treatment. The salt which cured
the noxious water at Jericho and the meal by which the
poisonous gourds were rendered innoxious, like the
manipulation of the Shunammite's son, can scarcely be
regarded as adequate remedies. There is an implied reference
to a healer of wounds in Ex 21:19, as also in Isa 3:7, and
it is recorded in Pesachim, iv.9 that there was in existence
in the time of the monarchy a book of cures, cepher
rephu'oth, supposed to have been written by Solomon, but
withdrawn from public use by Hezekiah. The first specific
mention of Hebrew physicians is 2 Ch 16:12, but Asa is
obviously regarded by the Chronicler as reprehensible in
trusting to their skill. In 2 Ki 8:29 Joram, king of Israel,
is said to have gone to Jezreel to be healed. Not far from
this, across the Jordan, was Gilead, which possibly may also
have been a place resorted to by those needing medical
treatment, as indicated by Jeremiah's query: "Is there no
balm in Gilead? is there no physician there?" (Jer 8:22).
Job, irritated by the platitudes of his friends, calls them
physicians of no value (13:4).
In the New Testament our Lord's saying, "They that are whole
have no need of a physician," etc., shows that there were
physicians in Galilee (Mt 9:12; Mk 2:17; Lk 5:31), and in
Nazareth He quotes what seems to have been a proverb:
"Physician, heal thyself" (Lk 4:23). There were...
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General scriptures concerning
2Ch 16:12; Mt 9:12; Mr 5:26; Lu 8:43
-Proverbs about
Mr 2:17; Lu 4:23
-Luke, a physician
Col 4:14
-FIGURATIVE
Job 13:4; Jer 8:22; Lu 5:31
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Asa, afflicted with some bodily malady, "sought not to the
Lord
but to the physicians" (2 Chr. 16:12). The
"physicians" were
those who "practised heathen arts of magic, disavowing
recognized methods of cure, and dissociating the
healing art
from dependence on the God of Israel. The sin of Asa
was not,
therefore, in seeking medical advice, as we understand
the
phrase, but in forgetting Jehovah."
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When Jesus heard [it], he saith unto them, They that are whole
have no need of the physician, but they that are sick: I came
not to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance.
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[Is there] no balm in Gilead; [is there] no physician there?
why then is not the health of the daughter of my people
recovered?
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Luke, the beloved physician, and Demas, greet you.
Read More
And he said unto them, Ye will surely say unto me this
proverb, Physician, heal thyself: whatsoever we have heard
done in Capernaum, do also here in thy country.
Read More
But when Jesus heard [that], he said unto them, They that be
whole need not a physician, but they that are sick.
Read More
And Jesus answering said unto them, They that are whole need
not a physician; but they that are sick.
Read More
plou (charash; arotrioo): No implement of the Bible is more
frequently illustrated today than the plow. This is partly
because there is every reason to believe that the plows
still used throughout Egypt, Israel, and Syria are
counterparts of the ancient ones. The first plows were
probably an adaptation of the ancient Egyptian hoe, where
the handle was lengthened in order that animals might be
hitched to it. To make it easier to break up the ground, it
was pointed, and handles were added by which it could be
guided. The ancient plow probably varied in type in
different sections of the country, as it does today. In one
form a young tree Of oak or other strong wood of a diameter
of 3 or 4 inches is cut off just below a good-sized branch
and again 15 or 20 inches above. The upper end of the
severed trunk is pointed and forms the share. Between this
and the side branch is fitted a brace. The branch is cut off
10 or 12 ft. from the trunk and forms the pole. A lighter
stick, about 3 ft. long, projects upward from the share and
forms the handle. The plow used in Syria is of slightly
different construction. The handle and share are one
continuous piece, so cut that there is a slight bend at the
middle. The share is pointed and is used bare in the plains,
or in more stony regions is shod with iron. The pole is of 2
pieces joined end to end. The thicker end of the pole is
notched, so that it may be attached firmly to the share. The
whole plow is so light that it can be easily carried on a
man's shoulder. These plows literally scratch the soil, as
the Hebrew word implies. They do not turn over the ground as
the modern implement does. The plowman guides the plow with
one hand, and with the other sometimes goads the oxen, and
at other times with the chisel end of his goad breaks away
the lumps of earth or other material which impedes the
progress of his plow.
See YOKE.
In addition to the words which are found above, the
following terms occur: `abhadh (literally, "to serve"),
"worked" or "plowed" (Dt 21:4); palach (literally, "to break
open," Ps 141:7).
One special law is mentioned in connection with plowing,
namely that an ox and an ass should not be yoked together
(Dt 22:10), a prohibition which is utterly disregarded
today. Oxen were principally used for plowing (Job 1:14).
Often several yokes of oxen followed each other plowing
parallel furrows across the field, a sight still common on
the plains of Syria (1 Ki 19:19). Plowing was done by bond
servants (Lk 17:7; compare `abhadh, Dt 21:4). Plowing cannot
be done before the rains (Jer 14:4); on the other hand the
soil is too sticky to plow in the winter time (Prov 20:4).
The law requiring one day of rest in every seven days
included plowing time (Ex 34:21).
Figurative: "The plowers plowed upon my back" typified deep
affliction (Ps 129:3; compare 141:7). "Plow iniquity" is
urged in the sense of "plant iniquity." Doing evil was sure
to bring evil consequences (Job 4:8; compare Mic 3:12). As
surely as planting comes after plowing, so surely will
Yahweh carry out His decree of destruction (Isa 28:23-25).
"Judah shall plow," i.e. become enslaved (Hos 10:11);
compare "Foreigners shall be your plowmen" (Isa 61:5). "Will
one plow there with oxen?" (Am 6:12), "neither plowing nor
harvest" (Gen 45:6) are figures of desolation. Zion plowed
as a field, i.e. utterly destroyed (Jer 26:18). The plowman
shall overtake the reaper, i.e. the soil shall be so fertile
as to require no rest--typical of great abundance (Am 9:13).
No opportunity to plow because of lack of rain is a desolate
picture of drought (Jer 14:4). As the plowman expects to
share in the fruits of the harvest, so might an apostle
expect his temporal needs to be provided for (1 Cor 9:10).
"If ye had not plowed with my heifer," i.e. used my wife,
was Samson's reply to those who had secured the answer to
his riddle from her (Jdg 14:18). "Beat their swords into
plowshares" (or hoes) (Isa 2:4; Mic 4:3) typified peace;
"beat your plowshares into swords"--war (Joel 3:10). "Having
put his hand to the plow, and looking back," i.e. longing
for evil things when one has set his face toward doing what
is right, unfits a man for the kingdom of God (Lk 9:62;
compare Gen 19:26; Phil 3:13).
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Shares of, sharpened by the smiths of the Philistines
1Sa 13:20
-Used by Elisha with twelve yoke (pairs) of oxen
1Ki 19:19
-By Job's servants
Job 1:14
-FIGURATIVE
Of afflictions
Ps 129:3
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The ploughs of ancient Egypt consisted of a share-often
pointed with iron or bronze--two handles and a pole which was
inserted into the base of the two handles. Ploughs in Israel
have usually but one handle with a pole joined to it near the
ground and drawn by oxen, cows or camels.
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first referred to in Gen. 45:6, where the Authorized Version
has
"earing," but the Revised Version "ploughing;" next in
Ex. 34:21
and Deut. 21:4. The plough was originally drawn by
oxen, but
sometimes also by asses and by men. (See AGRICULTURE
-T0000124.)
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And Jesus said unto him, No man, having put his hand to the
plough, and looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God.
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Or saith he [it] altogether for our sakes? For our sakes, no
doubt, [this] is written: that he that ploweth should plow in
hope; and that he that thresheth in hope should be partaker of
his hope.
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And Ephraim [is as] an heifer [that is] taught, [and] loveth
to tread out [the corn]; but I passed over upon her fair neck:
I will make Ephraim to ride; Judah shall plow, [and] Jacob
shall break his clods.
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Doth the plowman plow all day to sow? doth he open and break
the clods of his ground?
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And that first slaughter, which Jonathan and his armourbearer
made, was about twenty men, within as it were an half acre of
land, [which] a yoke [of oxen might plow].
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Shall horses run upon the rock? will [one] plow [there] with
oxen? for ye have turned judgment into gall, and the fruit of
righteousness into hemlock:
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The sluggard will not plow by reason of the cold; [therefore]
shall he beg in harvest, and [have] nothing.
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Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow
wickedness, reap the same.
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Thou shalt not plow with an ox and an ass together.
Read More
po-lig'-a-mi:
1. Meaning of the Term
2. Origin of Polygamy
3. The Old Testament and Polygamy
4. Polygamy Unnatural
The Eunuch
5. Weakness of Polygamy
1. Meaning of the Term:
Polygamy has been and is the open blazon by the human race
of sex vice. The very term is a misnomer. Since man became
moralized he has apprehended that the proper marriage
relation between the sexes is monogamy. Whatever may have
been the practice, since man could ask himself, What is
right? he has known that ap' arches ("from the beginning,"
Mt 19:4), au fond, at bottom, marriage is the choice of one
man and one woman of each other for a life family relation.
La Rochefoucauld said: "Hypocrisy is a sort of homage which
vice pays to virtue." There is hypocrisy beneath the word
polygamy. It is an attempt to cover up by the term "plural
marriage" what is not marriage and cannot be marriage. There
is no particular need of defining what the condition is, so
long as we can look upon it as a violation and negation of
the marriage relation. The very use of the term from any
language covering a like condition is attempt--
"To steal the livery of the court of heaven
To serve the Devil in."
Polygamy is a general term and might mean a multiplicity of
partners in the family relation by one of either sex. But it
does not. Polygamy practically means exactly "polygyny"
(gune), i.e. it describes a many-wived man. The correlative
term "polyandry" describes the condition of a woman who has
many men in family relation with herself. They are all
husbands to her, as in polygamy all the women are wives to
one man. But polyandry in historic times has had so little
illustration that it may be dismissed as so exceptional as
to be worthy of no further notice here.
Why polygamy has captured the whole position philologically
covered by polygyny is readily apparent. The might of the
physically strongest has dictated the situation. Man has on
the average one-fourth more muscular force than woman. When
it comes to wrong in sex relation, man has that advantage,
and it has given him the field covered by the word
"polygamy." There he is master and woman is the victim.
2. Origin of Polygamy:
It is plainly evident that polygamy is primarily largely the
outcome of tribal wars. When men had separated into clans
and had taken up different places of abode, collisions would
soon occur between them. What would happen in such cases
would be what we know did happen in North America soon after
its first settlement by Europeans, to wit, the destruction
of the Hurons by the Iroquois. The great majority of the men
were massacred; the women and...
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Forbidden
De 17:17; Le 18:18; Mal 2:14,15; Mt 19:4,5; Mr 10:2-
8; 1Ti
3:2,12; Tit 1:6
-Authorized
2Sa 12:8
-Tolerated
Ex 21:10; 1Sa 1:2; 2Ch 24:3
-Practiced by
Job 27:15
-Lamech
Ge 4:19
-Abraham
Ge 16
-Esau
Ge 26:34; 28:9
-Jacob
Ge 29:30
-Ashur
1Ch 4:5
-Gideon
Jud 8:30
-Elkanah
1Sa 1:2
-David
1Sa 25:39-44; 2Sa 3:2-5; 5:13; 1Ch 14:3
-Solomon
1Ki 11:1-8
-Rehoboam
2Ch 11:18-23
-Abijah
2Ch 13:21
-Jehoram
2Ch 21:14
-Joash
2Ch 24:3
-Ahab
2Ki 10
-Jehoiachin
2Ki 24:15
-Belshazzar
Da 5:2
-See
1Ch 2:8
-Hosea
Ho 3:1,2
-Mosaic law respecting the firstborn in
De 21:15-17
-Sought by women
Isa 4:1
-The evil effects of
Husband's favoritism in
De 21:15-17
Jacob's
Ge 29:30; 30:15
Elkanah's
1Sa 1:5
Rehoboam's
2Ch 11:21
-Domestic unhappiness
In Abraham's family
Ge 16; 21:9-16
In Jacob's family
Ge 29:30-34; 30:1-23
In Elkanah's family
1Sa 1:4-7
-With Solomon
1Ki 11:4-8
-See CONCUBINAGE
-See MARRIAGE
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Neither shall he multiply wives to himself, that his heart
turn not away: neither shall he greatly multiply to himself
silver and gold.
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Neither shalt thou take a wife to her sister, to vex [her], to
uncover her nakedness, beside the other in her life [time].
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Yet ye say, Wherefore? Because the LORD hath been witness
between thee and the wife of thy youth, against whom thou hast
dealt treacherously: yet [is] she thy companion, and the wife
of thy covenant.
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And did not he make one? Yet had he the residue of the spirit.
And wherefore one? That he might seek a godly seed. Therefore
take heed to your spirit, and let none deal treacherously
against the wife of his youth.
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And I gave thee thy master's house, and thy master's wives
into thy bosom, and gave thee the house of Israel and of
Judah; and if [that had been] too little, I would moreover
have given unto thee such and such things.
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If he take him another [wife]; her food, her raiment, and her
duty of marriage, shall he not diminish.
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Those that remain of him shall be buried in death: and his
widows shall not weep.
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And Lamech took unto him two wives: the name of the one [was]
Adah, and the name of the other Zillah.
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And he went in also unto Rachel, and he loved also Rachel more
than Leah, and served with him yet seven other years.
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And he had two wives; the name of the one [was] Hannah, and
the name of the other Peninnah: and Peninnah had children, but
Hannah had no children.
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pool, pond, rez'-er-vwar, rez'-er-vwar ((1) berekhah,
"pool"; compare Arabic birkat, "pool"; compare berakhah,
"blessing," and Arabic barakat, "blessing"; (2) agham,
"pool," "marsh," "reeds"; compare Arabic 'ajam, "thicket,"
"jungle"; (3) miqwah, "reservoir," the King James Version
"ditch" (Isa 22:11); (4) miqweh, "pond," the King James
Version "pool" (Ex 7:19); miqweh ha-mayim, English Versions
of the Bible "gathering together of the waters" (Gen 1:10);
miqweh-mayim, "a gathering of water," the King James Version
"plenty of water" (Lev 11:36); (5) kolumbethra, "pool,"
literally, "a place of diving," from kolumbao, "to dive"):
Lakes (see LAKE) are very rare in Syria and Israel, but the
dry climate, which is one reason for the fewness of lakes,
impels the inhabitants to make artificial pools or
reservoirs to collect the water of the rain or of springs
for irrigation and also for drinking. The largest of these
are made by damming water courses, in which water flows
during the winter or at least after showers of rain. These
may be enlarged or deepened by excavation. Good examples of
this are found at Diban and Madeba in Moab. Smaller pools of
rectangular shape and usually much wider than deep, having
no connection with water courses, are built in towns to
receive rain from the roofs or from the surface of the
ground. These may be for common use like several large ones
in Jerusalem, or may belong to particular houses. These are
commonly excavated to some depth in the soil or rock, though
the walls are likely to rise above the surface. Between
these and cylindrical pits or cisterns no sharp line can be
drawn.
The water of springs may be collected in large or small
pools of masonry, as the pool of Siloam (Jn 9:7). This is
commonly done for irrigation when the spring is so small
that the water would be lost by absorption or evaporation if
it were attempted to convey it continuously to the fields.
The pool (Arabic, birkat) receives the trickle of water
until it is full. The water is then let out in a large
stream and conducted where it is needed. (In this way by
patient labor a small trickling spring may support much
vegetation.)
'Agham does not seem to be used of artificial pools, but
rather of natural or accidental depressions containing
water, as pools by the Nile (Ex 7:19; 8:5), or in the
wilderness (Ps 107:35; 114:8; Isa 14:23; 35:7; 41:18;
42:15). In Isa 19:10 the rendering of the King James
Version, "all that make sluices and ponds for fish," would
be an exception to this statement, but the Revised Version
(British and American) has "all they that work for hire
shall be grieved in soul." Miqweh occurs with 'agham in Ex
7:19 of the ponds and pools by the Nile. Berekhah is used of
"the pool of Gibeon" (2 Sam 2:13), "the pool in Hebron" (2
Sam 4:12), "the pool of Samaria" (1 Ki 22:38), "the pools in
Heshbon" (Song 7:4), "the pool of Shelah," the King James
Version "Shiloah" (Neh 3:15); compare "the waters of
Shiloah" (Isa 8:6). We read in Eccl 2:6, "I made me pools of
water, to water therefrom the forest where trees were
reared." There is mention of "the upper pool" (2 Ki 18:17;
Isa 7:3; 36:2), "the lower pool" (Isa 22:9), "the king's
pool" (Neh 2:14). Isa 22:11 has, "Ye made also a reservoir
(miqwah) between the two walls for the water of the old pool
(berekhah)." Kolumbethra is used of the pool of Bethesda (Jn
5:2,4,7) and of the pool of Siloam (Jn 9:7,11).
See also CISTERN; NATURAL FEATURES; BJ, V, iv, 2.
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Of Samaria
1Ki 22:38
-Of Jerusalem
Upper pool
2Ki 18:17; Isa 36:2
Lower pool
Isa 22:9
Siloam (Shelah)
Ne 3:15; Joh 9:7,11
Of Heshbon
So 7:4
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Pools, like the tanks of India, are in many parts of Israel
and Syria the only resource for water during the dry season,
and the failure of them involves drought and calamity. Isa
42:15 Of the various pools mentioned in Scripture, perhaps the
most celebrated are the pools of Solomon near Bethlehem called
by the Arabs el-Burak, from which an aqueduct was carried
which still supplies Jerusalem with wafer. Ec 2:6 Ecclus.
24:30, 31.
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a pond, or reservoir, for holding water (Heb. berekhah;
modern
Arabic, birket), an artificial cistern or tank.
Mention is made
of the pool of Gibeon (2 Sam. 2:13); the pool of
Hebron (4:12);
the upper pool at Jerusalem (2 Kings 18:17; 20:20);
the pool of
Samaria (1 Kings 22:38); the king's pool (Neh.
2:14); the pool
of Siloah (Neh. 3:15; Eccles. 2:6); the fishpools of
Heshbon
(Cant. 7:4); the "lower pool," and the "old pool"
(Isa.
22:9,11).
The "pool of Bethesda" (John 5:2,4, 7) and the "pool
of
Siloam" (John 9:7, 11) are also mentioned. Isaiah
(35:7) says,
"The parched ground shall become a pool." This is
rendered in
the Revised Version "glowing sand," etc. (marg.,
"the mirage,"
etc.). The Arabs call the mirage "serab," plainly
the same as
the Hebrew word _sarab_, here rendered "parched
ground." "The
mirage shall become a pool", i.e., the mock-lake of
the burning
desert shall become a real lake, "the pledge of
refreshment and
joy." The "pools" spoken of in Isa. 14:23 are the
marshes caused
by the ruin of the canals of the Euphrates in the
neighbourhood
of Babylon.
The cisterns or pools of the Holy City are for the
most part
excavations beneath the surface. Such are the vast
cisterns in
the temple hill that have recently been discovered
by the
engineers of the Israel Exploration Fund. These
underground
caverns are about thirty-five in number, and are
capable of
storing about ten million gallons of water. They are
connected
with one another by passages and tunnels.
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berakah. Reservoir for water, whether supplied by springs or
rain (Isaiah 42:15). The drying up of the pools involved
drought and national distress. The three pools of Solomon near
Bethlehem are famous, and still supply Jerusalem with water by
an aqueduct (Ecclesiastes 2:6). Partly hewn in the rock,
partly built with masonry; all lined with cement; formed on
successive levels with conduits from the upper to the lower;
with flights of steps from the top to the bottom of each: in
the sides of Etham valley, with a dam across its opening,
which forms the eastern side of the lowest pool. The upper
pool is 380 ft. long, 236 broad at the E., 229 at the W., 25
deep, 160 above the middle pool. This middle pool is 423 long,
250 broad at the E., 160 at the W., 39 deep, 248 above the
lower pool. The lower pool is 582 long, 207 broad at the E.,
148 at the W., 50 deep. A spring above is the main source
(Robinson, Res. 1:348, 474).
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And the LORD spake unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Take thy rod,
and stretch out thine hand upon the waters of Egypt, upon
their streams, upon their rivers, and upon their ponds, and
upon all their pools of water, that they may become blood; and
[that] there may be blood throughout all the land of Egypt,
both in [vessels of] wood, and in [vessels of] stone.
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I made me pools of water, to water therewith the wood that
bringeth forth trees:
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I will make waste mountains and hills, and dry up all their
herbs; and I will make the rivers islands, and I will dry up
the pools.
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I will also make it a possession for the bittern, and pools of
water: and I will sweep it with the besom of destruction,
saith the LORD of hosts.
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[Who] passing through the valley of Baca make it a well; the
rain also filleth the pools.
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But the gate of the fountain repaired Shallun the son of
Colhozeh, the ruler of part of Mizpah; he built it, and
covered it, and set up the doors thereof, the locks thereof,
and the bars thereof, and the wall of the pool of Siloah by
the king's garden, and unto the stairs that go down from the
city of David.
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And the king of Assyria sent Tartan and Rabsaris and
Rabshakeh from Lachish to king Hezekiah with a great host
against Jerusalem. And they went up and came to Jerusalem. And
when they were come up, they came and stood by the conduit of
the upper pool, which [is] in the highway of the fuller's
field.
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And the king of Assyria sent Rabshakeh from Lachish to
Jerusalem unto king Hezekiah with a great army. And he stood
by the conduit of the upper pool in the highway of the
fuller's field.
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And David commanded his young men, and they slew them, and cut
off their hands and their feet, and hanged [them] up over the
pool in Hebron. But they took the head of Ishbosheth, and
buried [it] in the sepulchre of Abner in Hebron.
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I will open rivers in high places, and fountains in the midst
of the valleys: I will make the wilderness a pool of water,
and the dry land springs of water.
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pot'-er, pot'-er-i:
1. Historical Development
2. Forms
3. Methods of Production
4. Uses
5. Biblical Terms
6. Archaeological Significance
LITERATURE
1. Historical Development:
(1) Prehistoric.
The making of pottery ranks among the very oldest of the
crafts. On the rocky plateaus of Upper Egypt, overlooking
the Nile valley, are found the polished red earthenware pots
of the prehistoric Egyptians. These are buried in shallow
oval graves along with the cramped-up bodies of the dead and
their chipped flint weapons and tools. These jars are the
oldest examples of the potter's article It is inconceivable
that in the country of Babel, Egypt's great rival in
civilization, the ceramic arts were less developed at the
same period, but the difference in the nature of the country
where the first Mesopotamian settlement probably existed
makes it unlikely that relics of the prehistoric dwellers of
that country will ever be recovered from under the debris of
demolished cities and the underlying deposits of clay and
silt.
(2) Babylonia.
The oldest examples of Babylonian ceramics date from the
historical period, and consist of baked clay record tablets,
bricks, drainage pipes, household shrines, as well as
vessels for holding liquids, fruits and other stores. (See
Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Chaldea and Assyria,
I, figures 159, 160, II, figures 163, 168.) Examples of
pottery of this early period are shown in the accompanying
figures. By the 9th to the 7th century BC the shaping of
vessels of clay had become well developed. Fragments of
pottery bearing the name of Esarhaddon establish the above
dates.
(3) Egypt.
With the close of the neolithic period in Egypt and the
beginning of the historical...
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Clay prepared for, by treading
Isa 41:25
-Vessels made of
Jer 18:3,4
-Place for manufacture of, outside the wall of Jerusalem,
bought as a burying ground for poor people
Mt 27:7-10
-FIGURATIVE
Isa 64:8; Ro 9:21
Of weakness, in the idol in Nebuchadnezzars vision
Da 2:41
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The art of pottery is one of the most common and most ancient
of all manufactures. It is abundantly evident, both that the
Hebrews used earthenware vessels in the wilderness and that
the potter's trade was afterward carried on in Israel. They
had themselves been concerned in the potter's trade in Egypt,
Ps 81:6 and the wall-paintings minutely illustrate the
Egyptian process. The clay, when dug, was trodden by men's
feet so as to form a paste, Isa 41:25 Wisd. 15:7; then placed
by the potter on the wheel beside which he sat, and shaped by
him with his hands. How early the wheel came into use in
Israel is not known, but it seems likely that it was adopted
from Egypt. Isa 45:9; Jer 15:3 The vessel was then smoothed
and coated with a glaze, and finally burnt in a furnace. There
was at Jerusalem a royal establishment of potters, 1Ch 4:23
from whose employment, and from the fragments cast away in the
process, the Potter's Field perhaps received its name. Isa
30:11
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the art of, was early practised among all nations. Various
materials seem to have been employed by the potter.
Earthenware
is mentioned in connection with the history of
Melchizedek (Gen.
14:18), of Abraham (18:4-8), of Rebekah (27:14), of
Rachel
(29:2, 3, 8, 10). The potter's wheel is mentioned by
Jeremiah
(18:3). See also 1 Chr. 4:23; Ps. 2:9; Isa. 45:9;
64:8; Jer.
19:1; Lam. 4:2; Zech. 11:13; Rom. 9:21.
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Early known in Egypt. Israel in bondservice there wrought at
it (Psalm 81:6, so the Hebrew in 1 Samuel 2:14); but
translated for "pots" the harden baskets for carrying clay,
bricks, etc., such as are depicted in the sepulchral vaults
at Thebes (Exodus 5:6-12; 2 Chronicles 16:6). The potter
trod the clay into a paste (Isaiah 41:25), then put it on a
wheel, by which he sat and shaped it. The wheel or
horizontal lathe was a wooden disc, placed on another larger
one, and turned by hand or worked by a treadle (Jeremiah
18:3); on the upper he molded the clay into shape (Isaiah
45:9); the vessel was then smoothed, glazed, and burnt.
Tiles with painting and writing on them were common (Ezekiel
4:1). There was a royal establishment of potters at
Jerusalem under the sons of Shelab (1 Chronicles 4:25),
carrying on the trade for the king's revenue. The pottery
found in Israel is divisible into Phoenician, Graeco-
Phoenician, Roman, Christian, and Arabic; on handles of jars
occur inscriptions: "to king Zepha .... king Shat" and Melek
(Israel Exploration, Our Work in Israel).
Emblem of man's brittle frailty, and of God's
potter-like power to shape our ends as He pleases (Psalm
2:9; Isaiah 29:16; Isaiah 30:14; Jeremiah 19:11;
Lamentations 4:2). As Isaiah 40:3 and Malachi 3:1 are thrown
together in Mark 1:2-3; also Isaiah 62:11 and Zechariah 9:9
in Matthew 21:4-5; and Isaiah 8:14; Isaiah 28:16 in Romans
9:33; so Jeremiah 18:3-6; Jeremiah 18:19, and Zechariah
11:12-13 in Matthew 27:9. Matthew presumes his reader's full
knowledge of Scripture, and merges the two human sacred
writers, Jeremiah and Zechariah, in the one voice of the
Holy Spirit speaking by them. In Matthew and Zechariah
alike, the Lord's representative, Israel's Shepherd, has a
paltry price set upon Him by the people; the transaction is
done deliberately by men connected with the house of
Jehovah; the money is given to the potter, marking the
perpetrators' baseness, guilt, and doom, and the hand of the
Lord overrules it all, the Jewish rulers while following
their own aims unconsciously fulfilling Jehovah's
"appointment."
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O house of Israel, cannot I do with you as this potter? saith
the LORD. Behold, as the clay [is] in the potter's hand, so
[are] ye in mine hand, O house of Israel.
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But now, O LORD, thou [art] our father; we [are] the clay, and
thou our potter; and we all [are] the work of thy hand.
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The precious sons of Zion, comparable to fine gold, how are
they esteemed as earthen pitchers, the work of the hands of
the potter!
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I have raised up [one] from the north, and he shall come: from
the rising of the sun shall he call upon my name: and he shall
come upon princes as [upon] morter, and as the potter treadeth
clay.
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Hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to
make one vessel unto honour, and another unto dishonour?
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And he shall rule them with a rod of iron; as the vessels of a
potter shall they be broken to shivers: even as I received of
my Father.
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And the vessel that he made of clay was marred in the hand of
the potter: so he made it again another vessel, as seemed good
to the potter to make [it].
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And he died in a good old age, full of days, riches, and
honour: and Solomon his son reigned in his stead.
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With the ancient [is] wisdom; and in length of days
understanding.
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Cast me not off in the time of old age; forsake me not when my
strength faileth.
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And [even] to [your] old age I [am] he; and [even] to hoar
hairs will I carry [you]: I have made, and I will bear; even I
will carry, and will deliver [you].
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Now also when I am old and grayheaded, O God, forsake me not;
until I have shewed thy strength unto [this] generation, [and]
thy power to every one [that] is to come.
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If a man beget an hundred [children], and live many years, so
that the days of his years be many, and his soul be not filled
with good, and also [that] he have no burial; I say, [that] an
untimely birth [is] better than he.
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The days of our years [are] threescore years and ten; and if
by reason of strength [they be] fourscore years, yet [is]
their strength labour and sorrow; for it is soon cut off, and
we fly away.
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They shall still bring forth fruit in old age; they shall be
fat and flourishing;
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ol'-iv tre (zayith, a word occurring also in Aramaic,
Ethiopic and Arabic; in the last it means "olive oil," and
zaitun, "the olive tree"; elaia):
1. The Olive Tree:
The olive tree has all through history been one of the most
characteristic, most valued and most useful of trees in
Israel. It is only right that it is the first named "king"
of the trees (Jdg 9:8,9). When the children of Israel came
to the land they acquired olive trees which they planted not
(Dt 6:11; compare Josh 24:13). The cultivation of the olive
goes back to the earliest times in Canaan. The frequent
references in the Bible, the evidences (see 4 below) from
archaeology and the important place the product of this tree
has held in the economy of the inhabitants of Syria make it
highly probable that this land is the actual home of the
cultivated olive. The wild olive is indigenous there. The
most fruitful trees are the product of bare and rocky ground
(compare Dt 32:13) situated preferably at no great distance
from the sea. The terraced hills of Israel, where the earth
lies never many inches above the limestone rocks, the long
rainless summer of unbroken sunshine, and the heavy "clews"
of the autumn afford conditions which are extraordinarily
favorable to at least the indigenous olive.
The olive, Olea Europaea (Natural Order Oleaceae), is a
slow-growing tree, requiring years of patient labor before
reaching full fruitfulness. Its growth implies a certain
degree of settlement and peace, for a hostile army can in a
few days destroy the patient work of two generations.
Possibly this may have something to do with its being the
emblem of peace. Enemies of a village or of an individual
often today carry out revenge by cutting away a ring of bark
from the trunks of the olives, thus killing the trees in a
few months. The beauty of this tree is referred to in Jer
11:16; Hos 14:6, and its fruitfulness in Ps 128:3. The
characteristic olive-green of its foliage, frosted silver
below and the twisted and gnarled trunks--often hollow in
the center--are some of the most picturesque and constant
signs of settled habitations. In some parts of the land
large plantations occur: the famous olive grove near Beirut
is 5 miles square; there are also fine, ancient trees in
great numbers near Bethlehem.
In starting an oliveyard the fellah not infrequently plants
young wild olive trees which grow plentifully over many
parts of the land, or he may grow from cuttings. When the
young trees are 3 years old they are grafted from a choice
stock and after another three or four years they may
commence to bear fruit, but they take quite a decade more
before reaching full fruition. Much attention is, however,
required. The soil around the trees must be frequently
plowed and broken up; water must be conducted to the roots
from the earliest rain, and the soil must be freely enriched
with a kind of marl known in Arabic as chuwwarah. If
neglected, the older trees soon send up a great many shoots
from the roots all around the parent stem (perhaps the idea
in Ps 128:3); these must be pruned away, although, should
the parent stem decay, some of these may be capable of
taking its place. Being, however, from the root, below the
original point of grafting, they are of the wild olive type-
-with smaller, stiffer leaves and prickly stem--and need
grafting before they are of use. The olive tree furnishes a
wood valuable for many forms of carpentry, and in modern...
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is frequently mentioned in Scripture. The dove from the ark
brought an olive-branch to Noah (Gen. 8:11). It is
mentioned
among the most notable trees of Israel, where it was
cultivated long before the time of the Hebrews
(Deut. 6:11;
8:8). It is mentioned in the first Old Testament
parable, that
of Jotham (Judg. 9:9), and is named among the
blessings of the
"good land," and is at the present day the one
characteristic
tree of Israel. The oldest olive-trees in the
country are
those which are enclosed in the Garden of
Gethsemane. It is
referred to as an emblem of prosperity and beauty
and religious
privilege (Ps. 52:8; Jer. 11:16; Hos. 14:6). The two
"witnesses"
mentioned in Rev. 11:4 are spoken of as "two olive
trees
standing before the God of the earth." (Comp. Zech.
4:3, 11-14.)
The "olive-tree, wild by nature" (Rom. 11:24), is
the shoot or
cutting of the good olive-tree which, left
ungrafted, grows up
to be a "wild olive." In Rom. 11:17 Paul refers to
the practice
of grafting shoots of the wild olive into a "good"
olive which
has become unfruitful. By such a process the sap of
the good
olive, by pervading the branch which is "graffed
in," makes it a
good branch, bearing good olives. Thus the Gentiles,
being a
"wild olive," but now "graffed in," yield fruit, but
only
through the sap of the tree into which they have
been graffed.
This is a process "contrary to nature" (11:24).
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The trees went forth [on a time] to anoint a king over them;
and they said unto the olive tree, Reign thou over us.
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And houses full of all good [things], which thou filledst not,
and wells digged, which thou diggedst not, vineyards and olive
trees, which thou plantedst not; when thou shalt have eaten
and be full;
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But I [am] like a green olive tree in the house of God: I
trust in the mercy of God for ever and ever.
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The LORD called thy name, A green olive tree, fair, [and] of
goodly fruit: with the noise of a great tumult he hath kindled
fire upon it, and the branches of it are broken.
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His branches shall spread, and his beauty shall be as the
olive tree, and his smell as Lebanon.
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These are the two olive trees, and the two candlesticks
standing before the God of the earth.
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And two olive trees by it, one upon the right [side] of the
bowl, and the other upon the left [side] thereof.
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And if some of the branches be broken off, and thou, being a
wild olive tree, wert graffed in among them, and with them
partakest of the root and fatness of the olive tree;
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For if thou wert cut out of the olive tree which is wild by
nature, and wert graffed contrary to nature into a good olive
tree: how much more shall these, which be the natural
[branches], be graffed into their own olive tree?
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(A fruit tree)
-Branch of, brought by the dove to Noah's ark
Ge 8:11
-Common to the land of Canaan
Ex 23:11; De 6:11; 8:8
-Israelites commanded to cultivate in the land of promise
De 28:40
-Branches of, used for booths (huts)
Ne 8:15
-Bears flowers
Job 15:33
-Precepts concerning gleaning the fruit of
De 24:20; Isa 17:6
-The cherubs made of the wood of
1Ki 6:23,31-33
-Fable of
Jud 9:8
-FIGURATIVE
Of prosperity
Ps 128:3
The wild, a figure of the Gentiles; the cultivated, of
the
Jews
Ro 11:17-21,24
-SYMBOLICAL
Zec 4:2-12; Re 11:4
-FRUIT OF
Oil extracted from, used as illuminating oil in the
tabernacle
Ex 39:37; Le 24:2; Zec 4:12
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The olive was among the most abundant and characteristic
vegetation of Judea. The olive tree grows freely almost
everywhere on the shores of the Mediterranean, but it was
peculiarly abundant in Israel. See De 6:11; 8:8; 28:40
Oliveyards are a matter of course in descriptions of the
country like vines and cornfields. Jud 15:5; 1Sa 8:14 The
kings had very extensive ones. 1Ch 27:28 Even now the is
very abundant in the country. Almost every village has its
olive grove. Certain districts may be specified where at
various times this tree been very luxuriant. The cultivation
of the olive tree had the closest connection with the
domestic life of the Israelites 2Ch 2:10 their trade, Eze
27:17; Ho 12:1 and even their Public ceremonies and
religious worship. In Solomon's temple the cherubim were "of
olive tree," 1Ki 6:23 as also the doors, vs. 1Ki 6:31,32 and
posts. ver. 1Ki 6:33 For the various uses of olive oil see
OIL. The wind was dreaded by the cultivator of the olive for
the least ruffling of a breeze is apt to cause the flowers
to fall.
Job 15:33 It is needless to add that the locust was
a formidable enemy of the olive. It happened not
unfrequently that hopes were disappointed, and that "the
labor of the olive failed." Hab 3:17
As to the growth of the tree, it thrives best in
warm and sunny situations. It is of moderate height, with
knotty gnarled trunk and a smooth ash-colored bark. It grows
slowly, but lives to an immense age. Its look is singularly
indicative of tenacious vigor, and this is the force of what
is said in Scripture of its "greenness, as emblematic of
strength and prosperity. The leaves, too, are not deciduous.
Those who see olives for the first time are occasionally
disappointed by the dusty color of their foilage; but those
who are familiar with them find an inexpressible charm in
the rippling changes of their slender gray-green leaves.
(See Ruskin's "Stones of Venice," iii. 175-177.) The olive
furnishes the basis of one of Paul's allegories. Ro 11:16-25
The Gentiles are the "wild olive" grafted in upon the "good
olive," to which once the Jews belonged, and with which they
may again be incorporated, (The olive grows from 20 to 40
feet high. In general appearance it resembles the apple
tree; in leaves and sterns, the willow. The flowers are
white and appear in June, The fruit is like a plum in shape
and size, and at first is green, but gradually becomes
purple, and even black, with a hard stony kernel, and is
remarkable from the outer fleshy part being that in which
much oil is lodged, and not, as is usual, in the almond of
the seed. The fruit ripens from August to September. It is
sometimes eaten green, but its chief value is in its oil.
The wood is hard, fine beautifully veined, and is open used
for cabinet work. Olive trees were so abundant in Galilee
that at the siege of Jotapata by Vespasian the Roman army
were driven from the ascent of the walls by hot olive oil
poured upon them and scalding them underneath their armor. -
-Josephus, Wars, 3; 7:28. --ED.)
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the fruit of the olive-tree. This tree yielded oil which was
highly valued. The best oil was from olives that were
plucked
before being fully ripe, and then beaten or squeezed
(Deut.
24:20; Isa. 17:6; 24:13). It was called "beaten," or
"fresh oil"
(Ex. 27:20). There were also oil-presses, in which the
oil was
trodden out by the feet (Micah 6:15). James (3:12)
calls the
fruit "olive berries." The phrase "vineyards and
olives" (Judg.
15:5, A.V.) should be simply "olive-yard," or "olive-
garden," as
in the Revised Version. (See OIL -T0002774.)
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Its foliage is the earliest mentioned (Genesis 8:11).
Tradition from Noah's days has ever made it symbolize peace.
It is the emblem of "fatness" in the oldest parable (Judges
9:8-9). Emblem of the godly (Psalm 52:5; Psalm 52:8), in
spirit constantly dwelling "in the house of God"; in
contrast to slave-like formalists now sojourning outwardly
in it for a time, but not abiding ever (John 8:34-35; Psalm
15:1; Psalm 23:6; Psalm 27:4-5; Psalm 36:8); the wicked and
antichrist shall be "rooted out of (God's) dwelling place,"
literally, 5 ('ohel). The Septuagint, Chaldee, Vulgate, and
Aben Ezra interpret 'ohel "the tabernacle" (2 Thessalonians
2:4; Daniel 11:44-45). The saint's children are "like olive
plants round about his table" (Psalm 128:3).
The old olive sends out young suckers which spring
up round the parent tree, and which in after ages, when the
parent's strength fails, shelter it on every side from the
blast. It is the characteristic tree of Judea on Roman
coins, Deuteronomy 8:8. Asher "dipped his foot in oil"
(Deuteronomy 33:24). Emblem of Judah's adoption of God by
grace (Jeremiah 11:16; Romans 11:17), also of joy and
prosperity. The Gentile church is the wild twig "engrafted
contrary to nature" on the original Jewish olive stock; it
marks supernatural virtue in the stock that it enables those
wild by nature to bear good fruit; ordinarily it is only a
superior scion that is grafted on an inferior. The two
witnesses for God (antitypes to Elijah and Moses, Zerubbabel
and Joshua, the civil ruler and the priest: Malachi 4:5-6;
Matthew 17:11; Acts 3:21; Judges 1:6) are "the two olive
trees," channels of the oil (the Holy Spirit in them)
feeding the church (Revelation 11:3-4; Zechariah 4:11-12).
The wood, fine grained, solid, and yellowish, was
used for the cherubim, doors, and posts (1 Kings 6:23; 1
Kings 6:31-33). The tree was shaken to get the remnant left
after the general gathering (by "beating," Deuteronomy
24:20), Isaiah 24:13; image of Israel's "remnant according
to the election of grace." The least breeze makes the
flowers fall; compare Job 15:33, "he shall cast off his
flower as the olive," i.e. the least blast sweeps away in a
moment the sinner's prosperity. The tree poetically is made
to cast off its own blossom, to mark that the sinner brings
on his own ruin (Isaiah 3:11; Jeremiah 6:19). It thrives
best in a sunny position. A rocky calcareous subsoil suits
it; compare "oil out of the flinty rock" (Deuteronomy
32:13). The trunk is knotty and gnarled, the bark smooth and
ash colored. Its growth is slow, but it lives very long. The
leaves are grey green, not deciduous, suggestive of
tenacious strength.
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Thou shalt sow, but thou shalt not reap; thou shalt tread the
olives, but thou shalt not anoint thee with oil; and sweet
wine, but shalt not drink wine.
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And when he had set the brands on fire, he let [them] go into
the standing corn of the Philistines, and burnt up both the
shocks, and also the standing corn, with the vineyards [and]
olives.
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And it came to pass, when he was come nigh to Bethphage and
Bethany, at the mount called [the mount] of Olives, he sent
two of his disciples,
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And in the day time he was teaching in the temple; and at
night he went out, and abode in the mount that is called [the
mount] of Olives.
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And when he was come nigh, even now at the descent of the
mount of Olives, the whole multitude of the disciples began to
rejoice and praise God with a loud voice for all the mighty
works that they had seen;
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And as he sat upon the mount of Olives over against the
temple, Peter and James and John and Andrew asked him
privately,
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And when they drew nigh unto Jerusalem, and were come to
Bethphage, unto the mount of Olives, then sent Jesus two
disciples,
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And as he sat upon the mount of Olives, the disciples came
unto him privately, saying, Tell us, when shall these things
be? and what [shall be] the sign of thy coming, and of the end
of the world?
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And when they came nigh to Jerusalem, unto Bethphage and
Bethany, at the mount of Olives, he sendeth forth two of his
disciples,
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And when they had sung an hymn, they went out into the mount
of Olives.
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For baking
Ex 8:3; Le 2:4; 7:9; 11:35; 26:26
-See BREAD
-FIGURATIVE
Ps 21:9; Ho 7:4,6,7; Mal 4:1; Mt 6:30; Lu 12:28
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The eastern oven is of two kinds --fixed and portable. The
former is found only in towns, where regular bakers are
employed. Ho 7:4 The latter ia adapted to the nomad state, it
consists of a large jar made of clay, about three feet high
and widening toward the bottom, with a hole for the extraction
of the ashes. Each household possessed such an article, Ex 8:3
and it was only in times of extreme dearth that the same oven
sufficed for several families. Le 26:26 It was heated with dry
twigs and grass, Mt 6:30 and the loaves were placed both
inside and outside of it.
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Heb. tannur, (Hos. 7:4). In towns there appear to have been
public ovens. There was a street in Jerusalem (Jer.
37:21)
called "bakers' street" (the only case in which the
name of a
street in Jerusalem is preserved). The words "tower
of the
furnaces" (Neh. 3:11; 12:38) is more properly "tower
of the
ovens" (Heb. tannurim). These resemble the ovens in
use among
ourselves.
There were other private ovens of different kinds.
Some were
like large jars made of earthenware or copper, which
were heated
inside with wood (1 Kings 17:12; Isa. 44:15; Jer.
7:18) or grass
(Matt. 6:30), and when the fire had burned out,
small pieces of
dough were placed inside or spread in thin layers on
the
outside, and were thus baked. (See FURNACE
-T0001398.)
Pits were also formed for the same purposes, and
lined with
cement. These were used after the same manner.
Heated stones, or sand heated by a fire heaped over
it, and
also flat irons pans, all served as ovens for the
preparation of
bread. (See Gen. 18:6; 1 Kings 19:6.)
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tanur. Fixed or portable. The fixed ovens were inside towns.
The portable ovens consisted of a large clay jar, three feet
high, widening toward the bottom, with a hole to extract the
ashes. Sometimes there was an erection of clay in the form
of a jar, built on the house floor. Every house had one
(Exodus viii. 3 ); only in a famine (lid one suffice for
several faro-flies (Leviticus xxvi. 26). Tile heating fuel
was dry grass and twigs (Blurt. vt. 30: "grass, which to-day
is, to-morrow is cast into the oven"). The loaves were
placed inside, and thin cakes outside of it.
Image of consuming vengeance (Malachi 4:1). Psalm
21:9; "Thou shalt make them as a fiery oven in the time of
Thine anger... burning with Thy hot, wrath in the day of the
Lord." Hosea 7:4, 7: "they are all adulterers, as an oven
heated by (burning from) the baker," i.e. the fire burns of
itself, even after tlle baker has ceased to feed it with
fuel. "Who teaseth from raising (rather from heating it
meeir) after he hath kneaded the dough until it be
leavened:" he omits to feed it only during the short time of
the fermentation of the bread. So their lusts were on fire
even in the short respite that Satan gives, till his leaven
has worked. 2 Peter 2:14, "cannot cease from sin."
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For, behold, the day cometh, that shall burn as an oven; and
all the proud, yea, and all that do wickedly, shall be
stubble: and the day that cometh shall burn them up, saith the
LORD of hosts, that it shall leave them neither root nor
branch.
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And every [thing] whereupon [any part] of their carcase
falleth shall be unclean; [whether it be] oven, or ranges for
pots, they shall be broken down: [for] they [are] unclean, and
shall be unclean unto you.
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And every [thing] whereupon [any part] of their carcase
falleth shall be unclean; [whether it be] oven, or ranges for
pots, they shall be broken down: [for] they [are] unclean, and
shall be unclean unto you.
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[And] when I have broken the staff of your bread, ten women
shall bake your bread in one oven, and they shall deliver
[you] your bread again by weight: and ye shall eat, and not be
satisfied.
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And if thou bring an oblation of a meat offering baken in the
oven, [it shall be] unleavened cakes of fine flour mingled
with oil, or unleavened wafers anointed with oil.
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If then God so clothe the grass, which is to day in the field,
and to morrow is cast into the oven; how much more [will he
clothe] you, O ye of little faith?
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Wherefore, if God so clothe the grass of the field, which to
day is, and to morrow is cast into the oven, [shall he] not
much more [clothe] you, O ye of little faith?
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Thou shalt make them as a fiery oven in the time of thine
anger: the LORD shall swallow them up in his wrath, and the
fire shall devour them.
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For they have made ready their heart like an oven, whiles they
lie in wait: their baker sleepeth all the night; in the
morning it burneth as a flaming fire.
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They [are] all adulterers, as an oven heated by the baker,
[who] ceaseth from raising after he hath kneaded the dough,
until it be leavened.
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And all the meat offering that is baken in the oven, and all
that is dressed in the fryingpan, and in the pan, shall be the
priest's that offereth it.
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They are all hot as an oven, and have devoured their judges;
all their kings are fallen: [there is] none among them that
calleth unto me.
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Our skin was black like an oven because of the terrible
famine.
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There was no animal in the rural economy of the Israelites,
or indeed in that of the ancient Orientals generally, that
was held in higher esteem than the ox and deservedly so, for
the ox was the animal upon whose patient labors depended all
the ordinary operations of farming. Oxen were used for
ploughing, De 22:10; 1Sa 14:14 etc.; for treading out corn,
De 25:4; Ho 10:11 etc.; for draught purposes, when they were
generally yoked in pairs, Nu 7:3; 1Sa 6:7 etc.; as beasts of
burden, 1Ch 12:40 their flesh was eaten, De 14:4; 1Ki 1:9
etc.; they were used in the sacrifices; cows supplied milk,
butter, etc. De 32:14; 2Sa 17:29; Isa 7:22 Connected with
the importance of oxen in the rural economy of the Jews is
the strict code of laws which was mercifully enacted by God
for their protection and preservation. The ox that threshed
the corn was by no means to be muzzled; he was to enjoy rest
on the Sabbath as well as his master. Ex 23:12; De 5:14 The
ox was seldom slaughtered. Le 17:1-6 It seems clear from Pr
15:17 and 1Kin 4:23
that cattle were sometimes stall-fed though as a
general rule it is probable that they fed in the plains or
on the hills of Israel. The cattle that grazed at large in
the open country would no doubt often become fierce and
wild, for it is to be remembered that in primitive times the
lion and other wild beasts of prey roamed about Israel.
Hence the force of the Psalmist's complaint of his enemies.
Ps 22:13
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Heb. bakar, "cattle;" "neat cattle", (Gen. 12:16; 34:28; Job
1:3, 14; 42:12, etc.); not to be muzzled when treading
the corn
(Deut. 25:4). Referred to by our Lord in his reproof
to the
Pharisees (Luke 13:15; 14:5).
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mentioned only in Judg. 3:31, the weapon with which Shamgar
(q.v.) slew six hundred Philistines. "The ploughman
still
carries his goad, a weapon apparently more fitted for
the hand
of the soldier than the peaceful husbandman. The one I
saw was
of the 'oak of Bashan,' and measured upwards of ten
feet in
length. At one end was an iron spear, and at the other
a piece
of the same metal flattened. One can well understand
how a
warrior might use such a weapon with effect in the
battle-field"
(Porter's Syria, etc.). (See GOAD -T0001508.)
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(See BULL.) The law prohibiting the slaughter of clean beasts
in the wilderness, except before the tabernacle, at once kept
Israel from idolatry and tended to preserve their herds.
During the 40 years oxen and sheep were seldom killed for
food, from whence arose their lustings after flesh (Leviticus
17:1-6).
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I will also break in pieces with thee the shepherd and his
flock; and with thee will I break in pieces the husbandman and
his yoke of oxen; and with thee will I break in pieces
captains and rulers.
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And thou shalt bestow that money for whatsoever thy soul
lusteth after, for oxen, or for sheep, or for wine, or for
strong drink, or for whatsoever thy soul desireth: and thou
shalt eat there before the LORD thy God, and thou shalt
rejoice, thou, and thine household,
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And Solomon offered a sacrifice of peace offerings, which he
offered unto the LORD, two and twenty thousand oxen, and an
hundred and twenty thousand sheep. So the king and all the
children of Israel dedicated the house of the LORD.
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All the oxen for the burnt offering [were] twelve bullocks,
the rams twelve, the lambs of the first year twelve, with
their meat offering: and the kids of the goats for sin
offering twelve.
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And his princes gave willingly unto the people, to the
priests, and to the Levites: Hilkiah and Zechariah and Jehiel,
rulers of the house of God, gave unto the priests for the
passover offerings two thousand and six hundred [small
cattle], and three hundred oxen.
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And Ornan said unto David, Take [it] to thee, and let my lord
the king do [that which is] good in his eyes: lo, I give
[thee] the oxen [also] for burnt offerings, and the threshing
instruments for wood, and the wheat for the meat offering; I
give it all.
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And king Solomon offered a sacrifice of twenty and two
thousand oxen, and an hundred and twenty thousand sheep: so
the king and all the people dedicated the house of God.
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And he hath slain oxen and fat cattle and sheep in abundance,
and hath called all the sons of the king, and Abiathar the
priest, and Joab the captain of the host: but Solomon thy
servant hath he not called.
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That they shall drive thee from men, and thy dwelling shall be
with the beasts of the field, and they shall make thee to eat
grass as oxen, and they shall wet thee with the dew of heaven,
and seven times shall pass over thee, till thou know that the
most High ruleth in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to
whomsoever he will.
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A small box containing slips of parchment on which there were
written portions of the law
Ex 13:9,16; De 6:4-9; 11:18
-Worn ostentatiously by the Jews upon the head and left arm
Mt 23:5
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fi-lak'-ter-i (phulakterion, "guard"):
1. Bible References:
This word is found only in Mt 23:5 in our Lord's
denunciation of the Pharisees, who, in order that their
works might "be seen of men," and in their zeal for the
forms of religion, "make broad their phylacteries and
enlarge the borders of their garments." The corresponding
word in the Old Testament, ToTaphoth (Kennedy in HDB
suggests pointing as the segholate feminine singular,
ToTepheth), is fonnd in three passages (Ex 13:16; Dt 6:8;
11:18), where it is translated "frontlets." This rendering,
however, is not at all certain, and may have been read into
the text from its later interpretation. In Ex 13:9 the
corresponding word to the Totaphoth of 13:16 is zikkaron,
"memorial" or "reminder"; and in the parallel clauses of
both verses the corresponding word is 'oth, "a sign" upon
the hand, also used for the "sign" which Yahweh appointed
for Cain (Gen 4:15). It may be rendered then as a mark or
ornament or jewel, and used figuratively of Yahweh's Law as
an ornament or jewel to the forehead of the Israelite, a
reference to the charm or amulet worn by the pagan. The word
used in the Talmud for the phylactery is tephillah,
"prayer," or "prayer-band" (plural tephillin), indicating
its use theoretically as a reminder of the Law, although
practically it might be esteemed as an automatic and ever-
present charm against evil: an aid within toward the keeping
of the Law, a guard without against the approach of evil; a
degradation of an Old Testament figurative and idealistic
phrase to the materialistic and superstitious practices of
the pagans.
2. Description:
The phylactery was a leather box, cube-shaped, closed with
an attached flap and bound to the person by a leather band.
There were two kinds: (1) one to be bound to the inner side
of the left arm, and near the elbow, so that with the
bending of the arm it would rest over the heart, the knot
fastening it to the arm being in the form of the Hebrew
letter yodh (y), and the end of the string, or band, finally
wound around the middle finger of the hand, "a sign upon thy
hand" (Dt 6:8). This box had one compartment containing one
or all of the four passages given above. The writer in his
youth found one of these in a comparatively remote locality,
evidently lost by a Jewish peddler, which contained only the
2nd text (Ex 13:11-16) in unpointed Hebrew. (2) Another was
to be bound in the center of the forehead, "between thine
eyes" (Dt 6:8), the knot of the band being in the form of
the Hebrew letter daleth (d), with the Hebrew letter shin
(sh) upon each end of the box, which was divided into four
compartments with one of the four passages in each. These
two Hebrew letters, with the yodh (y) of the arm-phylactery
(see (1) above), formed the divine name shadday, "Almighty."
Quite elaborate ceremonial accompanied the "laying" on of
the phylacteries, that of the arm being bound on first, and
that of the head next, quotations from Scripture or Talmud
being repeated at each stage of the binding. They were to be
worn by every male over 13 years old at the time of morning
prayer, except on Sabbaths and festal days, such days being
in themselves sufficient reminders of "the commandment, the
statutes, and the ordinances" of Yahweh (Dt 6:1).
3. Interpretation of Old Testament Passages:
The passages on which the wearing of the phylacteries is
based are as follows: "It (i.e. the feast of...
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Exodus 20:24 - An altar of earth thou shalt make unto me, and
shalt sacrifice thereon thy burnt offerings, and thy peace
offerings, thy sheep, and thine oxen: in all places where I
record my name I will come unto thee, and I will bless thee.
Read More
Made of ram's horn
Jos 6:4-6,8,13
-Made of silver
Nu 10:2
-Uses of, prescribed by Moses
Nu 10:1-10
-Used in war
Job 39:24,25; Jer 4:19; 6:1,17; 42:14; 51:27; Eze
7:14; Am
2:2; 3:6; Zep 1:16; 1Co 14:8
-To summon soldiers
By Phinehas
Nu 31:6
By Ehud
Jud 3:27
By Gideon
Jud 6:34
By Saul
1Sa 13:3
By Joab
2Sa 2:28; 18:16; 20:22
By Absalom
2Sa 15:10
By Sheba
2Sa 20:1
By Nehemiah
Ne 4:18,20
-By Gideon's soldiers
Jud 7:8-22
-In war, of Abijah
2Ch 13:12,14
-In the siege of Jericho
Jos 6:4-20
-Sounded in time of danger
Eze 33:3-6; Joe 2:1
-Used at Mount Sinai
Ex 19:13-19; 20:18; Heb 12:19
-On the great day of atonement
Isa 27:13
-At the jubilee
Le 25:9
-At the bringing up of the ark of the covenant from the
household of Obed-edom
2Sa 6:5,15; 1Ch 13:8; 15:28
-At the anointing of kings
1Ki 1:34,39; 2Ki 9:13; 11:14
-At the dedication of Solomon's temple
2Ch 5:12,13; 7:6
-In worship
1Ch 15:24; 16:42; 25:5; Ps 81:3,4
-At Jehoshaphat's triumph
2Ch 20:28
-At the foundation of the second temple
Ezr 3:10,11
-At the dedication of the wall
Ne 12:35,41
-FIGURATIVE
Isa 27:13; Eze 33:3; Joe 2:1; Zec 9:14; Mt 6:2
-SYMBOLICAL
Mt 24:31; 1Co 15:52; 1Th 4:16; Re 1:10; 4:1; 8; 9:1-
14;
10:7; 11:15
See MUSIC, INSTRUMENTS OF
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Made of ram's horn
Jos 6:4-6,8,13
-Made of silver
Nu 10:2
-Uses of, prescribed by Moses
Nu 10:1-10
-Used in war
Job 39:24,25; Jer 4:19; 6:1,17; 42:14; 51:27; Eze
7:14; Am
2:2; 3:6; Zep 1:16; 1Co 14:8
-To summon soldiers
By Phinehas
Nu 31:6
By Ehud
Jud 3:27
By Gideon
Jud 6:34
By Saul
1Sa 13:3
By Joab
2Sa 2:28; 18:16; 20:22
By Absalom
2Sa 15:10
By Sheba
2Sa 20:1
By Nehemiah
Ne 4:18,20
-By Gideon's soldiers
Jud 7:8-22
-In war, of Abijah
2Ch 13:12,14
-In the siege of Jericho
Jos 6:4-20
-Sounded in time of danger
Eze 33:3-6; Joe 2:1
-Used at Mount Sinai
Ex 19:13-19; 20:18; Heb 12:19
-On the great day of atonement
Isa 27:13
-At the jubilee
Le 25:9
-At the bringing up of the ark of the covenant from the
household of Obed-edom
2Sa 6:5,15; 1Ch 13:8; 15:28
-At the anointing of kings
1Ki 1:34,39; 2Ki 9:13; 11:14
-At the dedication of Solomon's temple
2Ch 5:12,13; 7:6
-In worship
1Ch 15:24; 16:42; 25:5; Ps 81:3,4
-At Jehoshaphat's triumph
2Ch 20:28
-At the foundation of the second temple
Ezr 3:10,11
-At the dedication of the wall
Ne 12:35,41
-FIGURATIVE
Isa 27:13; Eze 33:3; Joe 2:1; Zec 9:14; Mt 6:2
-SYMBOLICAL
Mt 24:31; 1Co 15:52; 1Th 4:16; Re 1:10; 4:1; 8; 9:1-
14;
10:7; 11:15
See MUSIC, INSTRUMENTS OF
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General scriptures concerning
Da 3:5,7,10,15
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(A wind instrument of music)
-Used in religious services
1Sa 10:5; Isa 30:29
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(There has been great obscurity as to the instruments of
music in use among the Hebrews, but the discoveries on the
monuments of Egypt and Assyria have thrown much light upon
the form and nature of these instruments. I. STRINGED
INSTRUMENTS.--
1. The harp or lyre. [See illustration]
2. The psaltery, the name of various large
instruments of the harp kind.
3. The sackbut, a harp-like instrument of four
strings and of triangular form.
4. A kind of lute or guitar (mahalath), in titles to
Ps 53:1 and Psal 88:1
with a long, flat neck, and a hollow body of wood
whose surface was perforated with holes. There were three
strings, end the whole instrument was three or four feet
long.
5. The gittith, in titles to Ps 8:1, 81:1, 84:1 a
stringed instrument, probably found by David st Gath, whence
its name. II. INSTRUMENTS OF PERCUSSION.
1. The timbrel, a form of tambourine, a narrow hoop
covered with a tightened skin, and struck with the hand on
the Egyptian monuments are three kinds --the circular, the
square, and another formed by two squares separated by a
bar.
2. The drum (toph). Of this there were many
varieties, some of them resembling modern drums. The
Egyptians had along drum, of wood or copper, 2 1/2 feet
long, resembling the tom-tom of India, and beaten by the
hand. Another form was shaped like a cask with bulging
centre, and was made of copper. It was of the same length as
the other, but larger around, and was beaten with sticks.
Another drum was more like our kettledrum; and one of these,
the rabbins say, was placed in the temple court to the
priests to prayer, and could be heard from Jerusalem to
Jericho.
3. Bells (paanton), attached to the high priest's
dress, and rung by striking against the knobs, shaped like
pomegranates, which were hung near them.
4. Cymbals. The earliest cymbals were probably
finger cymbals -small plates of metal fastened to the thumb
and middle finger, and struck together. Afterward there were
the large cymbals, played with both hands.
5. Systra (menaanim), 2Sa 6:5 there translated
comets. The systrum was a carved bronze or copper frame,
with a handle, in all from 8 to 18 inches long, with movable
rings and bars. It was shaken with the hand, and the rings
and bars made a piercing metallic sound by striking against
the bronze frame.
6. The triangle (shalishim), 1Sa 18:6 a musical
instrument (machol) used for accompanying the dance, and
several times translated dancing. Ps 150:3,45 It was a
metallic rim or frame sometimes with a handle and had small
bells attached to it, or bars across on which were strung
metallic rings or plates. It was held in the hand, and was
played by the women at weddings and merry-makings. III. WIND
INSTRUMENTS. --
1. The syrinx, pandean pipe or bagpipe (ugab);
translated "organ" in Ge 4:21 Either like the bagpipe, or a
series of pipes from 5 to 23 in number, though usually only
7.
2. The horn,in the form of an animal's horn even
when made of metal but originating in the use of the horns
of cattle.
3. The trumpet (shophar) same as horn, 2.
4. The straight trumpet.
5. The flute (halil, meaning "bored through "), a
pipe perforated with holes, originally made from reeds, but
afterward of wood bone, horn or ivory. It was chiefly
consecrated to joy or pleasure.
6. The flute, alluded to in Da 3:6 probably a kind
of double flageolet.
7. The dulcimer, Da 3:5 a kind of bagpipe with two
shrill reeds. The modern dulcimer is a triangular instrument
strung with about 60 brass wires, and played upon with
little sticks or metallic rods. It more resembles the
ancient psaltery than the dulcimer of Da 3:5 --ED.)
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(Heb. chalil). The Hebrew word so rendered is derived from a
root signifying "to bore, perforate" and is represented with
sufficient correctness by the English "pipe" or "flute," as
in the margin of 1Ki 1:40 The pipe was the type of
perforated wind instruments, as the harp was of stringed
instruments. It was made of reed, bronze or copper. It is
one of the simplest, and therefore probably one of the
oldest, of musical Instruments. It is associated with the
tabret as an instrument of a peaceful and social character.
The pipe and tabret were used at the banquets of the
Hebrews, Isa 5:12 and accompanied the simpler religious
services when the young prophets, returning from the high
place, caught their inspiration from the harmony, 1Sa 10:5
or the pilgrims, on their way to the great festivals of
their ritual, beguiled the weariness of the march with
psalms sung to the simple music of the pipe. Isa 30:29 The
sound of the pipe was apparently a soft wailing note, which
made it appropriate to be used in mourning and at funerals
Mt 9:23 and in the lament of the prophet over the
destruction of Moab. Jer 48:36 It was even used in the
temple choir, as appears from Ps 87:7 In later times the
funeral and death-bed were never without the professional
pipers or flute-players, Mt 9:23 a custom which still
exists. In the social and festive life of the Egyptians the
pipe played as prominent a part as among the Hebrews.
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Among instruments of music used by the Hebrews a principal
place
is given to stringed instruments. These were, (1.)
The kinnor,
the "harp." (2.) The nebel, "a skin bottle,"
rendered
"psaltery." (3.) The sabbeka, or "sackbut," a lute
or lyre. (4.)
The gittith, occurring in the title of Ps. 8; 8; 84.
(5.) Minnim
(Ps. 150:4), rendered "stringed instruments;" in Ps.
45:8, in
the form _minni_, probably the apocopated (i.e.,
shortened)
plural, rendered, Authorized Version, "whereby," and
in the
Revised Version "stringed instruments." (6.)
Machalath, in the
titles of Ps. 53 and 88; supposed to be a kind of
lute or
guitar.
Of wind instruments mention is made of, (1.) The
'ugab (Gen.
4:21; Job 21:12; 30:31), probably the so-called
Pan's pipes or
syrinx. (2.) The qeren or "horn" (Josh. 6:5; 1 Chr.
25:5). (3.)
The shophar, rendered "trumpet" (Josh. 6:4, 6, 8).
The word
means "bright," and may have been so called from the
clear,
shrill sound it emitted. It was often used (Ex.
19:13; Num.
10:10; Judg. 7:16, 18; 1 Sam. 13:3). (4.) The
hatsotserah, or
straight trumpet (Ps. 98:6; Num. 10:1-10). This name
is supposed
by some to be an onomatopoetic word, intended to
imitate the
pulse-like sound of the trumpet, like the Latin
taratantara.
Some have identified it with the modern trombone.
(5.) The
halil, i.e, "bored through," a flute or pipe (1 Sam.
10:5; 1
Kings 1:40; Isa. 5:12; Jer. 48:36) which is still
used in
Israel. (6.) The sumponyah, rendered "dulcimer"
(Dan. 3:5),
probably a sort of bagpipe. (7.) The maskrokith'a
(Dan. 3:5),
rendered "flute," but its precise nature is unknown.
Of instruments of percussion mention is made of,
(1.) The
toph, an instrument of the drum kind, rendered
"timbrel" (Ex.
15:20; Job 21:12; Ps. 68:25); also "tabret" (Gen.
31:27; Isa.
24:8; 1 Sam. 10:5). (2.) The paamon, the "bells" on
the robe of
the high priest (Ex. 28:33; 39:25). (3.) The
tseltselim,
"cymbals" (2 Sam. 6:5; Ps. 150:5), which are struck
together and
produce a loud, clanging sound. Metsilloth, "bells"
on horses
and camels for ornament, and metsiltayim, "cymbals"
(1 Chr.
13:8; Ezra 3:10, etc.). These words are all derived
from the
same root, tsalal, meaning "to tinkle." (4.) The
menaan'im, used
only in 2 Sam. 6:5, rendered "cornets" (R.V.,
"castanets"); in
the Vulgate, "sistra," an instrument of agitation.
(5.) The
shalishim, mentioned only in 1 Sam. 18:6, rendered
"instruments
of music" (marg. of R.V., "triangles or three-
stringed
instruments").
The words in Eccl. 2:8, "musical instruments, and
that of all
sorts," Authorized Version, are in the Revised
Version
"concubines very many."
Read More
a musical instrument, probably composed of a number of pipes,
mentioned Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15.
In Matt. 9:23, 24, notice is taken of players on the
flute,
here called "minstrels" (but in R.V. "flute-players").
Flutes were in common use among the ancient Egyptians.
Read More
(1 Sam. 10:5; 1 Kings 1:40; Isa. 5:12; 30:29). The Hebrew word
halil, so rendered, means "bored through," and is the
name given
to various kinds of wind instruments, as the fife,
flute,
Pan-pipes, etc. In Amos 6:5 this word is rendered
"instrument of
music." This instrument is mentioned also in the New
Testament
(Matt. 11:17; 1 Cor. 14:7). It is still used in
Israel, and
is, as in ancient times, made of different materials,
as reed,
copper, bronze, etc.
Read More
were of a great variety of forms, and were made of divers
materials. Some were made of silver (Num. 10:2), and
were used
only by the priests in announcing the approach of
festivals and
in giving signals of war. Some were also made of rams'
horns
(Josh. 6:8). They were blown at special festivals, and
to herald
the arrival of special seasons (Lev. 23:24; 25:9; 1
Chr. 15:24;
2 Chr. 29:27; Ps. 81:3; 98:6).
"Trumpets" are among the symbols used in the Book of
Revelation (Rev. 1:10; 8:2). (See HORN -T0001821.)
Read More
chaliyl, "to bore." Representing wind instruments, as the harp
represents "stringed instruments". The pipe single or double,
the flute; one of the simplest and oldest of musical
instruments, the accompaniment of festivity (1 Kings 1:40;
Luke 7:32; Isaiah 5:12), religious services (1 Samuel 10:5),
and processions (Isaiah 30:29). Also suited by its plaintive
softness to mourning (Matthew 9:23; Jeremiah 48:36). The
"shawm" of which the clarionet is an improvement, may be from
chaliyl through the French chalumeau, German schalmeie.
Read More
A stringed instrument of music
Isa 38:20; Eze 33:32; Hab 3:19
-With three strings (margin)
1Sa 18:6
-Ten strings
Ps 33:2; 92:3; 144:9; 150:4
-Originated with Jubal
Ge 4:21
-Made of almug wood
1Ki 10:12
-David skillful in manipulating
1Sa 16:16,23
-Used in worship
1Sa 10:5; 1Ch 16:5; 25:1-7; 2Ch 5:12,13; 29:25; Ps
33:2;
43:4; 49:4; 57:8; 71:22; 81:2; 92:3; 98:5; 108:2;
147:7;
149:3; 150:3
-Used, in national jubilees, after the triumph over Goliath,
(margin)
1Sa 18:6
-Over the armies of Ammon and Moab
2Ch 20:28; with 20:20-29
-When the new walls of Jerusalem were dedicated
Ne 12:27,36
-Used in festivities
Ge 31:27; Job 21:11,12; Isa 5:12; 23:16; 24:8;
30:32; Eze
26:13; Re 18:22
-In mourning
Job 30:31
-Discordant
1Co 14:7
-Hung on the willows by the captive Jews
Ps 137:2
-Heard in heaven, in John's apocalyptic vision
Re 5:8; 14:2; 15:2
-The symbol used in the psalmody to indicate when the harp
was
to be introduced in the music was "Neginoth." See
titles of
Ps 4; 6; 54; 55; 61; 67; 76
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The harp was the national instrument of the Hebrews, and was
well known throughout Asia. Moses assigns its invention to
Jubal during the antediluvian period. Ge 4:21 Josephus records
that the harp had ten strings, and that it was played on with
the plectrum. Sometimes it was smaller having only eight
strings, and was usually played with the fingers.
Read More
(Heb. kinnor), the national instrument of the Hebrews. It
was
invented by Jubal (Gen. 4:21). Some think the word
_kinnor_
denotes the whole class of stringed instruments. It
was used as
an accompaniment to songs of cheerfulness as well as
of praise
to God (Gen. 31:27; 1 Sam. 16:23; 2 Chr. 20:28; Ps.
33:2;
137:2).
In Solomon's time harps were made of almug-trees (1
Kings
10:11, 12). In 1 Chr. 15:21 mention is made of
"harps on the
Sheminith;" Revised Version, "harps set to the
Sheminith;"
better perhaps "harps of eight strings." The
soothing effect of
the music of the harp is referred to 1 Sam. 16:16,
23; 18:10;
19:9. The church in heaven is represented as
celebrating the
triumphs of the Redeemer "harping with their harps"
(Rev. 14:2).
Read More
kinnor With ten strings, played on with a plectrum (quill),
according to Josephus; but also with the hand by David (1
Samuel 16:23; 1 Samuel 18:10; 1 Samuel 19:9). Jubal invented
it, the simplest kind of stringed instrument, and the"
organ" (ugab), rather the "pipe," the simplest kind of wind
instrument; his brother Jabal was" father of such as dwell
in tents and have cattle." The brotherhood accords with the
fact that the leisure of a nomad life was well suited to the
production and appreciation of music (Genesis 4:20-21). The
harp was the earliest of all musical instruments, and the
national instrument of the Hebrew.
They used it, not as the Greeks, for expressing
sorrow, but on occasions of joy and praise (Genesis 31:27; 2
Chronicles 20:28; Psalm 33:2); therefore, it was hung on the
willows in the Babylonian captivity (Psalm 137:2; Job
30:31). The words "My bowels shall sound like an harp"
(Isaiah 16:11) do not allude to the sound as lugubrious, but
to the strings vibrating when struck. There was a smaller
harp played with the hand, as by the walking prophets (1
Samuel 10:5), besides the larger, with more strings, played
with the plectrum. Its music, as that of other instruments,
was raised to its highest perfection under David (Amos 6:5).
It was an important adjunct to the "schools of the
prophets."
Read More
Now if ye be ready that at what time ye hear the sound of the
cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery, and dulcimer, and all
kinds of musick, ye fall down and worship the image which I
have made; [well]: but if ye worship not, ye shall be cast the
same hour into the midst of a burning fiery furnace; and who
[is] that God that shall deliver you out of my hands?
Read More
And it came to pass, when the [evil] spirit from God was upon
Saul, that David took an harp, and played with his hand: so
Saul was refreshed, and was well, and the evil spirit departed
from him.
Read More
After that thou shalt come to the hill of God, where [is] the
garrison of the Philistines: and it shall come to pass, when
thou art come thither to the city, that thou shalt meet a
company of prophets coming down from the high place with a
psaltery, and a tabret, and a pipe, and a harp, before them;
and they shall prophesy:
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Awake up, my glory; awake, psaltery and harp: I [myself] will
awake early.
Read More
After that thou shalt come to the hill of God, where [is] the
garrison of the Philistines: and it shall come to pass, when
thou art come thither to the city, that thou shalt meet a
company of prophets coming down from the high place with a
psaltery, and a tabret, and a pipe, and a harp, before them;
and they shall prophesy:
Read More
Ye shall have a song, as in the night [when] a holy solemnity
is kept; and gladness of heart, as when one goeth with a pipe
to come into the mountain of the LORD, to the mighty One of
Israel.
Read More
And the harp, and the viol, the tabret, and pipe, and wine,
are in their feasts: but they regard not the work of the LORD,
neither consider the operation of his hands.
Read More
And even things without life giving sound, whether pipe or
harp, except they give a distinction in the sounds, how shall
it be known what is piped or harped?
Read More
nek'-las (rabhidh, "chain"): A neck-chain ornament, worn
either separately (Ezek 16:11), or with pendants (Isa 3:19),
such as crescents (Isa 3:18) or rings (Gen 38:25); sometimes
made of gold (Gen 41:42; Dan 5:29), or of strings of jewels
(Song 1:10). Even beasts of burden were sometimes so adorned
by royalty (Jdg 8:26). It was considered suggestive of pride
(Ps 73:6) or of filial loyalty (Prov 1:9). The word does not
occur in the King James Version, but such adornments have
always been popular in all the Bible lands.
Read More
(A. V., tablets, R. V., armlet)
Ex 35:22; Nu 31:50
Read More
I decked thee also with ornaments, and I put bracelets upon
thy hands, and a chain on thy neck.
Read More
The chains, and the bracelets, and the mufflers,
Read More
Therefore pride compasseth them about as a chain; violence
covereth them [as] a garment
Read More
For they [shall be] an ornament of grace unto thy head, and
chains about thy neck.
Read More
noz-ju'-elz, -joo'-elz (nezem (probably from nazam, "muzzle")
a "nose-ring," or "nose-jewel," so rendered in Isa 3:21;
"jewel in a swine's snout," Prov 11:22, the King James Version
margin "ring"; "jewel on thy forehead," Ezek 16:12, "ring upon
thy nose"): In Gen 24:22, the King James Version rendered
incorrectly "earring"; compare Gen 24:47. Indeed, the word had
also a more generic meaning of "ring" or "jewelry," whether
worn in the nose or not. See Gen 35:4; Ex 32:2, where the
ornament was worn in the ear. There are several cases without
specification, uniformly rendered, without good reason,
however, "earring" in the King James Version (Ex 35:22; Jdg
8:24,25; Job 42:11 ("ring"); Prov 25:12; Hos 2:13 (15)).
The nose-jewel was made of gold or of silver, usually, and
worn by many women of the East. It was a ring of from an inch
to about three inches (in extreme cases) in diameter, and was
passed through the right nostril. Usually there were pendant
from the metal ring jewels, beads or coral. Such ornaments are
still worn in some parts of the East.
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Ge 24:22; Ex 35:22 "earing;" Isa 3:21, Eze 16:12 "jewel on the
forehead," a ring of metal, sometimes of gold or silver,
passed usually through the right nostril, and worn by way of
ornament by women in the East. Upon it are strung beads, coral
or jewels. In Egypt it is now almost confined to the lower
classes.
Read More
Only mentioned in Isa. 3:21, although refered to in Gen.
24:47,
Prov. 11:22, Hos. 2:13. They were among the most
valued of
ancient female ornaments. They "were made of ivory or
metal, and
occasionally jewelled. They were more than an inch in
diameter,
and hung upon the mouth. Eliezer gave one to Rebekah
which was
of gold and weighed half a shekel...At the present day
the women
in the country and in the desert wear these ornaments
in one of
the sides of the nostrils, which droop like the ears
in
consequence."
Read More
[As] a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, [so is] a fair woman
which is without discretion.
Read More
kar'-pen-ter (charash; tekton): This word, which is a general
word for graver or craftsman, is translated "carpenter" in 2
Ki 22:6; 2 Ch 24:12; Ezr 3:7; Isa 41:7. The same word is
rendered "craftsman" in the American Standard Revised Version
of Jer 24:1 and 29:2 and "smith" in the American Standard
Revised Version of Zec 1:20. In 2 Sam 5:11; 2 Ki 12:11; 1 Ch
14:1; and Isa 44:13, charash occurs with `ets (wood), and is
more exactly translated "carpenter" or "worker in wood."
Tekton, the corresponding Greek word for artificer, is
translated "carpenter" in Mt 13:55 and Mk 6:3.
Read More
fish'-er fish'-er-man (dayyagh, dawwagh; halieus; Westcott
and Hort, The New Testament in Greek haleeus): Although but
few references to fishermen are made in the Bible, these men
and their calling are brought into prominence by Jesus' call
to certain Galilee fishermen to become His disciples (Mt
4:18,19; Mk 1:16,17). Fishermen, then as now, formed a
distinct class. The strenuousness of the work (Lk 5:2) ruled
out the weak and indolent. They were crude in manner, rough
in speech and in their treatment of others (Lk 9:49,54; Jn
18:10). James and John before they became tempered by Jesus'
influence were nicknamed the "sons of thunder" (Mk 3:17).
The fishermen's exposure to all kinds of weather made them
hardy and fearless. They were accustomed to bear with
patience many trying circumstances. They often toiled for
hours without success, and yet were always ready to try once
more (Lk 5:5; Jn 21:3). Such men, when impelled by the same
spirit as filled their Master, became indeed "fishers of
men" (Mt 4:19; Mk 1:17).
One of the striking instances of the fulfillment of prophecy
is the use by the Syrian fishermen today of the site of
ancient Tyre as a place for the spreading of their nets
(Ezek 26:5,14).
Figurative: Fish were largely used as food (Hab 1:16),
hence, the lamentation of the fishermen, who provided for
all, typified general desolation (Isa 19:8). On the other
hand, abundance of fish and many fishermen indicated general
abundance (Ezek 47:10). Our modern expression, "treated like
a dog," had its counterpart in the language of the Old
Testament writers, when they portrayed the punished people
of Judah as being treated like fish. Yahweh would send many
fishers to fish them up and put sticks or hooks through
their cheeks as a fisherman strings his fish (Jer 16:16; Job
41:2). Such treatment of the people of Judah is depicted on
some of the Assyrian monuments.
Read More
tan'-er (burseus, from bursa "a hide"): The only references
to a tanner are in Acts 9:43; 10:6,32. The Jews looked upon
tanning as an undesirable occupation and well they might,
for at best it was accompanied with unpleasant odors and
unattractive sights, if not even ceremonially unclean. We
can imagine that Simon the tanner found among the disciples
of Jesus a fellowship which had been denied him before.
Peter made the way still easier for Simon by choosing his
house as his abode while staying in Joppa. Simon's house was
by the seashore, as is true of the tanneries along the
Syrian coast today, so that the foul-smelling liquors from
the vats can be drawn off with the least nuisance, and so
that the salt water may be easily accessible for washing the
skins during the tanning process. These tanneries are very
unpretentious affairs, usually consisting of one or two
small rooms and a courtyard. Within are the vats made either
of stone masonry, plastered within and without, or cut out
of the solid rock. The sheep or goat skins are smeared on
the flesh side with a paste of slaked lime and then folded
up and allowed to stand until the hair loosens. The hair and
fleshy matter are removed, the skins are plumped in lime,
bated in a concoction first of dog dung and afterward in one
of fermenting bran, in much the same way as in a modern
tannery. The bated skins are tanned in sumach (Arabic
summak), which is the common tanning material in Syria and
Israel. After drying, the leather is blackened on one side
by rubbing on a solution made by boiling vinegar with old
nails or pieces of copper, and the skin is finally given a
dressing of olive oil. In the more modern tanneries degras
is being imported for the currying processes. For dyeing the
rams' skins red (Ex 25 ff) they rub on a solution of qermes
(similar to cochineal; see DYEING), dry, oil, and polish
with a smooth stone.
Pine bark is sometimes used for tanning in Lebanon.
According to Wilkinson (Ancient Egypt, II, 186), the Arabs
use the juice of a desert plant for dehairing and tanning
skins. The skins for pouches are either tawed, i.e. tanned
with a mineral salt like alum, or treated like parchment
(see PARCHMENT). About Hebron oak branches, chopped into
small chips, are used for tanning the leather bottles or
water skins. In this case the hair is not removed. The
tanning is accomplished, after removing the fleshy matter,
by filling the skin with oak chips and water, tying up all
openings in the skins, and allowing them to lie in the open
on their "backs," with "legs" upright, for weeks. The field
near Hebron where they arrange the bulging skins in orderly
rows during the tanning process presents a weird sight.
These are the bottles referred to in the King James Version
(the Revised Version (British and American) "skins") (Josh
9:4,13; Hos 7:5; Mt 9:17; Mk 2:22; Lk 5:37).
Leather was probably used more extensively than any records
show. We know that the Egyptians used leather for ornamental
work. They understood the art of making stamped leather. The
sculptures give us an idea of the methods used for making
the leather into sandals, trimmings for chariots, coverings
of chairs, decorations for harps, sarcophagi, etc. There are
two Biblical references to leather, where leather girdles
are mentioned (2 Ki 1:8; Mt 3:4).
Read More
ma'-s'n: The translation of 4 Hebrew words: (1) charash
'ebhen, "graver of stone" (2 Sam 5:11); (2) (3) gadhar (2 Ki
12:12), charash qur (1 Ch 14:1), "maker of a wall (or hedge)";
(4) chatsabh, "a hewer or digger (of stones)" (1 Ch 22:2; Ezr
3:7). Lebanon still supplies the greater number of skilled
masons to Israel and Syria (see 2 Sam 5:11), those of Shweir
being in special repute.
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pot'-er, pot'-er-i:
1. Historical Development
2. Forms
3. Methods of Production
4. Uses
5. Biblical Terms
6. Archaeological Significance
LITERATURE
1. Historical Development:
(1) Prehistoric.
The making of pottery ranks among the very oldest of the
crafts. On the rocky plateaus of Upper Egypt, overlooking
the Nile valley, are found the polished red earthenware pots
of the prehistoric Egyptians. These are buried in shallow
oval graves along with the cramped-up bodies of the dead and
their chipped flint weapons and tools. These jars are the
oldest examples of the potter's article It is inconceivable
that in the country of Babel, Egypt's great rival in
civilization, the ceramic arts were less developed at the
same period, but the difference in the nature of the country
where the first Mesopotamian settlement probably existed
makes it unlikely that relics of the prehistoric dwellers of
that country will ever be recovered from under the debris of
demolished cities and the underlying deposits of clay and
silt.
(2) Babylonia.
The oldest examples of Babylonian ceramics date from the
historical period, and consist of baked clay record tablets,
bricks, drainage pipes, household shrines, as well as
vessels for holding liquids, fruits and other stores. (See
Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Chaldea and Assyria,
I, figures 159, 160, II, figures 163, 168.) Examples of
pottery of this early period are shown in the accompanying
figures. By the 9th to the 7th century BC the shaping of
vessels of clay had become well developed. Fragments of
pottery bearing the name of Esarhaddon establish the above
dates.
(3) Egypt.
With the close of the neolithic period in Egypt and the
beginning of the historical or dynastic period (4500-4000
BC) there was a decline in the pottery article The
workmanship and forms both became bad, and not until the
IVth Dynasty was there any improvement. In the meantime the
process of glazing had been discovered and the art of making
beautiful glazed faience became one of the most noted of the
ancient Egyptian crafts. The potter's wheel too was probably
an invention of this date.
(4) Israel.
The making of pottery in the land which later became the
home of the children of Israel began long before this people
possessed the land and even before the Phoenicians of the
coast cities had extended their trade inland and brought the
earthenware vessels of the Tyrian or Sidonian potters. As in
Egypt and Babylonia, the first examples were hand-made
without the aid of the wheel.
It is probable that Jewish potters learned their art from
the Phoenicians. They at least copied Phoenician...
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Building the ark of Noah
Ge 6:14-16
-Tabernacle, and furniture of
Ex 31:2-9
-See TABERNACLE
-David's palace
2Sa 5:11
-Temple
2Ki 12:11; 22:6
-See TEMPLE
-Making idols
Isa 41:7; 44:13
-Carpenters
Jer 24:1; Zec 1:20
-Joseph
Mt 13:55
-Jesus
Mr 6:3
Read More
Certain apostles
Mt 4:18-21; Mr 1:16,19; Joh 21:2,3
-FIGURATIVE
Jer 16:16; Mt 4:19
Read More
A trade
In the time of David
2Sa 5:11
Of later times
2Ki 12:12; 22:6; 1Ch 14:1; Ezr 3:7
Read More
Clay prepared for, by treading
Isa 41:25
-Vessels made of
Jer 18:3,4
-Place for manufacture of, outside the wall of Jerusalem,
bought as a burying ground for poor people
Mt 27:7-10
-FIGURATIVE
Isa 64:8; Ro 9:21
Of weakness, in the idol in Nebuchadnezzars vision
Da 2:41
Read More
General scriptures concerning
Ac 9:43; 10:5,6
Read More
The art of pottery is one of the most common and most ancient
of all manufactures. It is abundantly evident, both that the
Hebrews used earthenware vessels in the wilderness and that
the potter's trade was afterward carried on in Israel. They
had themselves been concerned in the potter's trade in Egypt,
Ps 81:6 and the wall-paintings minutely illustrate the
Egyptian process. The clay, when dug, was trodden by men's
feet so as to form a paste, Isa 41:25 Wisd. 15:7; then placed
by the potter on the wheel beside which he sat, and shaped by
him with his hands. How early the wheel came into use in
Israel is not known, but it seems likely that it was adopted
from Egypt. Isa 45:9; Jer 15:3 The vessel was then smoothed
and coated with a glaze, and finally burnt in a furnace. There
was at Jerusalem a royal establishment of potters, 1Ch 4:23
from whose employment, and from the fragments cast away in the
process, the Potter's Field perhaps received its name. Isa
30:11
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an artificer in stone, iron, and copper, as well as in wood (2
Sam. 5:11; 1 Chr. 14:1; Mark 6:3). The tools used by
carpenters
are mentioned in 1 Sam. 13:19, 20; Judg. 4:21; Isa.
10:15;
44:13. It was said of our Lord, "Is not this the
carpenter's
son?" (Matt. 13:55); also, "Is not this the carpenter?
" (Mark
6:3). Every Jew, even the rabbis, learned some
handicraft: Paul
was a tentmaker. "In the cities the carpenters would
be Greeks,
and skilled workmen; the carpenter of a provincial
village could
only have held a very humble position, and secured a
very
moderate competence."
Read More
the art of, was early practised among all nations. Various
materials seem to have been employed by the potter.
Earthenware
is mentioned in connection with the history of
Melchizedek (Gen.
14:18), of Abraham (18:4-8), of Rebekah (27:14), of
Rachel
(29:2, 3, 8, 10). The potter's wheel is mentioned by
Jeremiah
(18:3). See also 1 Chr. 4:23; Ps. 2:9; Isa. 45:9;
64:8; Jer.
19:1; Lam. 4:2; Zech. 11:13; Rom. 9:21.
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The carpenter stretcheth out [his] rule; he marketh it out
with a line; he fitteth it with planes, and he marketh it out
with the compass, and maketh it after the figure of a man,
according to the beauty of a man; that it may remain in the
house.
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So the carpenter encouraged the goldsmith, [and] he that
smootheth [with] the hammer him that smote the anvil, saying,
It [is] ready for the sodering: and he fastened it with nails,
[that] it should not be moved.
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Is not this the carpenter, the son of Mary, the brother of
James, and Joses, and of Juda, and Simon? and are not his
sisters here with us? And they were offended at him.
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Send therefore to Joppa, and call hither Simon, whose surname
is Peter; he is lodged in the house of [one] Simon a tanner by
the sea side: who, when he cometh, shall speak unto thee.
Read More
And it came to pass, that he tarried many days in Joppa with
one Simon a tanner.
Read More
He lodgeth with one Simon a tanner, whose house is by the sea
side: he shall tell thee what thou oughtest to do.
Read More
And to masons, and hewers of stone, and to buy timber and
hewed stone to repair the breaches of the house of the LORD,
and for all that was laid out for the house to repair [it].
Read More
And the king and Jehoiada gave it to such as did the work of
the service of the house of the LORD, and hired masons and
carpenters to repair the house of the LORD, and also such as
wrought iron and brass to mend the house of the LORD.
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And Hiram king of Tyre sent messengers to David, and cedar
trees, and carpenters, and masons: and they built David an
house.
Read More
They gave money also unto the masons, and to the carpenters;
and meat, and drink, and oil, unto them of Zidon, and to them
of Tyre, to bring cedar trees from Lebanon to the sea of
Joppa, according to the grant that they had of Cyrus king of
Persia.
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Now Hiram king of Tyre sent messengers to David, and timber of
cedars, with masons and carpenters, to build him an house.
Read More
And David commanded to gather together the strangers that
[were] in the land of Israel; and he set masons to hew wrought
stones to build the house of God.
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Unto carpenters, and builders, and masons, and to buy timber
and hewn stone to repair the house.
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In individual lives (cheledh; helikia): We have scarcely any
word in the Old Testament or New Testament which denotes
"age" in the familiar modern sense; the nearest in the Old
Testament is perhaps heledh, "life," "lifetime," and in the
New Testament helikia, "full age," "manhood," but which is
rendered stature in Mt 6:27, etc., the King James Version;
cheledh occurs (Job 11:17, "Thine age shall be clearer than
the noonday," the Revised Version (British and American)
"(thy) life"; Ps 39:5, "Mine age is as nothing before thee,"
the American Standard Revised Version, "my life-time"); we
have helikia (Jn 9:21,23, "He is of age"; Heb 11:11 "past
age," Lk 2:52, "Jesus increased in wisdom and age," so the
Revised Version, margin, King James Version margin, Eph
4:13); yom, day, (days) is used in the Old Testament to
express "age" (Gen 47:28), the whole age of Jacob," the King
James Version, "the days of the years of his life"; but it
occurs mostly in connection with old age); ben, "son" (Nu
8:25; 1 Ch 23:3,24); kelah, "to be complete," is translated
"full age" (Job 5:26); teleios, "complete" (Heb 5:14, the
Revised Version (British and American), full-grown men,
margin, perfect"), dor, a revolution," "a period" is
translated "age" (Isa 38:12, "Mine age is departed and
removed from me as a shepherd's tent," the American Standard
Revised Version, "My dwelling is removed, and is carried
away from me as a shepherd's tent," the English Revised
Version, "mine age," margin, "or habitation"; Delitzsch, "my
home"; compare Ps 49:19 (20); 2 Cor 5:8). In New Testament
we have etos, "year" (Mk 5:42, the Revised Version (British
and American), "old"; Lk 2:37; 3:23, "Jesus .... about 30
years of age"). "Old age," "aged," are the translation of
various words, zaqen (zaqan, "the chin," the beard"),
perhaps to have the chin sharp or hanging down, often
translated "elders," "old man," etc. (2 Sam 19:32; Job
12:20; 32:9; Jer 6:11).
In New Testament we have presbutes, "aged," "advanced in
days" (Titus 2:2; Philem 1:9); presbutis, "aged woman"
(Titus 2:3); probebekos en hemerais, advanced in days" (Lk
2:36); geras, "old age" (Lk 1:36).
Revised Version has "old" for "the age of" (1 Ch 23:3), "own
age" for "sort" (Dan 1:10); "aged" for "ancients" (Ps
119:100), for "ancient" (Isa 47:6); for "old" (Heb 8:13);
"aged men" for "the ancients" (Job 12:12); for "aged" (Job
12:20), "elders."
Regard for Old Age:
(1) Among the Hebrews (and Orientals generally) old age was
held in honor, and respect was required for the aged (Lev
19:32), "Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honor
the face of the old man"; a mark of the low estate of the
nation was that "The faces of elders were not honored"; "The
elders have ceased from the gate" (Lam 5:12,14). Compare Job
29:8 (as showing the exceptionally high regard for Job). See
also The Wisdom of Solomon 2:10; Ecclesiasticus 8:6.
(2) Old age was greatly desired and its attainment regarded
as a Divine blessing (Gen 15:15; Ex 20:12, "that thy days
may be long in the land"; Job 5:26; Ps 91:16, "With long
life will I satisfy him"; 92:14; compare Isa 65:20; Zec 8:4;
1 Sam 2:32).
(3) A Divine assurance is given, "Even to old age I am he,
and even to hoar hairs will I carry you" (Isa 46:4); hence
it was looked forward to in faith and hope (Ps 71:9,18).
(4) Superior wisdom was believed to belong to the aged (Job
12:20; 15:10; 32:7,9; compare 1 Ki 12:8); hence positions of
guidance and authority were given to them, as the terms
"elders," "presbyters" and (Arabic) "sheik" indicate.
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General scriptures concerning
Ge 15:15; 47:9; De 34:7; 2Sa 19:34-37; 1Ch 29:28; Job
5:26;
11:17; 12:12; 32:4-9; 42:17; Ps 71:9,18; 90:10; 92:14;
148:12,13; Pr 16:31; Ec 6:3,6; 12:1-7; Isa 46:4; Lu
2:37;
Tit 2:2,3; Phm 1:9
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The aged occupied a prominent place in the social and
political system of the Jews. In private life they were looked
up to as the depositaries of knowledge, Job 15:10 the young
were ordered to rise up in their presence, Le 19:32 they
allowed them to give their opinion first, Job 32:4 they were
taught to regard gray hair as a "crown of glory," Pr 16:31;
20:29 The attainment of old age was regarded as a special
blessing. Job 5:26 In pubic main qualification of those who
acted as the representatives of the people in all matter of
difficulty and deliberation. [ELDERS]
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used to denote the period of a man's life (Gen. 47:28), the
maturity of life (John 9:21), the latter end of life
(Job
11:17), a generation of the human race (Job 8:8), and
an
indefinite period (Eph. 2:7; 3:5, 21; Col. 1:26).
Respect to be
shown to the aged (Lev. 19:32). It is a blessing to
communities
when they have old men among them (Isa. 65:20; Zech.
8:4). The
aged supposed to excel in understanding (Job 12:20;
15:10; 32:4,
9; 1 Kings 12:6, 8). A full age the reward of piety
(Job 5:26;
Gen. 15:15).
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The reward of filial obedience, according to the fifth
commandment; remarkably illustrated in the great permanence
of the Chinese empire; wherein regard for parents and
ancestors is so great that it has degenerated into
superstition. Patriarchal times and patriarchal governments
have most maintained respect for the old. The Egyptians
followed the primeval law, which Moses embodies in Leviticus
19:32; "Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honor
the face of the old man, and fear thy God." Their experience
made them to be regarded as depositories of knowledge (Job
15:10); they gave their opinion first (Job 32:4). A full age
was the reward of piety (Job 5:26; Genesis 15:15); premature
death was a temporal judgment for sin (1 Samuel 2:32);
(spiritually, and as a taking out from the evil to come, it
was sometimes a blessing; as in the case of Abijah,
Jeroboam's son, 1 Kings 14; Isaiah 57:1).
In the millennium, when there shall be a worldwide
theocracy, with Israel for its center, the temporal sanction
of exceeding long life (as in patriarchal times) shall be
the reward for piety, and shortened years the penalty of any
exceptional sin (Isaiah 65:20; Zechariah 8:4). The rulers
under Moses required age as a qualification; hence they and
those of the New Testament church are called elders
(presbyters), until the word became a term of office, and
not necessarily of age. Disobedience to parents and
disrespect to seniors and "dignities" (Judges 1:8; 2 Peter
2:10) are foretold characteristics of the last apostate age
(2 Timothy 3:2-4; Romans 1:30).
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And thou shalt go to thy fathers in peace; thou shalt be
buried in a good old age
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And Moses [was] an hundred and twenty years old when he died:
his eye was not dim, nor his natural force abated.
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Thou shalt come to [thy] grave in a full age, like as a shock
of corn cometh in in his season.
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Who smote Abimelech the son of Jerubbesheth? did not a woman
cast a piece of a millstone upon him from the wall, that he
died in Thebez? why went ye nigh the wall? then say thou, Thy
servant Uriah the Hittite is dead also.
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And a mighty angel took up a stone like a great millstone, and
cast [it] into the sea, saying, Thus with violence shall that
great city Babylon be thrown down, and shall be found no more
at all.
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No man shall take the nether or the upper millstone to pledge:
for he taketh [a man's] life to pledge.
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And a certain woman cast a piece of a millstone upon
Abimelech's head, and all to brake his skull.
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His heart is as firm as a stone; yea, as hard as a piece of
the nether [millstone].
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But whoso shall offend one of these little ones which believe
in me, it were better for him that a millstone were hanged
about his neck, and [that] he were drowned in the depth of the
sea.
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And whosoever shall offend one of [these] little ones that
believe in me, it is better for him that a millstone were
hanged about his neck, and he were cast into the sea.
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It were better for him that a millstone were hanged about his
neck, and he cast into the sea, than that he should offend one
of these little ones.
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chan'-jers (kollubistes, from kollubos, "a small coin," so
"a money-changer," or "banker" (Mt 21:12; Mk 11:15;
"changers" in Jn 2:15; compare 2:14, where kermatistes, "a
dealer in small bits," or "change," is also rendered
"changers"); compare trapezites, "one who sits at a table,"
"a money-changer," "a banker" or "broker"; one who both
exchanges money for a small fee and pays interest on
deposits (Mt 25:27, the King James Version "exchangers," the
American Standard Revised Version "bankers")): The
profession of money-changer in Israel was made necessary by
the law requiring every male Israelite who had reached the
age of 20 years to pay into the treasury of the sanctuary a
half-shekel at every numbering of the people, an offering to
Yahweh, not even the poor being exempt. It seems to have
become an annual tax, and was to be paid in the regular
Jewish half-shekel (Ex 30:11-15). Since the Jews, coming up
to the feasts, would need to exchange the various coins in
common circulation for this Jewish piece, there were money-
changers who exacted a premium for the exchange. This fee
was a kollubos (about 31 cents in U.S. money, i.e. in 1915),
hence, the name kollubistes. The Jews of Christ's day came
from many parts of the world, and the business of exchanging
foreign coins for various purposes became a lucrative one,
the exchangers exacting whatever fee they might. Because of
their greed and impiety, Jesus drove them from the courts of
the temple.
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General scriptures concerning
Mt 21:12; Mr 11:15; Joh 2:15
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Mt 21:12; Mr 11:15; Joh 2:15 According to Ex 30:13-15 every
Israelite who had reached or passed the age of twenty must pay
into the sacred treasury, whenever the nation was numbered, a
half-shekel as an offering to Jehovah. The money-changers whom
Christ, for their impiety, avarice and fraudulent dealing,
expelled from the temple were the dealers who supplied half-
shekels, for such a premium as they might be able to exact, to
the Jews from all parts of the world who assembled at
Jerusalem during the great festivals, and were required to pay
their tribute or ransom money in the Hebrew coin.
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(Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15). Every Israelite from
twenty years and upwards had to pay (Ex. 30:13-15)
into the
sacred treasury half a shekel every year as an
offering to
Jehovah, and that in the exact Hebrew half-shekel
piece. There
was a class of men, who frequented the temple courts,
who
exchanged at a certain premium foreign moneys for
these
half-shekels to the Jews who came up to Jerusalem from
all parts
of the world. (See PASSOVER -T0002864.) When our Lord
drove the
traffickers out of the temple, these money-changers
fared worst.
Their tables were overturned and they themselves were
expelled.
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Kollubistes and kermatistes, both denoting dealers in small
coin (kollubos and kerma the profit money, 1 1/2d.). They set
up tables in the court of the Gentiles, to supply at a profit
foreign Jews with the Jewish half shekels (1 shillings, 3
pence) required for the yearly payment into the temple
treasury, in exchange for foreign coin. The "exchangers"
(Matthew 25:27), trapezitai, were bankers.
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And Jesus went into the temple of God, and cast out all them
that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the tables
of the moneychangers, and the seats of them that sold doves,
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And they come to Jerusalem: and Jesus went into the temple,
and began to cast out them that sold and bought in the temple,
and overthrew the tables of the moneychangers, and the seats
of them that sold doves;
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And when he had made a scourge of small cords, he drove them
all out of the temple, and the sheep, and the oxen; and poured
out the changers' money, and overthrew the tables;
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ber'-i-al (qebhurah; compare New Testament to entaphidsai):
I. IMMEDIATE BURIAL CONSIDERED URGENT
1. Reasons for This
2. The Burial of Jesus
3. The Usual Time
4. Duties of Next of Kin
II. PREPARATIONS FOR BURIAL
1. Often Informal and Hasty
2. Usually with More Ceremony
3. Contrasts between Jewish Customs and Other Peoples'
(1) Cremation
(2) Embalming
III. ON THE WAY TO THE GRAVE
1. Coffins Unknown
2. Professional Mourners
IV. AT THE GRAVE
1. Graves Dug in the Earth
2. Family Tombs. Later Customs
3. Sealed Stones
4. Stated Times of Mourning
5. Excessive Mourning
6. Dirge-Songs
V. FAILURE TO RECEIVE BURIAL A CALAMITY OR JUDGMENT
VI. PLACES OF BURIAL: HOW MARKED
LITERATURE
It is well to recall at the outset that there are points of
likeness and of marked contrast between oriental and
occidental burial customs in general, as well as between the
burial customs of ancient Israel and those of other ancient
peoples. These will be brought out, or suggested later in
this article.
I. Immediate Burial Considered Urgent.
1. Reasons for This:
The burial of the dead in the East in general was and is
often effected in such a way as to suggest to the westerner
indecent haste. Dr. Post says that burial among the people
of Syria today seldom takes place later than ten hours after
death, often earlier; but, he adds, "the rapidity of
decomposition, the excessive violence of grief, the
reluctance of Orientals to allow the dead to remain long in
the houses of the living, explain what seems to us the
indecency of haste." This still requires the survivors, as
in the case of Abraham on the death of Sarah, to bury their
dead out of their sight (Gen 23:1-4); and it in part
explains the quickness with which the bodies of Nadab and
Abihu were Carried out of the camp (Lev 10:4), and those of
Ananias and Sapphira were hastened off to burial (Acts 5:1-
11). Then, of course, the defilement to which contact with a
dead body gave occasion, and the judgment that might come
upon a house for harboring the body of one dying under a
Divine judgment, further explain such urgency and haste.
2. The Burial of Jesus:
It was in strict accordance with such customs and the
provision of the Mosaic law (Dt 21:23; compare Gal 3:13), as
well as in compliance with the impulses of true humanity,
that Joseph of Arimathea went to Pilate and begged the body
of Jesus for burial on the very day of the crucifixion (Mt
27:39 ff).
3. The Usual Time:
The dead are often in their graves, according to present
custom, within two or three hours after death. Among
oriental Jews burial takes place, if possible, within
twenty-four hours after death, and frequently on the day of
death. Likewise Mohammedans bury their dead on the day of
death, if death takes place in the morning; but if in the
afternoon or at night, not until the following day.
4. Duties of Next of Kin:
As soon as the breath is gone the oldest son, or failing
him, the nearest of kin present, closes...
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gref, grev: There are some 20 Hebrew words translated in the
King James Version by "grief," "grieve," "to be grieved,"
etc. Among the chief are chalah, choli, yaghon, ka`ac,
atsabh. They differ, partly, in their physical origin, and
partly, in the nature and cause of the feeling expressed.
the Revised Version (British and American) in several
instances gives effect to this.
(1) Chalah, choli express the sense of weakness, sickness,
pain (e.g. Samson, in Jdg 16:7,11,17, "Then shall I become
weak (chalah), and be as another man"); Isa 17:11 the King
James Version, "a heap in the day of grief"; Isa 53:3,1, "a
man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief," "He hath borne
our griefs" (choli), the Revised Version, margin Hebrew
"sickness, sicknesses"; 53:10, "He hath put him to grief,"
the Revised Version, margin "made him sick" (chalah)
(translated by Dillmann and others, "to crush him
incurably"; compare Mic 6:13; Nah 3:19); yaghon, perhaps
from the pain and weariness of toil (Ps 31:10), "For my life
is spent with grief," the Revised Version (British and
American) "sorrow"; "The Lord added grief to my sorrow," the
Revised Version (British and American) "sorrow to my pain"
(Jer 45:3); ka`ac implies provocation, anger, irritation;
thus Hannah said to Eli (the King James Version), "Out of
the abundance of my complaint and my grief (the Revised
Version (British and American) "provocation") have I spoken"
(1 Sam 1:16). Ps 6:7; 31:9, "grief"; Prov 17:25, "A foolish
son is a grief to his father" (i.e. source of provocation;
the same word is rendered "wrath" in 12:16, the King James
Version "a fool's wrath," the Revised Version (British and
American) "vexation"; so also Prov 27:3); Job 6:2, "Oh that
my grief were thoroughly weighed," the Revised Version
(British and American) "Oh that my vexation were but
weighed" (in 5:2 the King James Version the same word is
translated "wrath," the Revised Version (British and
American) "vexation"); ke'ebh, is "sorrow," "pain," properly
"to hurt." It occurs in Job 2:13 "His grief (the Revised
Version, margin "or pain") was very great"; also 16:6 the
Revised Version (British and American), "grief"; makh'obh
"sorrows," "pain," "suffering" (2 Ch 6:29, the Revised
Version (British and American) "sorrow"; Ps 69:26, the
Revised Version, margin "or pain"; Isa 53:3, "a man of
sorrows"; 53:4, "Surely he hath carried our sorrows"); marah
and marar indicate "bitterness" (Gen 26:35; 49:23; 1 Sam
30:6; Ruth 1:13; Prov 14:10, "The heart knoweth its own
bitterness, marah); puqah implies staggering, or stumbling,
only in 1 Sam 25:31, "This shall be no grief unto thee," the
Revised Version, margin Hebrew "cause of staggering"; ra` (a
common word for "evil") denotes an evil, a calamity, only
once in the King James Version translated "grief," namely,
of Jonah's gourd, "to deliver him from his grief," the
Revised Version (British and American) "from his evil case"
(Jon 4:6); yara`, "to be evil," Dt 15:10, the Revised
Version (British and American) "Thy heart shall not be
grieved when thou givest unto him" (also 1 Sam 1:8; Neh
2:10; 13:8; several times translated "grievous"); charah,
"to burn," "to be wroth" (e.g. Gen 4:6, "Why art thou wroth?
"), is translated "grieved" in Gen 45:5, and 1 Sam 15:11 the
King James Version (the Revised Version (British and
American) "Samuel was wroth"); the same word is often used
of the kindling of anger; la'ah, "to be weary," "tired,"
"faint" (Prov 26:15), the King James Version "The slothful
hideth his hand in his bosom, it grieveth him to bring it
again to his mouth," the Revised Version (British and
American) "wearieth"; also Job 4:2; atsabh, "to grieve," "to
be vexed," occurs in Gen 6:6; 34:7; 45:5, etc.; Ps 78:40,
"How oft did they .... grieve him in the desert." Of other
words sometimes translated "grief" may be mentioned quT, "to
weary of," "to loathe" (Ps 95:10), "Forty long years was I
grieved with that generation"; in 119:158; 139:21, the
Revised Version, margin "loathe"; chamets, implying to be
bitterly or violently moved, sour (often translated
"leavened"), only in Ps 73:21, the Revised Version (British
and American) "For my soul was grieved," margin, Hebrew "was
in a ferment."
(2) In the New Testament "grief," "grieve," etc., are
infrequent. The commonest words are lupe (1 Pet 2:19), the
Revised Version (British and American) "griefs," elsewhere
translated "sorrow"; lupeo, "to grieve," "afflict" (Mk
10:22, the Revised Version (British and American)
"sorrowful"; Jn 21:17 "Peter was grieved"; Rom 14:15; 2 Cor
2:4, the Revised Version (British and American) "made
sorry"; 2:5, "caused sorrow"; Eph 4:30, "Grieve not the Holy
Spirit of God"); diaponeomai, literally, "to labor through,"
"to grieve self" occurs twice (Acts 4:2; 16:18 the Revised
Version (British and American) "sore troubled"); stenazo,
"to groan, or sigh," once only translated "grief" (Heb
13:17), the Revised Version, margin "groaning";
prosochthizo, "to be indignant," etc., twice (Heb 3:10,17,
the Revised Version (British and American) "displeased").
The reference is to Ps 95:10, where the Septuagint by this
Greek word translates quT (see above).
The less frequency in the New Testament of words denoting
"grief" is significant. Christ came "to comfort all that
mourn--to give a garland for ashes, the oil of joy for
mourning, the garment of praise for the spirit of
heaviness." Christians, however, cannot but feel sorrow and
be moved by grief, and it is to be noted that in both the
Old Testament and New Testament, God Himself is said to be
susceptible to grief.
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For the dead
Head uncovered
Le 10:6; 21:10
Lying on the ground
2Sa 12:16
Personal appearance neglected
2Sa 14:2
Cutting the flesh
Le 19:28; 21:1-5; De 14:1; Jer 16:6,7; 41:5
Lamentations
Ge 50:10; Ex 12:30; 1Sa 30:4; Jer 22:18; Mt 2:17,18
Fasting
1Sa 31:13; 2Sa 1:12; 3:35
-Priests prohibited, except for the nearest of kin
Le 21:1-11
-For Nadab and Abihu forbidden
Le 10:6
-Sexes separated in
Zec 12:12,14
-Hired mourners
2Ch 35:25; Ec 12:5; Jer 9:17; Mt 9:23
-Abraham mourned for Sarah
Ge 23:2
-The Egyptians mourned for Jacob for seventy days
Ge 50:1-3
-The Israelites mourned for Aaron for thirty days
Nu 20:29
-David's lamentations over
The death of Saul and his sons
2Sa 1:17-27
The death of Abner
2Sa 3:33,34
The death of Absalom
2Sa 18:33
-Jeremiah and the singing men and singing women lament for
Josiah
2Ch 35:25
-For calamities and other sorrows
Ripping the garments
Ge 37:29,34; 44:13; Nu 14:6; Jud 11:35; 2Sa 1:2,11;
3:31;
13:19,31; 15:32; 2Ki 2:12; 5:8; 6:30; 11:14; 19:1;
22:11,19; Ezr 9:3,5; Job 1:20; 2:12; Isa 37:1; Jer
41:5;
Mt 26:65; Ac 14:14
-Wearing mourning clothes
Ge 38:14; 2Sa 14:2
-See SACKCLOTH
-Cutting or plucking off the hair and beard
Ezr 9:3; Jer 7:29
-See BALDNESS
-Covering
The head and the face
2Sa 15:30; 19:4; Es 6:12; Jer 14:3,4
The upper lip
Le 13:45; Eze 24:17,22; Mic 3:7
-Laying aside ornaments
Ex 33:4,6
-Walking barefoot
2Sa 15:30; Isa 20:2
-Laying the hand on the head
2Sa 13:19; Jer 2:37
-Ashes put on the head
Eze 27:30
-Dust on the head
Jos 7:6
-Dressing in black
Jer 14:2
-Sitting on the ground
Isa 3:26
-Caused ceremonial defilement
Nu 19:11-16; 31:19; Le 21:1
-Prevented offerings from being accepted
De 26:14; Ho 9:4
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One marked feature of Oriental mourning is what may be
called its studies publicity and the careful observance of
the prescribed ceremonies. Ge 23:2; Job 1:20; 2:12
1. Among the particular forms observed the following
may be mentioned: (a) Rending the clothes. Ge 37:29,34;
44:13 etc. (b) Dressing in sackcloth. Ge 37:34; 2Sa 3:31;
21:10 etc. (c) Ashes, dust or earth sprinkled on the person.
2Sa 13:19; 15:32 etc. (d) Black or sad-colored garments. 2Sa
14:2; Jer 8:21 etc. (e) Removal of ornaments or neglect of
person. De 21:12,13 etc. (f) Shaving the head, plucking out
the hair of the head or beard. Le 10:6; 2Sa 19:24 etc. (g)
Laying bare some part of the body. Isa 20:2; 47:2 etc. (h)
Fasting or abstinence in meat and drink. 2Sa 1:12; 3:35;
12:16,22 etc. (i) In the same direction may be mentioned
diminution in offerings to God, and prohibition to partake
of sacrificial food. Le 7:20; De 26:14 (k) Covering the
"upper lip," i.e. the lower part of the face, and sometimes
the head, in token of silence. Le 13:45; 2Sa 15:30; 19:4 (l)
Cutting the flesh, Jer 16:6,7; 41:5 beating the body. Eze
21:12; Jer 31:19 (m) Employment of persons hired for the
purpose of mourning. Ec 12:5 Jer 9:17; Am 5:16; Mt 9:23 (n)
Akin to the foregoing usage the custom for friends or
passers-by to join in the lamentations of bereaved or
afflicted persons. Ge 50:3; Jud 11:40; Job 2:11; 30:25 etc.
(o) The sitting or lying posture in silence indicative of
grief. Ge 23:3; Jud 20:26 etc. (p) Mourning feast and cup of
consolation. Jer 16:7,8
2. The period of mourning varied. In the case of
Jacob it was seventy days, Ge 50:3 of Aaron, Nu 20:29 and
Moses, Deut 34:8 thirty. A further period of seven days in
Jacob's case. Ge 50:10 Seven days for Saul, which may have
been an abridged period in the time of national danger. 1Sa
31:13 With the practices above mentioned, Oriental and other
customs, ancient and modern, in great measure agree. Arab
men are silent in grief, but the women scream, tear their
hair, hands and face, and throw earth or sand on their
heads. Both Mohammedans and Christians in Egypt hire
wailing-women, and wail at stated times. Burckhardt says the
women of Atbara in Nubia shave their heads on the death of
their nearest relatives --a custom prevalent also among
several of the peasant tribes of upper Egypt. He also
mentions wailing-women, and a man in distress besmearing his
face with dirt and dust in token of grief. In the "Arabian
Nights" are frequent allusions to similar practices. It also
mentions ten days and forty days as periods of mourning.
Lane, speaking of the modern Egyptians, says, "After death
the women of the family raise cries of lamentation called
welweleh or wilwal, uttering the most piercing shrieks, and
calling upon the name of the deceased, 'Oh, my master! Oh,
my resource! Oh, my misfortune! Oh, my glory!" See Jer 22:18
The females of the neighborhood come to join with them in
this conclamation: generally, also, the family send for two
or more neddabehs or public wailing-women. Each brings a
tambourine, and beating them they exclaim, 'Alas for him!'
The female relatives, domestics and friends, with their hair
dishevelled and sometimes with rent clothes, beating their
faces, cry in like manner, 'Alas for him!' These make no
alteration in dress, but women, in some cases, dye their
shirts, head-veils and handkerchiefs of a dark-blue color.
They visit the tombs at stated periods." --Mod. Eg. iii.
152,171,195.
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Frequent references are found in Scripture to, (1.) Mourning
for
the dead. Abraham mourned for Sarah (Gen. 23:2);
Jacob for
Joseph (37:34, 35); the Egyptians for Jacob (50:3-
10); Israel
for Aaron (Num. 20:29), for Moses (Deut. 34:8), and
for Samuel
(1 Sam. 25:1); David for Abner (2 Sam. 3:31, 35);
Mary and
Martha for Lazarus (John 11); devout men for Stephen
(Acts 8:2),
etc.
(2.) For calamities, Job (1:20, 21; 2:8); Israel
(Ex. 33:4);
the Ninevites (Jonah 3:5); Israel, when defeated by
Benjamin
(Judg. 20:26), etc.
(3.) Penitential mourning, by the Israelites on the
day of
atonement (Lev. 23:27; Acts 27:9); under Samuel's
ministry (1
Sam. 7:6); predicted in Zechariah (Zech. 12:10, 11);
in many of
the psalms (51, etc.).
Mourning was expressed, (1) by weeping (Gen. 35:8,
marg.; Luke
7:38, etc.); (2) by loud lamentation (Ruth 1:9; 1
Sam. 6:19; 2
Sam. 3:31); (3) by the disfigurement of the person,
as rending
the clothes (Gen. 37:29, 34; Matt. 26:65), wearing
sackcloth
(Gen. 37:34; Ps. 35:13), sprinkling dust or ashes on
the person
(2 Sam. 13:19; Jer. 6:26; Job 2:12), shaving the
head and
plucking out the hair of the head or beard (Lev.
10:6; Job
1:20), neglect of the person or the removal of
ornaments (Ex.
33:4; Deut. 21:12, 13; 2 Sam. 14:2; 19:24; Matt.
6:16, 17),
fasting (2 Sam. 1:12), covering the upper lip (Lev.
13:45; Micah
3:7), cutting the flesh (Jer. 16:6, 7), and sitting
in silence
(Judg. 20:26; 2 Sam. 12:16; 13:31; Job 1:20).
In the later times we find a class of mourners who
could be
hired to give by their loud lamentation the external
tokens of
sorrow (2 Chr. 35:25; Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23).
The period of mourning for the dead varied. For
Jacob it was
seventy days (Gen. 50:3); for Aaron (Num. 20:29) and
Moses
(Deut. 34:8) thirty days; and for Saul only seven
days (1 Sam.
31:13). In 2 Sam. 3:31-35, we have a description of
the great
mourning for the death of Abner.
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(Heb. qinah), an elegy or dirge. The first example of this
form
of poetry is the lament of David over Saul and
Jonathan (2 Sam.
1:17-27). It was a frequent accompaniment of mourning
(Amos
8:10). In 2 Sam. 3:33, 34 is recorded David's lament
over Abner.
Prophecy sometimes took the form of a lament when it
predicted
calamity (Ezek. 27:2, 32; 28:12; 32:2, 16).
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Hebrew eechah called from the first word "How," etc., the
formula in beginning a lamentation (2 Samuel 1:19). These
"Lamentations" (we get the title from Septuagint, Greek
threnoi, Hebrew kinot) or five elegies in the Hebrew Bible
stand between Ruth and Ecclesiastes, among the Cherubim, or
Hagiographa (holy writings), designated from the principal
one, the Psalms," by our Lord (Luke 24:44). No "word of
Jehovah "or divine message to the sinful and suffering
people occurs in Lamentations. Jeremiah is in it the
sufferer, not the prophet and teacher, but a sufferer
speaking under the Holy Spirit. Josephus (c. Apion)
enumerated the prophetic books as thirteen, reckoning
Jeremiah and Lamentations as one book, as Judges and Ruth,
Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeremiah wrote "lamentations" on the
death of Josiah, and it was made "an ordinance in Israel"
that "singing women" should "speak" of that king in
lamentation.
So here he writes "lamentations" on the overthrow of
the Jewish city and people, as Septuagint expressly state in
a prefatory verse, embodying probably much of the language
of his original elegy on Josiah (2 Chronicles 35:25), and
passing now to the more universal calamity, of which
Josiah's sad death was the presage and forerunner. Thus, the
words originally applied to Josiah (Lamentations 4:20)
Jeremiah now applies to the throne of Judah in general, the
last representative of which, Zedekiah, had just been
blinded and carried to Babylon (compare Jeremiah 39:5-7):
"the breath of our nostrils, the anointed of Jehovah, was
taken in their pits, of whom we said, Under his shadow we
shall live among the (live securely in spite of the
surrounding) pagan." The language, true of good Josiah, is
too favorable to apply to Zedekiah personally; it is as
royal David's representative, and type of Messiah, and
Judah's head, that he is viewed.
The young children fainting for hunger (Lamentations
2:6; Lamentations 2:11-12; Lamentations 2:20-21;
Lamentations 4:4; Lamentations 4:9; 2 Kings 25:3), the city
stormed (Lamentations 2:7; Lamentations 4:12; 2 Chronicles
36:17; 2 Chronicles 36:19), the priests slain in the
sanctuary, the citizens carried captive (Lamentations 1:5;
Lamentations 2:9; 2 Kings 25:11) with the king and princes,
the feasts, sabbaths, and the law no more (Lamentations 1:4;
Lamentations 2:6), all point to Jerusalem's capture by
Nebuchadnezzar. The subject is the Jerusalem citizens'
sufferings throughout the siege, the penalty of national
sin. The events probably are included under Manasseh and
Josiah (2 Chronicles 33:11; 2 Chronicles 35:20-25),
Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, and Zedekiah (2 Chronicles 36:3, etc.).
"Every letter is written with a tear, every word is the
sound of a broken heart" (Lowth). Terse conciseness marks
the style which Jeremiah suits to his theme, whereas he is
diffuse in his prophecies.
The elegies are grouped in stanzas, but without
artificial arrangement of the thoughts. The five are
acrostic, and each elegy divided into 22 stanzas. The first
three elegies have stanzas with triplets of lines, excepting
elegy Lamentations 1:7 and Lamentations 2:9 containing four
lines each. The 22 stanzas begin severally with the 22
Hebrew letters in alphabetical order. In three instances two
letters are transposed: elegy Lamentations 2:16-17;
Lamentations 3:46-51; Lamentations 4:16-17. In the third
elegy each line of the three forming every stanza begins
with the same letter. The fourth and fifth elegies have
their stanzas...
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Therefore the LORD, the God of hosts, the Lord, saith thus;
Wailing [shall be] in all streets; and they shall say in all
the highways, Alas! alas! and they shall call the husbandman
to mourning, and such as are skilful of lamentation to
wailing.
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The Lord was as an enemy: he hath swallowed up Israel, he hath
swallowed up all her palaces: he hath destroyed his strong
holds, and hath increased in the daughter of Judah mourning
and lamentation.
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And Esau hated Jacob because of the blessing wherewith his
father blessed him: and Esau said in his heart, The days of
mourning for my father are at hand; then will I slay my
brother Jacob.
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The heart of the wise [is] in the house of mourning; but the
heart of fools [is] in the house of mirth.
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And Joab sent to Tekoah, and fetched thence a wise woman, and
said unto her, I pray thee, feign thyself to be a mourner, and
put on now mourning apparel, and anoint not thyself with oil,
but be as a woman that had a long time mourned for the dead:
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Thou hast turned for me my mourning into dancing: thou hast
put off my sackcloth, and girded me with gladness;
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And the children of Israel wept for Moses in the plains of
Moab thirty days: so the days of weeping [and] mourning for
Moses were ended.
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For thus saith the LORD, Enter not into the house of mourning,
neither go to lament nor bemoan them: for I have taken away my
peace from this people, saith the LORD, [even] lovingkindness
and mercies.
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Thus saith the Lord GOD; In the day when he went down to the
grave I caused a mourning: I covered the deep for him, and I
restrained the floods thereof, and the great waters were
stayed: and I caused Lebanon to mourn for him, and all the
trees of the field fainted for him.
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I have not eaten thereof in my mourning, neither have I taken
away [ought] thereof for [any] unclean [use], nor given
[ought] thereof for the dead: [but] I have hearkened to the
voice of the LORD my God, [and] have done according to all
that thou hast commanded me.
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And they cast dust on their heads, and cried, weeping and
wailing, saying, Alas, alas, that great city, wherein were
made rich all that had ships in the sea by reason of her
costliness! for in one hour is she made desolate.
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Yet hear the word of the LORD, O ye women, and let your ear
receive the word of his mouth, and teach your daughters
wailing, and every one her neighbour lamentation.
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And they shall make themselves utterly bald for thee, and gird
them with sackcloth, and they shall weep for thee with
bitterness of heart [and] bitter wailing.
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And in their wailing they shall take up a lamentation for
thee, and lament over thee, [saying], What [city is] like
Tyrus, like the destroyed in the midst of the sea?
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For the mountains will I take up a weeping and wailing, and
for the habitations of the wilderness a lamentation, because
they are burned up, so that none can pass through [them];
neither can [men] hear the voice of the cattle; both the fowl
of the heavens and the beast are fled; they are gone.
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And in every province, whithersoever the king's commandment
and his decree came, [there was] great mourning among the
Jews, and fasting, and weeping, and wailing; and many lay in
sackcloth and ashes.
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For a voice of wailing is heard out of Zion, How are we
spoiled! we are greatly confounded, because we have forsaken
the land, because our dwellings have cast [us] out.
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The merchants of these things, which were made rich by her,
shall stand afar off for the fear of her torment, weeping and
wailing,
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Therefore I will wail and howl, I will go stripped and naked:
I will make a wailing like the dragons, and mourning as the
owls.
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And let them make haste, and take up a wailing for us, that
our eyes may run down with tears, and our eyelids gush out
with waters.
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mul (peredh (1 Ki 10:25; 18:5; Ezr 2:66; Isa 66:20; Zec
14:15), the feminine pirdah (1 Ki 1:33,38,44), rekhesh,
"swift steeds," the King James Version "mules" (Est
8:10,14), 'achashteranim, "used in the king's service," the
King James Version "camels," the Revised Version margin
"mules" (Est 8:10,14), yemim, "hot springs," the King James
Version "mules" (Gen 36:24); hemionos, "half-ass," "mule" (1
Esdras 5:43; Judith 15:11)): Mules are mentioned as riding
animals for princes (2 Sam 13:29; 18:9; 1 Ki 1:33,38,44); in
the tribute brought to Solomon (2 Ch 9:24); as beasts of
burden (2 Ki 5:17; 1 Ch 12:40); horses and mules are
obtained from the "house of Togarmah" in the distant north
(Ezek 27:14). The injunction of Ps 32:9, "Be ye not as the
horse, or as the mule, which have no understanding," need
not be understood as singling out the horse and mule as more
in need of guidance than the rest of the brute creation, but
rather as offering familiar examples to contrast with man
who should use his intelligence.
At the present day mules are used as pack animals and for
drawing freight wagons, rarely for riding. One does not
often see in Israel mules as large and fine as are common in
Europe and America. This may be because most of the mares
and many of the donkeys are small.
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Uses of
For royal riders
2Sa 13:29; 18:9; 1Ki 1:33
Ridden by phetic vision of the kingdom of Christ
Isa 66:20
As pack animals
2Ki 5:17; 1Ch 12:40
-Tribute paid in
1Ki 10:25
-Used in barter
Eze 27:14
-By the captivity in returing from Babylon
Ezr 2:66; Ne 7:68
-In war
Zec 14:15
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a hybrid animal, the offspring of a horse and an ass. "The
mule is smaller than the horse, and is a remarkably hardy,
patient, obstinate, sure-footed animal, living, ordinarily,
twice as long as a horse." --McClintock and Strong's
Cyclopedia. It was forbidden to the Israelites to breed mules,
but sometimes they imported them. It would appear that only
kings and great men rode on mules. We do not read of mules at
all in the New Testament; perhaps therefore they had ceased to
be imported.
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(Heb. pered), so called from the quick step of the animal or
its
power of carrying loads. It is not probable that the
Hebrews
bred mules, as this was strictly forbidden in the
law (Lev.
19:19), although their use was not forbidden. We
find them in
common use even by kings and nobles (2 Sam. 18:9; 1
Kings 1:33;
2 Kings 5:17; Ps. 32:9). They are not mentioned,
however, till
the time of David, for the word rendered "mules"
(R.V.
correctly, "hot springs") in Gen. 36:24 (yemim)
properly denotes
the warm springs of Callirhoe, on the eastern shore
of the Dead
Sea. In David's reign they became very common (2
Sam. 13:29; 1
Kings 10:25).
Mules are not mentioned in the New Testament.
Perhaps they had
by that time ceased to be used in Israel.
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And so shall be the plague of the horse, of the mule, of the
camel, and of the ass, and of all the beasts that shall be in
these tents, as this plague.
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And the servants of Absalom did unto Amnon as Absalom had
commanded. Then all the king's sons arose, and every man gat
him up upon his mule, and fled.
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So Zadok the priest, and Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah the
son of Jehoiada, and the Cherethites, and the Pelethites, went
down, and caused Solomon to ride upon king David's mule, and
brought him to Gihon.
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And the king hath sent with him Zadok the priest, and Nathan
the prophet, and Benaiah the son of Jehoiada, and the
Cherethites, and the Pelethites, and they have caused him to
ride upon the king's mule:
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The king also said unto them, Take with you the servants of
your lord, and cause Solomon my son to ride upon mine own
mule, and bring him down to Gihon:
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Be ye not as the horse, [or] as the mule, [which] have no
understanding: whose mouth must be held in with bit and
bridle, lest they come near unto thee.
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And Absalom met the servants of David. And Absalom rode upon a
mule, and the mule went under the thick boughs of a great oak,
and his head caught hold of the oak, and he was taken up
between the heaven and the earth; and the mule that [was]
under him went away.
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And they shall bring all your brethren [for] an offering unto
the LORD out of all nations upon horses, and in chariots, and
in litters, and upon mules, and upon swift beasts, to my holy
mountain Jerusalem, saith the LORD, as the children of Israel
bring an offering in a clean vessel into the house of the
LORD.
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And these [are] the children of Zibeon; both Ajah, and Anah:
this [was that] Anah that found the mules in the wilderness,
as he fed the asses of Zibeon his father.
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Moreover they that were nigh them, [even] unto Issachar and
Zebulun and Naphtali, brought bread on asses, and on camels,
and on mules, and on oxen, [and] meat, meal, cakes of figs,
and bunches of raisins, and wine, and oil, and oxen, and sheep
abundantly: for [there was] joy in Israel.
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mu'-zik:
I. IMPORTANCE
1. The Sole Art Cultivated
2. A Wide Vocabulary of Musical Terms
3. Place in Social and Personal Life
4. Universal Language of Emotions
5. Use in Divine Service
6. Part at Religious Reformations
II. THEORY OF MUSIC
1. Dearth of Technical Information
2. Not Necessarily Unimpressive
III. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
1. Strings
2. Winds
3. Percussion Instruments
LITERATURE
I. Importance.
That the Hebrews were in ancient times, as they are at the
present day, devoted to the study and practice of music is
obvious to every reader of the Old Testament. The references
to it are numerous, and are frequently of such a nature as
to emphasize its importance. They occur not only in the
Psalter, where we might expect them, but in the Historical
Books and the Prophets, in narratives and in declamations of
the loftiest meaning and most intense seriousness. And the
conclusion drawn from a cursory glance is confirmed by a
closer study.
1. The Sole Art Cultivated:
The place held by music in the Old Testament is unique.
Besides poetry, it is the only art that Art seems to have
been cultivated to any extent in ancient Israel. Painting is
entirely, sculpture almost entirely, ignored. This may have
been due to the prohibition contained in the Second
Commandment, but the fidelity with which that was obeyed is
remarkable.
2. A Wide Vocabulary of Musical Terms:
From the traces of it extant in the Old Testament, we can
infer that the vocabulary of musical terms was far from
scanty. This is all the more significant when we consider
the condensed and pregnant nature of Hebrew. "Song" in our
English Versions of the Bible represents at least half a
dozen words in the original.
3. Place in Social and Personal Life:
The events, occasions, and occupations with which music was
associated were extremely varied. It accompanied leave-
taking with honored guests (Gen 31:27); celebrated a signal
triumph over the nation's enemies (Ex 15:20); and welcomed
conquerors returning from victory (Jdg 11:34; 1 Sam 18:6).
It was employed to exorcise an evil spirit (1 Sam 18:10),
and to soothe temper, or excite the inspiration, of a
prophet (2 Ki 3:15). The words "Destroy not" in the titles
of four of the Psalms (compare Isa 65:8) most probably are
the beginning of a vintage-song, and the markedly rhythmical
character of Hebrew music would indicate that it accompanied
and lightened many kinds of work requiring combined and
uniform exertion. Processions, as e.g. marriages (1 Macc
9:39) and funerals (2 Ch 35:25), were regulated in a similar
way. The Psalms headed "Songs of Degrees" were probably the
sacred marches sung by the pious...
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Teachers of
1Ch 15:22; 25:7,8; 2Ch 23:13
-Physical effect of, on man
1Sa 6:15,16
-Discoursed during the offering of sacrifices
2Ch 29:27,28
-Precentor
Ne 12:42
-Chief musician
Ne 12:42; Hab 3:19
-Chambers for musicians in the temple, in Ezekiel's vision
Eze 40:44
-In heaven
Re 5:8,9; 14:2,3; 15:2,3
-INSTRUMENTS OF
Invented by Jubal
Ge 4:21
Invented by David
1Ch 23:5; 2Ch 7:6; 29:26; Am 6:5
Made by Solomon
1Ki 10:12; 2Ch 9:11; Ec 2:8
Made by Tyrians
Eze 28:13
CORNET
Da 3:5,7,10
See TRUMPET
CYMBAL
See CYMBAL
DULCIMER, a double pipe
Da 3:5,10,15
FLUTE
Da 3:5,7,10,15
GITTITH, a stringed instrument
Ps 8; 81; 84
HARP
See HARP
ORGAN, probably composed of pipes furnishing a number of
notes
Ge 4:21; Job 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4
PIPE
See PIPE
PSALTERY
See PSALTERY
SACKBUT, a harp
Da 3:5,7,10,15
TABRET
See TIMBREL
TIMBREL, a tambourine
See TIMBREL
TRUMPET
See TRUMPET
VIOL, a lyre
Isa 5:12; 14:11; Am 5:23; 6:5
-SYMBOLS USED IN
-ALAMOTH
(Literally virgins)
A musical term which appears in
1Ch 15:20
And in the title of
Ps 46:1
(It seems to indicate the rendering of the song by
female
voices, possibly soprano)
-AL-TASCHITH
It appears in the titles of
Ps 57:1; 58:1; 59:1; 75:1
(it seems to have been used to indicate the kind of ode,
or
the kind of melody in which the ode should be sung.)
-HIGGAION
Ps 92:3
(According to Gesenius, it signifies the murmuring tone
of a
harp, and hence that the music should be rendered in
a
plaintive manner.)
Ps 9:16
(Combined with "Selah," it may have been intended to
indicate
a pause in the vocal music while the instruments
rendered an
interlude.)
Ps 19:14
(Mendelssohn translates it "meditation, thought." Hence,
the
music was to be rendered in a mode to promote devout
meditation.)
-MAKALATH, MASCHIL, LEANNOTH
These terms are found in the titles of...
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1. The most ancient music. --The inventor of musical
instruments, like the first poet and the first forger of
metals, was a Cainite. We learn from Ge 4:21 that Jubal the
son of Lamech was "the father of all such as handle the harp
and organ," that is, of all players upon stringed and wind
instruments. The first mentioned of music in the times after
the deluge is in the narrative of Laban's interview with
Jacob, Ge 32:27 so that, whatever way it was preserved, the
practice of music existed in the upland country of Syria,
and of the three possible kinds of musical instruments two
were known and employed to accompany the song. The three
kinds are alluded to in Job 21:12 On the banks of the Red
Sea Moses and the children of Israel sang their triumphal
song of deliverance from the hosts of Egypt; and Miriam, in
celebration of the same event, exercised one of her
functions as a prophetess by leading a procession of the
women of the camp, chanting in chorus the burden of the song
of Moses. The song of Deborah and Barak is cast in a
distinctly metrical form, and was probably intended to be
sung with a musical accompaniment as one of the people's
songs. The simpler impromptu with which the women from the
cities of Israel greeted David after the slaughter of the
Philistines was apparently struck off on the spur of the
moment, under the influence of the wild joy with which they
welcomed their national champion. "the darling of the sons
of Israel." 1Sa 18:6,7 Up to this time we meet with nothing
like a systematic cultivation of music among the Hebrews,
but the establishment of the schools of the prophets appears
to have supplied this want. Whatever the students of these
schools may have been taught, music was an essential part of
their practice. Professional musicians soon became attached
to the court.
2. The golden age of Hebrew music. David seems to
have gathered round him "singing men and singing women." 2Sa
19:35 Solomon did the same, Ec 2:8 adding to the luxury of
his court by his patronage of art, and obtaining a
reputation himself as no mean composer. 1Ki 4:32 But the
temple was the great school of music, and it was consecrated
to its highest service in the worship of Jehovah. Before,
however the elaborate arrangements had been made by David
for the temple choir, there must have been a considerable
body of musicians throughout the country. 2Sa 6:5 (David
chose 4000 musicians from the 38,000 Levies in his reign, or
one in ten of the whole tribe. Of these musicians 288 were
specially trained and skillful. 1Ch 26:6,7 The whole number
was divided into 24 courses, each of which would thus
consist of a full band of 154 musicians, presided over by a
body of 12 specially-trained leaders, under one of the
twenty-four sons of Asaph, Heman or Jeduthun as conductor.
The leaders appear to have played on the cymbals, perhaps to
make the time. 1Ch 15:19; 16:5 All these joined in a special
chant which David taught them, and which went by his name.
1Ch 23:5 Women also took part in the temple choir. 1Ch 13:8;
25:5,6 These great choirs answered one to another in
responsive singing; thus the temple music most have been
grand and inspiring beyond anything known before that time.
3. Character of Hebrew music.--As in all Oriental
nations, the music of the Hebrews was melody rather than
harmony, which latter was then unknown. All old and young,
men and maidens, singers and instruments, appear to have
sung one part only in or in octaves. "The beauty of the
music consisted altogether in the melody;" but this, with so
many instruments and voices, was so charming that "the whole
of antiquity is full of the praises of this music. By its
means battles were won, cities conquered, mutinies quelled,
diseases cured." --ED.)
4. Uses of music. --In the private as well as in the
religions life of the Hebrews music held a prominent place.
The kings had their court musicians, 2Ch 35:25; Ec 2:8 and
in the luxurious times of the later monarchy the effeminate
gallants of Israel amused themselves with devising musical
instruments while their nation was perishing ("as Nero
fiddled while Rome was burning"). But music was also the
legitimate expression of mirth and gladness The bridal
processions as they passed through the streets were
accompanied with music and song. Jer 7:34 The music of the
banquets was accompanied with song and dancing. Lu 15:26 The
triumphal processions which celebrated victory were
enlivened by minstrels and singers. Ex 15:1,20; Jud 5:1;
11:34 There were also religious songs. Isa 30:29; Jas 5:13
Love songs are alluded to; in Ps 45:1 title, and Isai 5:1
There were also the doleful songs of the funeral
procession, and the wailing chant of the mourners. The
grape-gatherers sang at their work, and the women sang as
they toiled at the mill, and on every occasion the land of
the Hebrews during their national prosperity was a land of
music and melody.
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Jubal was the inventor of musical instruments (Gen. 4:21).
The
Hebrews were much given to the cultivation of music.
Their whole
history and literature afford abundant evidence of
this. After
the Deluge, the first mention of music is in the
account of
Laban's interview with Jacob (Gen. 31:27). After
their triumphal
passage of the Red Sea, Moses and the children of
Israel sang
their song of deliverance (Ex. 15).
But the period of Samuel, David, and Solomon was the
golden
age of Hebrew music, as it was of Hebrew poetry.
Music was now
for the first time systematically cultivated. It was
an
essential part of training in the schools of the
prophets (1
Sam. 10:5; 19:19-24; 2 Kings 3:15; 1 Chr. 25:6).
There now arose
also a class of professional singers (2 Sam. 19:35;
Eccl. 2:8).
The temple, however, was the great school of music.
In the
conducting of its services large bands of trained
singers and
players on instruments were constantly employed (2
Sam. 6:5; 1
Chr. 15; 16; 23;5; 25:1-6).
In private life also music seems to have held an
important
place among the Hebrews (Eccl. 2:8; Amos 6:4-6; Isa.
5:11, 12;
24:8, 9; Ps. 137; Jer. 48:33; Luke 15:25).
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(For illustrations, see DANCE; DAVID; FLUTE; HARP;
JEDUTHUN.) Its invention is due to a Cainite, Jubal son of
Lamech, "father (first teacher) of all such as handle the
harp (lyre) and organ" (pipe). "The lyre and flute were
introduced by the brother of a nomadic herdsman (Jabal); it
is in the leisure of this occupation that music is generally
first exercised and appreciated" (Kalisch: Genesis 4:21).
"Mahalaleel," third from Seth, means "giving praise to God,"
therefore vocal music in religious services was probably
earlier than instrumental music among the Cainites (Genesis
5:12). Laban the Syrian mentions "songs, tabret
(tambourine), and harp" (Genesis 31:27); Job (Job 21:12)
"the timbrel (tambourine), harp, and organ (pipe)". Instead
of "they take," translated "they lift up (the voice)," as in
Isaiah 42:11, to accompany "the tambourine," etc. (Umbrett.)
Thus the "voice," stringed and wind instruments, include all
kinds of music. The Israelite men led by Moses sang in
chorus, and Miriam led the women in singing the refrain at
each interval, accompanied by tambourine and dances (Exodus
15:21).
Music rude and boisterous accompanied the dances in
honor of the golden calf, so that Joshua mistook it for "the
noise of war," "the voice of them that shout for the mastery
and that cry for being overcome" (Exodus 32:17-18). The
triumphant shout of the foe in the temple is similarly
compared to the joyous thanksgivings formerly offered there
at solemn feasts, but how sad the contrast as to the
occasion (Lamentations 2:7). The two silver trumpets were
used by the priests to call an assembly, and for the
journeying of the camps, and on jubilant occasion (Numbers
10:1-10; 2 Chronicles 13:12). (On the rams' (rather Jubilee)
horns of Joshua 6, see HORNS.) The instruments at
Nebuchadnezzar's dedication of his golden image were the
"cornet," like the French horn; "flute" or pipe blown at the
end by a mouthpiece; "sackbut," a triangular stringed
instrument with short strings, in a high sharp key;
"psaltery," a kind of harp; "dulcimer," a bagpipe, emitting
a plaintive sound, a Hebraized Greek word, sumfonia (Daniel
3:4).
The schools of the prophets cultivated music as a
study preparing the mind for receiving spiritual influences
(1 Samuel 10:5; 1 Samuel 19:19-20): at Naioth; also at
Jericho (2 Kings 2:5; 2 Kings 2:7), "when the minstrel among
Jehoshaphat's retinue played, the hand of Jehovah came upon
Elisha" (2 Kings 3:15); Gilgal (2 Kings 4:38); Jerusalem (2
Kings 22:14). "Singing men and women" were at David's court
(2 Samuel 19:35), also at Solomon's (Ecclesiastes 2:8;
Gesenius translated for "musical instruments and that of all
sorts," shiddah wishidot, "a princess and princesses".) They
also" spoke of Josiah in their lamentations, and made them
an ordinance in Israel" (2 Chronicles 35:25).
Music was often introduced at banquets (Isaiah
5:12), "the harp and viol" (nebel, the "lute", an instrument
with 12 strings), etc. (Luke 15:25.) Amos 6:5; "chant
(parat, 'mark distinct tones,' the Arabic root expresses an
unmeaning hurried flow of rhythmical sounds without much
sense, as most glees) to the sound of the viol, and invent
to themselves instruments of music like David"; they fancy
themselves David's equals In music (1 Chronicles 23:5;
Nehemiah 12:36). He added to the temple service the stringed
psaltery, kinor ("lyre"), and nebel ("harp"), besides the
cymbals. These as distinguished from the trumpets were
"David's instruments" (2 Chronicles 29:25-26; 1 Chronicles
15:16; 1 Chronicles 15:19-21; 1 Chronicles 15:24; 1
Chronicles 23:5). The age of Samuel, David, and Solomon was
the golden one alike of poetry and of music. The Hebrew use
of music was inspirational, curative, and festive or
mournful. David's skill on the harp in youth brought him
under Saul's notice, and he played away Saul's melancholy
under the evil spirit (1 Samuel 16:16-23)...
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And Chenaniah, chief of the Levites, [was] for song: he
instructed about the song, because he [was] skilful.
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And she looked, and, behold, the king stood at his pillar at
the entering in, and the princes and the trumpets by the king:
and all the people of the land rejoiced, and sounded with
trumpets, also the singers with instruments of musick, and
such as taught to sing praise. Then Athaliah rent her clothes,
and said, Treason, Treason.
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And Maaseiah, and Shemaiah, and Eleazar, and Uzzi, and
Jehohanan, and Malchijah, and Elam, and Ezer. And the singers
sang loud, with Jezrahiah [their] overseer.
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The LORD God [is] my strength, and he will make my feet like
hinds' [feet], and he will make me to walk upon mine high
places. To the chief singer on my stringed instruments.
Read More
mu'-zi-kal in'-stroo-ments (shiddah we-shiddoth): "I gat me
.... musical instruments, and that of all sorts" (Eccl 2:8).
Thus the King James Version and the American Standard Revised
Version; the English Revised Version and the American Revised
Version margin "concubines very many." The word occurs only
here; the meaning is not certain, but it has nothing to do
with music.
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For when they shall rise from the dead, they neither marry,
nor are given in marriage; but are as the angels which are in
heaven.
Read More
And Jesus answering said unto them, The children of this
world marry, and are given in marriage:
Read More
Marriage [is] honourable in all, and the bed undefiled: but
whoremongers and adulterers God will judge.
Read More
ma'-s'n: The translation of 4 Hebrew words: (1) charash
'ebhen, "graver of stone" (2 Sam 5:11); (2) (3) gadhar (2 Ki
12:12), charash qur (1 Ch 14:1), "maker of a wall (or hedge)";
(4) chatsabh, "a hewer or digger (of stones)" (1 Ch 22:2; Ezr
3:7). Lebanon still supplies the greater number of skilled
masons to Israel and Syria (see 2 Sam 5:11), those of Shweir
being in special repute.
See CRAFTS, II, 8; also ARCHITECTURE; BUILDING; GEBAL; HOUSE.
Read More
A trade
In the time of David
2Sa 5:11
Of later times
2Ki 12:12; 22:6; 1Ch 14:1; Ezr 3:7
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an artificer in stone. The Tyrians seem to have been specially
skilled in architecture (1 Kings 5:17, 18; 2 Sam.
5:11). This
art the Hebrews no doubt learned in Egypt (Ex. 1:11,
14), where
ruins of temples and palaces fill the traveller with
wonder at
the present day.
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And to masons, and hewers of stone, and to buy timber and
hewed stone to repair the breaches of the house of the LORD,
and for all that was laid out for the house to repair [it].
Read More
And the king and Jehoiada gave it to such as did the work of
the service of the house of the LORD, and hired masons and
carpenters to repair the house of the LORD, and also such as
wrought iron and brass to mend the house of the LORD.
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And Hiram king of Tyre sent messengers to David, and cedar
trees, and carpenters, and masons: and they built David an
house.
Read More
They gave money also unto the masons, and to the carpenters;
and meat, and drink, and oil, unto them of Zidon, and to them
of Tyre, to bring cedar trees from Lebanon to the sea of
Joppa, according to the grant that they had of Cyrus king of
Persia.
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Now Hiram king of Tyre sent messengers to David, and timber of
cedars, with masons and carpenters, to build him an house.
Read More
And David commanded to gather together the strangers that
[were] in the land of Israel; and he set masons to hew wrought
stones to build the house of God.
Read More
Unto carpenters, and builders, and masons, and to buy timber
and hewn stone to repair the house.
Read More
met (broma, brosis): In the King James Version used for food
in general, e.g. "I had my meat of herbs" (2 Esdras 12:51);
"his disciples were gone away into the city to buy meat," the
Revised Version (British and American) "food" (Jn 4:8). The
English word signified whatever is eaten, whether of flesh or
other food.
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It does not appear that the word "meat" is used in any one
instance in the Authorized Version of either the Old or New
Testament in the sense which it now almost exclusively bears
of animal food. The latter is denoted uniformly by "flesh."
The word "meat," when our English version was made, meant food
in general; or if any particular kind was designated, it
referred to meal, flour or grain. The only real and
inconvenient ambiguity caused by the change which has taken
place in the meaning of the word is in the case of the "meat
offering." [MEAT OFFERING]
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The law or ceremonial of the meat offering is described in
Le 2:1 ... and Levi 6:14-23
It was to be composed of fine flour, seasoned with
salt and mixed with oil and frankincense, but without
leaven; and it was generally accompanied by a drink offering
of wine. A portion of it, including all the frankincense,
was to be burnt on the altar as "a memorial;" the rest
belonged to the priest; but the meat offerings offered by
the priests themselves were to be wholly burnt. Its meaning
appears to be exactly expressed in the words of David. 1Ch
29:10-14 It will be seen that this meaning involves neither
of the main ideas of sacrifices --the atonement for sin and
self-dedication to God. It takes them for granted, and is
based on them. Rather it expresses gratitude and love to God
as the giver of all. Accordingly the meat offering, properly
so called, seems always to have been a subsidiary offering,
needing to be introduced by the sin offering which
represented the one idea, and to have formed an appendage to
the burnt offering, which represented the other. The
unbloody offerings offered alone did not properly belong to
the regular meat offerings; they were usually substitutes
for other offerings. Comp. Le 5:11; Nu 5:15 [MEAT]
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(Heb. minhah), originally a gift of any kind. This Hebrew word
came latterly to denote an "unbloody" sacrifice, as
opposed to a
"bloody" sacrifice. A "drink-offering" generally
accompanied it.
The law regarding it is given in Lev. 2, and 6:14-23.
It was a
recognition of the sovereignty of God and of his
bounty in
giving all earthly blessings (1 Chr. 29:10-14; Deut.
26:5-11).
It was an offering which took for granted and was
based on the
offering for sin. It followed the sacrifice of blood.
It was
presented every day with the burnt-offering (Ex.
29:40, 41), and
consisted of flour or of cakes prepared in a special
way with
oil and frankincense.
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Not in our sense, "flesh." Thus of the three divisions of
offerings "the burnt, the meat, and the peace offering," the
meat offering is a "present or oblation" (minchah from a
root "to send or offer"), consisting only of flour, grain,
and oil, flesh never being in it as in the other two. In
Psalm 111:5, "He hath given meat (tereph) unto them that
fear Him," literally, spoil such as Israel brought out of
Egypt (Exodus 12:36), and which God had covenanted to
Abraham, Genesis 15:14 (Kimchi). Rather, the manna and
quails, a heaven-sent "booty" (treasure trove) to the
hungering people. Tereph is used for "meat" in general
(Proverbs 31:15; Malachi 3:10). In 1 Corinthians 8:13, "if
meat make my brother to offend," etc., and Romans 14:20,
"for meat destroy not the work of God," brooma means food in
general, not merely flesh.
The minchah denotes generally a gift from an
inferior to a superior, whether God or man (Genesis 4:3-5;
Genesis 32:13); qorban or korban afterward expressed this
general sense. Minchah then was restricted to the unbloody
offering, zebach to the "bloody sacrifice". Necek, "drink
offerings", accompanied the minchah. In Leviticus 2;
Leviticus 6:14-23 the law of the meat offerings is given.
Their ingredients, flour and oil, were the chief vegetable
foods of Israel; so in them the Israelite offered his daily
bread to the Lord, but in a manner distinct from the merely
dedicatory first fruits of grain and bread (compare 1
Chronicles 29:10-14; Deuteronomy 26:5-11). The latter loaves
were leavened, and neither they nor the first fruits sheaf
were burial upon the altar (Leviticus 23:10-11; Leviticus
23:17; Leviticus 23:20). Each meat offering on the contrary
was to be prepared without leaven, and a portion given by
burning to Jehovah for a sweet savor upon the altar.
The rest as a most holy thing was to be eaten in the
holy place by the priests alone as the mediators between
Jehovah and the people. Therefore, the meat offerings did
not denote merely the sanctification of earthly food, but
symbolized the spiritual food enjoyed by the congregation of
the Lord. If even the earthly life is not nourished merely
by the daily bread but by the divine grace which blesses the
food as means of preserving life, much less can the
spiritual life be nourished by earthly food, but only by the
spiritual food which a man partakes of by the Spirit of God
from the true bread of life, the word of God. As oil
symbolizes the Spirit as the principle of all spiritual
life, so bread from the seed of the field symbolizes the
word of God (Luke 8:11; Deuteronomy 8:3). Sanctification
consists in the operation of this spiritual food through the
right use of the means of grace for growth in holiness
(Matthew 5:16; 1 Peter 2:12). This inner food fills the
inner man with peace, joy, and blessedness in God.
This fruit of the spiritual life is shadowed forth
in the "meat offerings." They must be free from the "leaven"
of hypocrisy (Luke 12:1) (the leaven of the old nature,
Kurtz), malice, and wickedness (1 Corinthians 5:8), and from
the "honey" of carnal delights, both being destructive of
spiritual life. "The salt of the covenant of God" (i.e. the
purifying, strengthening, and quickening power of the
covenant, whereby moral corruption is averted) and the
incense of prayer were to be added, that the fruit of the
spiritual life might be well pleasing to the Lord (Qeri).
Wine symbolized vigor and refreshment (Psalm 104:15). The
priests' own meat offerings were to be wholly burnt. The sin
offering implied atonement for sin; the burnt offering self
dedication to God; the meat offering spiritual sustenance
through the word and Spirit.
"The prayer to God, Give us this day our daily
bread, is accompanied by the demand on God's part, Give Me
today My daily bread. This demand is answered by the church
when it offers to God in good works that for which God has
endowed it with strength, benediction, and prosperity."
(Hengstenberg, Dissertation on the Pentateuch, ii. 531.) The
meat offering was to be for a "memorial" reminding God of
His people; so Cornelius' alms and prayers (Acts 10:4). The
minchah, as a sacrifice, was something surrendered to God,
which was of the greatest value to man as a means of living.
It was not merely grain, but grain prepared by man's labor.
Hence the minchah, expressed a confession that all our good
works are wrought in God and are due to Him (Speaker's
Commentary, Leviticus 2:14).
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Then said he unto me, The north chambers [and] the south
chambers, which [are] before the separate place, they [be]
holy chambers, where the priests that approach unto the LORD
shall eat the most holy things: there shall they lay the most
holy things, and the meat offering, and the sin offering, and
the trespass offering; for the place [is] holy.
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No meat offering, which ye shall bring unto the LORD, shall be
made with leaven: for ye shall burn no leaven, nor any honey,
in any offering of the LORD made by fire.
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And thy meat which thou shalt eat [shall be] by weight, twenty
shekels a day: from time to time shalt thou eat it.
Read More
That we have built us an altar to turn from following the
LORD, or if to offer thereon burnt offering or meat offering,
or if to offer peace offerings thereon, let the LORD himself
require [it];
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And the other lamb shalt thou offer at even: as the meat
offering of the morning, and as the drink offering thereof,
thou shalt offer [it], a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet
savour unto the LORD.
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Moreover Solomon hallowed the middle of the court that [was]
before the house of the LORD: for there he offered burnt
offerings, and the fat of the peace offerings, because the
brasen altar which Solomon had made was not able to receive
the burnt offerings, and the meat offerings, and the fat.
Read More
All the oxen for the burnt offering [were] twelve bullocks,
the rams twelve, the lambs of the first year twelve, with
their meat offering: and the kids of the goats for sin
offering twelve.
Read More
God forbid that we should rebel against the LORD, and turn
this day from following the LORD, to build an altar for burnt
offerings, for meat offerings, or for sacrifices, beside the
altar of the LORD our God that [is] before his tabernacle.
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Wherefore, if meat make my brother to offend, I will eat no
flesh while the world standeth, lest I make my brother to
offend.
Read More
Only the trees which thou knowest that they [be] not trees for
meat, thou shalt destroy and cut them down; and thou shalt
build bulwarks against the city that maketh war with thee,
until it be subdued.
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mur'-chant, mur'-chant-man.
See COMMERCE; MERCHANDISE; TRADE.
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mur'-chan-diz ((1) `amar (2) cachar, (3) cachar, (4)
cechorach, (5) rekhullah, (6) ma`arabh, (7) markoleth; (8)
emporia (9) emporion, (10) gomos): There seem to be 4
distinct meanings of the word according to the Revised
Version (British and American), namely: (1) The products,
i.e. goods or things sold or exchanged, and so merchandise
in the present-day usage: (a) cachar is translated thus in
Prov 31:18; Isa 23:18; (b) cachar is translated thus in Isa
45:14; these two are from a root meaning "to travel around
as a peddler"; (c) rekhullah, translated thus in Ezek 26:12,
from a root meaning "to travel for trading purposes"; (d)
ma`arabh, translated thus in Ezek 27:9,27,33,34, from a root
meaning "to intermix, to barter"; (e) markoleth, translated
thus in Ezek 27:24 (the above 5 Hebrew words are all used to
designate the goods or wares which were bartered); (f)
`amar, occurring in Dt 21:14; 24:7, translated in the King
James Version "make merchandise of," but in the Revised
Version (British and American) "deal with as a slave," or
the Revised Version margin "deal with as a chattel"; (g)
emporia, translated "merchandise" in Mt 22:5; (h) emporion,
likewise in Jn 2:16 (the same Greek word is used in 2 Pet
2:3 for the American Standard Revised Version "make
merchandise of you"); (i) gomos, "merchandise," margin
"cargo."
(2) The process of trade itself, i.e. the business:
rekhullah has in it the root meaning of "itinerant trading",
and so in Ezek 28:16 the correct translation is not
"merchandise," as in the King James Version, but "traffic,"
"abundance of thy traffic," i.e. doing a thriving business:
"trade was good."
(3) The place of trading, i.e. emporium, mart, etc.:
cechorah in Ezek 27:15 is translated "mart." In Jn 2:16
reference is made to the "house of merchandise."
(4) The profits of trading: In Prov 3:14, cachar is
translated "gaining." Referring to wisdom, "For the gaining
of it is better than the gaining of silver, and the profit
thereof than fine gold"; the King James Version
"merchandise."
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General scriptures concerning
Ge 23:16; 37:28; 1Ki 10:15,28; 2Ch 9:14; Ne 3:32;
13:20;
Job 41:6; So 3:6; Isa 23:2; 47:15; Eze 17:4;
27:13,17,21-36;
38:13; Ho 12:7; Na 3:16; Mt 13:45; Re 18:3,11,23
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Laws concerning
Le 19:36,37; 25:14,17
-Carried on by means of caravans
Ge 37:25,27; Isa 60:6
-Carried on by means of ships
1Ki 9:27,28; 10:11; 22:48; Ps 107:23-30; Pr 31:11;
Re
18:19
-Conducted in fairs
Eze 27:12,19; Mt 11:16
-Of the Arabians
Isa 60:6; Jer 6:20; Eze 27:21-24
-Egyptians
Ge 42:2-34
-Ethiopians
Isa 45:14
-Ishmaelites
Ge 37:27,28
-Israelites
1Ki 9:26-28; Ne 3:31,32; Eze 27:17
-Ninevites
Na 3:16
-Syrians
Eze 27:16,18
-Tyrians
2Sa 5:11; 1Ki 5:6; Isa 23:8; Eze 27; 28:5
-Zidonians
Isa 23:2; Eze 27:8
-Babylonians
Re 18:3,11-13
-Jews
Eze 27:17
-From Tarshish
Jer 10:9; Eze 27:25
-Evil practices connected with
Pr 29:14; Eze 22:13; Ho 12:7
-Articles of
Apes
1Ki 10:22
Balm
Ge 37:25
Blue cloth
Eze 27:24
Brass
Eze 27:13; Re 18:12
Cinnamon
Re 18:13
Corn
1Ki 5:11; Eze 27:17
Cattle
Eze 27:21
Chest of rich apparel
Eze 27:24
Chariots
1Ki 10:29; Re 18:13
Clothes for chariots
Eze 27:20
Embroidery
Eze 27:16,24
Frankincense
Jer 6:20; Re 18:13
Gold
1Ki 9:28; 10:22; 2Ch 8:18; Isa 60:6; Re 18:12
Honey
Eze 27:17
Horses
1Ki 10:29; Eze 27:14; Re 18:13
Ivory
1Ki 10:22; 2Ch 9:21; Eze 27:15; Re 18:12
Iron and steel
Eze 27:12,19
Land
Ge 23:13-16; Ru 4:3
Lead
Eze 27:12
Linen
1Ki 10:28; Re 18:12
Oil
1Ki 5:11; Eze 27:17
Pearls
Re 18:12
Peacocks
1Ki 10:22
Perfumes
So 3:6
Precious stones
Eze 27:16,22; 28:13,16; Re 18:12
Purple
Eze 27:16; Re 18:12
Sheep
Re 18:13
Slaves
Ge 37:28,36; De 24:7
Silk
Re 18:12
Silver
1Ki 10:22; 2Ch 9:21; Re 18:12
Sweet cane
Jer 6:20
Thyine wood
Re 18:12
Timber
1Ki 5:6,8
Tin
Eze 27:12
Wheat
Re 18:13
White wool
Eze 27:18
Wine
2Ch 2:15; Eze 27:18; Re 18:13
Bodies and souls of men
Re 18:13
-Transportation of passengers
Jon 1:3; Ac 21:2; 27:2,6,37
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kom'-ers (emporia):
I. Old Testament Times.
1. Early Overland Commerce:
There were forces in early Hebrew life not favorable to the
development of commerce. Intercourse with foreigners was not
encouraged by Israel's social and religious customs. From
the days of the appearance of the Hebrews in Canaan,
however, some commercial contact with the peoples around was
inevitable. There were ancient trade routes between the East
and the West, as well as between Egypt and the Mesopotamian
valley. Israel lay as a bridge between these objective
points. There were doubtless traveling merchants from very
remote times, interchanging commodities of other lands for
those of Israel Some of the Hebrew words for "trading" and
"merchant" indicate this (compare cachar, "to travel,"
rakhal, "to go about"). In the nomadic period, the people
were necessarily dependent upon overland commerce for at
least a part of their food supply, such as grain, and
doubtless for articles of clothing, too. Frequent local
famines would stimulate such trade. Companies or caravans
carrying on this overland commerce are seen in Gen 37:25,28,
"Ishmaelites" and "Midianites, merchantmen," on their way to
Egypt, with spices, balm and myrrh. Jacob caused his sons to
take certain products to Egypt as a present with money to
Joseph in return for grain: balsam, spices, honey, myrrh,
nuts, almonds (Gen 43:11 f). The presence of a "Bab mantle"
among the spoils of Ai (Josh 7:21) indicates commerce
between Canaan and the East.
2. Sea Traffic:
While there are slight indications of a possible sea trade
as early as the days of the Judges (Jdg 5:17; compare Gen
49:13), we must wait till the days of the monarchy of David
and especially Solomon for the commerce of ships. Land
traffic was of course continued and expanded (1 Ki
10:15,28,29; 2 Ch 1:16). Sea trade at this time made large
strides forward. The Philistines were earlier in possession
of the coast. Friendship with Hiram king of Tyre gave
Solomon additional advantages seaward (1 Ki 5; 9:26; 10:19-
29; 2 Ch 8:17; 9:14), since the Phonicians were pre-
eminently the Miditerranean traders among all the people of
Israel Later, commerce declined, but Jehoshaphat attempted
to revive it (1 Ki 22:48; 2 Ch 20:36), but without success.
Tyre and Sidon as great commercial centers, however, long
impressed the life of Israel (Isa 23; Ezek 26 through 27).
Later, in the Maccabean period, Simon acquired Joppa as a
Jewish port (1 Macc 14:5), and so extended Mediterranean
commerce.
3. Land Traffic in the Time of the Kings:
During the peaceful reign of Solomon, there came, with
internal improvements and foreign friendships, a stimulus to
traffic with Egypt and the Far East over the ancient trade
routes as well as with Phoenicia on the northwest. He
greatly added to his wealth through tariffs levied upon
merchantmen...
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The Hebrew word so rendered is from a root meaning "to
travel
about," "to migrate," and hence "a traveller." In
the East, in
ancient times, merchants travelled about with their
merchandise
from place to place (Gen. 37:25; Job 6:18), and
carried on their
trade mainly by bartering (Gen. 37:28; 39:1). After
the Hebrews
became settled in Israel they began to engage in
commercial
pursuits, which gradually expanded (49:13; Deut.
33:18; Judg.
5:17), till in the time of Solomon they are found in
the chief
marts of the world (1 Kings 9:26; 10:11, 26, 28;
22:48; 2 Chr.
1:16; 9:10, 21). After Solomon's time their trade
with foreign
nations began to decline. After the Exile it again
expanded into
wider foreign relations, because now the Jews were
scattered in
many lands.
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And Abraham hearkened unto Ephron; and Abraham weighed to
Ephron the silver, which he had named in the audience of the
sons of Heth, four hundred shekels of silver, current [money]
with the merchant.
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And say unto Tyrus, O thou that art situate at the entry of
the sea, [which art] a merchant of the people for many isles,
Thus saith the Lord GOD; O Tyrus, thou hast said, I [am] of
perfect beauty.
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Damascus [was] thy merchant in the multitude of the wares of
thy making, for the multitude of all riches; in the wine of
Helbon, and white wool.
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Syria [was] thy merchant by reason of the multitude of the
wares of thy making: they occupied in thy fairs with emeralds,
purple, and broidered work, and fine linen, and coral, and
agate.
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He stretched out his hand over the sea, he shook the kingdoms:
the LORD hath given a commandment against the merchant [city],
to destroy the strong holds thereof.
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Tarshish [was] thy merchant by reason of the multitude of all
[kind of] riches; with silver, iron, tin, and lead, they
traded in thy fairs.
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Who [is] this that cometh out of the wilderness like pillars
of smoke, perfumed with myrrh and frankincense, with all
powders of the merchant?
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She maketh fine linen, and selleth [it]; and delivereth
girdles unto the merchant.
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Howl, ye inhabitants of Maktesh, for all the merchant people
are cut down; all they that bear silver are cut off.
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[He is] a merchant, the balances of deceit [are] in his hand:
he loveth to oppress.
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Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant man,
seeking goodly pearls:
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Dedan [was] thy merchant in precious clothes for chariots.
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(A worker in metals)
-Tubal-cain
Ge 4:22
-Bezaleel
Ex 31:1-11
-The Philistines
1Sa 13:19
-Jewish, carried away captive to Babylon
2Ki 24:14; Jer 24:1
-The manufacturers of idols
Isa 41:7; 44:12
-Genius of, from God
Ex 31:3-5; 35:30-35; Isa 54:16
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The Hebrews were not permitted by the Philistines in the days
of
Samuel to have a smith amongst them, lest they should
make them
swords and spears (1 Sam. 13:19). Thus the Philistines
sought to
make their conquest permanent (comp. 2 Kings 24:16).
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And Zillah, she also bare Tubalcain, an instructer of every
artificer in brass and iron: and the sister of Tubalcain [was]
Naamah.
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To devise cunning works, to work in gold, and in silver, and
in brass,
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Now there was no smith found throughout all the land of
Israel: for the Philistines said, Lest the Hebrews make [them]
swords or spears:
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And he carried away all Jerusalem, and all the princes, and
all the mighty men of valour, [even] ten thousand captives,
and all the craftsmen and smiths: none remained, save the
poorest sort of the people of the land.
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The LORD shewed me, and, behold, two baskets of figs [were]
set before the temple of the LORD, after that Nebuchadrezzar
king of Babylon had carried away captive Jeconiah the son of
Jehoiakim king of Judah, and the princes of Judah, with the
carpenters and smiths, from Jerusalem, and had brought them to
Babylon.
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So the carpenter encouraged the goldsmith, [and] he that
smootheth [with] the hammer him that smote the anvil, saying,
It [is] ready for the sodering: and he fastened it with nails,
[that] it should not be moved.
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The smith with the tongs both worketh in the coals, and
fashioneth it with hammers, and worketh it with the strength
of his arms: yea, he is hungry, and his strength faileth: he
drinketh no water, and is faint.
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Behold, I have created the smith that bloweth the coals in the
fire, and that bringeth forth an instrument for his work; and
I have created the waster to destroy.
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mil, mil'-ston (recheh; mulos, mulon): The two most
primitive methods of grinding grain were (1) by pounding it
in a mortar, and (2) by rubbing it between two stones. In Nu
11:8 both methods are mentioned as used for rendering the
manna more fit for cooking. Numerous examples of both mill
and mortar have been found in ancient excavations. Bliss and
Macalister in their excavations at Gezer and other places
have found specimens of what is called the saddle-quern or
mill, which consists of two stones. The "nether" stone,
always made of hard lava or basalt from the district of the
Hauran, was a large heavy slab varying in length from 1 1/2
ft. to 2 3/4 ft., and in width from 10 inches to 1 1/3 ft.
Its upper surface was hollowed out slightly, which made it
look a little like a saddle and may have suggested the name
of "riding millstone" applied by the Hebrews to the upper
stone which rested on it (Jdg 9:53). The "upper stone" or
"rider" was much smaller, 4 inches to 8 in. long and 2 3/4
inches to 6 inches wide, and of varying shapes. This could
be seized with the two hands and rubbed back and forth over
the nether stone much the same as clothes are scrubbed on a
wash-board. Such a stone could be used as a weapon (Jdg
9:53; 2 Sam 11:21), or given as a pledge (Dt 24:6).
Macalister goes so far as to say that "the rotary handquern
in the form used in modern Israel and in remote European
regions, such as the Hebrides, is quite unknown throughout
the whole history, even down to the time of Christ"
(Excavations at Gezer). The same writer, however, describes
some mills belonging to the 3rd and 4th Sere periods which
are much like the present rotary quern, except smaller (4
inches to 6 inches in diameter), and with no provision for a
turning handle. Schumacher describes these as paint
grinders. The only perforated upper millstones found in the
excavations at Gezer belong to the early Arabic period.
If the above assertions are substantiated then we must alter
somewhat the familiar picture of the two women at the mill
(Mt 24:41), commonly illustrated by photographs of the mills
still used in modern Israel These latter consist of two
stone discs each 18 inches to 20 inches in diameter, usually
made of Hauran basalt. The upper one is perforated in the
center to allow it to rotate on a wooden peg fixed in the
nether stone, and near the circumference of the upper stone
is fixed a wooden handle for turning it. The grain to be
ground is fed into the central hole on the upper stone and
gradually works down between the stones. As the grain is
reduced to flour, it flies out from between the stones on to
a cloth or skin placed underneath the mill. To make the
flour fine it is reground and sifted. Larger stones 4 ft. to
5 ft. in diameter, working on the principle of the handmill,
are still used for grinding sesame seed. These are turned by
asses or mules. Another form of mill, which is possibly
referred to in Mt 18:6; Mk 9:42; Rev 18:21,22, consisted of
a conical nether stone on which "rode" a second stone like a
hollowed-out capstan. The upper stone was probably turned
with handspikes in much the same way as an old-fashioned
ship's capstan was turned. The material to be ground was fed
into the upper cone which formed the hopper and from which
it was delivered to the grinding surfaces between the
"rider" and the nether stone. This form of mill must have
been known in late Biblical times, because many examples of
the upper stone dating from the Greek-Roman period have been
found. One may be seen in the museum of the Syrian
Protestant College at Beirut. Another large one lies among
the ruins at Petra, etc. In Mt 18:6; Mk 9:42, the mill is
described as a mulos onikos, literally, a mill turned by an
ass, hence, a great millstone. It is not at all unlikely
that the writers have confused the meaning of onos (chamor),
a term commonly applied to the upper millstone of a
handmill, thinking it referred instead to the animal which
turned the mill. This explanation would make Christ's words
of condemnation more applicable. The upper millstone of a
handmill would be more than sufficient to sink the
condemned, and the punishment would be more easily carried
out. A few years from now handmills will have disappeared
from the Syrian households, for the more modern gristmills
turned by water or other motor power are rapidly replacing
them.
See CRAFTS, II, 8.
Figuratively: (1) Of firmness and undaunted courage (Job
41:24). "The heart of hot-blooded animals is liable to
sudden contractions and expansions, producing rapid
alternations of sensations; not so the heart of the great
saurians" (Canon Cook, at the place). (2) To "grind the face
of the poor" (Isa 3:15) is cruelly to oppress and afflict
them. (3) The ceasing of the sound of the millstone was a
sign of desolation (Jer 25:10; Rev 18:22).
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General scriptures concerning
Jer 25:10
-Upper and lower stones of
De 24:6; Job 41:24; Isa 47:2
-Used in Egypt
Ex 11:5
-Operated by women
Mt 24:41
-And captives
Jud 16:21; La 5:13
-Manna ground in
Nu 11:8
-Sound of, to cease
Re 18:22
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Not to be taken as a pledge
De 24:6
-Probably used in executions by drowning
Mt 18:6; Mr 9:42; Lu 17:2
-Abimelech killed by one being of hurled upon him
Jud 9:53
-Figurative of a hard heart
Job 41:24
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The mills of the ancient Hebrews probably differed but
little from those at present in use in the East. These
consist of two circular stones, each about eighteen inches
or two feet in diameter, the lower of which is fixed, and
has its upper surface slightly convex, fitting into a
corresponding concavity in the upper stone. In the latter is
a hole thorough which the grain passes, immediately above a
pivot or shaft which rises from the centre of the lower
stone, and about which the upper stone is turned by means of
an upright handle fixed near the edge. It is worked by
women, sometimes singly and sometimes two together, who are
usually seated on the bare ground. Isa 47:1,2 "facing each
other; both have hold of the handle by which the upper is
turned round on the 'nether' millstone. The one whose right
hand is disengaged throws in the grain as occasion requires
through the hole in the upper stone. It is not correct to
say that one pushes it half round and then the other seizes
the handle. This would be slow work, and would give a
spasmodic motion to the stone. Both retain their hold, and
pull to or push from, as men do with the whip or cross-cut
saw. The proverb of our Saviour, Mt 24:41 is true to life,
for women only grind. I cannot recall an instance in which
men were at the mill." --Thomson, "The Land and the Book,"
c.34. So essential were millstones for daily domestic use
that they were forbidden to be taken in pledge. De 24:6
There were also larger mills that could only be turned by
cattle or asses. Allusion to one of these is made in Mt 18:6
With the movable upper millstone of the hand-mill the woman
of Thebez broke Abimelech's skull. Jud 9:53
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for grinding corn, mentioned as used in the time of Abraham
(Gen. 18:6). That used by the Hebrews consisted of
two circular
stones, each 2 feet in diameter and half a foot
thick, the lower
of which was called the "nether millstone" (Job
41:24) and the
upper the "rider." The upper stone was turned round
by a stick
fixed in it as a handle. There were then no public
mills, and
thus each family required to be provided with a
hand-mill. The
corn was ground daily, generally by the women of the
house (Isa.
47:1, 2; Matt. 24:41). It was with the upper stone
of a
hand-mill that "a certain woman" at Thebez broke
Abimelech's
skull (Judg. 9:53, "a piece of a millstone;"
literally, "a
millstone rider", i.e., the "runner," the stone
which revolves.
Comp. 2 Sam. 11:21). Millstones could not be pledged
(Deut.
24:6), as they were necessary in every family.
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In the East two "circular stones" (reechahim), 2 ft. diameter,
the lower fixed, and with the upper surface slightly convex,
fitting into the upper stone's concavity. This stone has a
hole through which the grain passes, above a pivot rising from
the lower stone. About the pivot the "upper stone" (recheb,
"the rider") is turned by a handle. Being moveable it could be
thrown as a missile (Judges 9:53 Gesenius translated "a cut
piece of millstone," not a fragment, but the whole with its
carefully cut surface; Revelation 18:21).
Two women (Matthew 24:41) facing one another, seated
on the ground, both turned it round by the handle, the one
supplying the grain through the hole. It was hard servile
labor (Exodus 11:5; Judges 16:21; Isaiah 47:1-2; Lamentations
5:18). The mill stones were so essential for preparing food
that they were forbidden to be taken in pledge (Deuteronomy
24:6). The cessation of the sound of grinding was a sign of
desolation (Jeremiah 25:10; Revelation 18:22; Ecclesiastes
12:3-4, "the grinders cease because they are few ... the sound
of the grinding is low".) Larger millstones were turned by
asses; Matthew 18:6 "a donkey millstone" (Greek).
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[And] the people went about, and gathered [it], and ground
[it] in mills, or beat [it] in a mortar, and baked [it] in
pans, and made cakes of it: and the taste of it was as the
taste of fresh oil.
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And all the firstborn in the land of Egypt shall die, from the
firstborn of Pharaoh that sitteth upon his throne, even unto
the firstborn of the maidservant that [is] behind the mill;
and all the firstborn of beasts.
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Two [women shall be] grinding at the mill; the one shall be
taken, and the other left.
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Moreover I will take from them the voice of mirth, and the
voice of gladness, the voice of the bridegroom, and the voice
of the bride, the sound of the millstones, and the light of
the candle.
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Take the millstones, and grind meal: uncover thy locks, make
bare the leg, uncover the thigh, pass over the rivers.
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And the voice of harpers, and musicians, and of pipers, and
trumpeters, shall be heard no more at all in thee; and no
craftsman, of whatsoever craft [he be], shall be found any
more in thee; and the sound of a millstone shall be heard no
more at all in thee;
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Lamp more accurately represents the original than candle.
Image of conscience, "the candle of the Lord, searching the
inward man" (Proverbs 20:27). Of prosperity; the sinner's
short candle soon goes out, the righteous shall shine as the
sun forever (Job 21:17; Job 18:5; Proverbs 13:9; Matthew
13:43). Of believers' bright example leading others to
spiritual light (Matthew 5:14). Of the gladdening influence of
a ruler (2 Samuel 21:17). Of the all-seeing accuracy with
which Jehovah will search out sinners, so that in no dark
grainer can they escape punishment (Zephaniah 1:12; Amos 9:3).
In beautiful contrast, as the woman in the parable "lit the
candle, swept the house, and sought diligently until she
found" the lost piece of silver, so God (Luke 15:8) searches
out His elect so that not one is lost, and takes each out of
the darkness of this world, and restores the divine image,
with a view to their salvation.
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And it shall come to pass at that time, [that] I will search
Jerusalem with candles, and punish the men that are settled on
their lees: that say in their heart, The LORD will not do
good, neither will he do evil.
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lo'-kust: The translation of a large number of Hebrew and
Greek words:
1. Names:
(1) 'arbeh from the root rabhah, "to increase" (compare
Arabic raba', "to increase"). (2) sal`am, from obsolete [?]
cal`am, "to swallow down," "to consume." (3) chargol
(compare Arabic charjal, "to run to the right or left,"
charjalat, "a company of horses" or "a swarm of locusts,"
charjawan, a kind of locust). (4) chaghabh (compare Arabic
chajab, "to hide," "to cover"). (5) gazam (compare Arabic
jazum, " to cut off") (6) yeleq, from the root laqaq "to
lick" (compare Arabic laqlaq, "to dart out the tongue" (used
of a serpent)). (7) chacil, from the root chacal, "to
devour" (compare Arabic chaucal, "crop" (of a bird)). (8)
gobh, from the obsolete root gabhah (compare Arabic jabi,
"locust," from the root jaba', "to come out of a hole"). (9)
gebh, from same root. (10) tselatsal from [?] tsalal
(onomatopoetic), "to tinkle," "to ring" (compare Arabic
call, "to give a ringing sound" (used of a horse's bit);
compare also Arabic Tann, used of the sound of a drum or
piece of metal, also of the humming of flies). (11) akris
(genitive akridos; diminutive akridion, whence Acridium, a
genus of locusts).
2. Identifications:
(1), (2), (3) and (4) constitute the list of clean insects
in Lev 11:21 f, characterized as "winged creeping things
that go upon all fours, which have legs above their feet,
wherewith to leap upon the earth." This manifestly refers to
jumping insects of the order Orthoptera, such as locusts,
grasshoppers and crickets, and is in contrast to the unclean
"winged creeping things that go upon all fours," which may
be taken to denote running Orthoptera, such as cockroaches,
mole-crickets and ear-wigs, as well as insects of other
orders.
'Arbeh (1) is uniformly translated "locust" in the Revised
Version (British and American). the King James Version has
usually "locust," but "grasshopper" in Jdg 6:5; 7:12; Job
39:20; Jer 46:23. Septuagint has usually akris, "locust";
but has brouchos, "wingless locust," in Lev 11:22; 1 Ki 8:37
(akris in the parallel passage, 2 Ch 6:28); Nah 3:15; and
attelebos, "wingless locust," in Nah 3:17. 'Arbeh occurs (Ex
10:4-19) in the account of the plague of locusts; in the
phrase "as locusts for multitude" (Jdg 6:5; 7:12); "more
than the locusts .... innumerable" (Jer 46:23);
"The locusts have no king,
Yet go they forth all of them by bands" (Prov 30:27).
'Arbeh is referred to as a plague in Dt 28:38; 1 Ki 8:37; 2
Ch 6:28; Ps 78:46; in Joel and in Nahum. These references,
together with the fact that it is the most used word,
occurring 24 times, warrant us in assuming it to be one of
the swarming species, i.e. Pachtylus migratorius or
Schistocerca peregrina, which from time to time devastate
large regions in the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean.
Cal`am (2), English Versions of the Bible "bald locust,"
occurs only in Lev 11:22. According to...
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Authorized as food
Le 11:22
-Used as food
Mt 3:4; Mr 1:6
-Plague of
Ex 10:1-19; Ps 105:34,35
-Devastation by
De 28:38; 1Ki 8:37; 2Ch 7:13; Isa 33:4; Joe 1:4-7;
Re
9:7-10
-Sun obscured by
Joe 2:2,10
-Instincts of
Pr 30:27
-In A. V. often inaccurately translated "grasshopper," as in
Jud 6:5; 7:12; Job 39:20; Jer 46:23
-See GRASSHOPPER
-FIGURATIVE
Jer 46:23
-SYMBOLICAL
Re 9:3-10
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a well-known insect, of the grasshopper family, which
commits terrible ravages on vegetation in the countries
which it visits. "The common brown locust is about three
inches in length, and the general form is that of a
grasshopper." The most destructive of the locust tribe that
occur in the Bible lands are the (Edipoda migratoria and the
Acridium peregrinum; and as both these species occur in
Syria and Arabia, etc., it is most probable that one or
other is denoted in those passages which speak of the
dreadful devastations committed by these insects. Locusts
occur in great numbers, and sometimes obscure the sun. Ex
10:15; Jud 6:5; Jer 46:23 Their voracity is alluded to in Ex
10:12,15; Joe 1:4,7 They make a fearful noise in their
flight. Joe 2:5; Re 9:9 Their irresistible progress is
referred to in Joe 2:8,9 They enter dwellings, and devour
even the woodwork of houses. Ex 10:6; Joe 2:9,10 They do not
fly in the night. Na 3:17 The sea destroys the greater
number. Ex 10:19; Joe 2:20 The flight of locusts is thus
described by M. Olivier (Voyage dans l' Empire Othoman, ii.
424): "With the burning south winds (of Syria) there come
from the interior of Arabia and from the most southern parts
of Persia clouds of locusts (Acridium peregrinum), whose
ravages to these countries are as grievous and nearly as
sudden as those of the heaviest hail in Europe. We witnessed
them twice. It is difficult to express the effect produced
on us by the sight of the whole atmosphere filled on all
sides and to a great height by an innumerable quantity of
these insects, whose flight was slow and uniform, and whose
noise resembled that of rain: the sky was darkened, and the
light of the sun considerably weakened. In a moment the
terraces of the houses, the streets, and all the fields were
covered by these insects, and in two days they had nearly
devoured all the leaves of the plants. Happily they lived
but a short time, and seemed to have migrated only to
reproduce themselves and die; in fact, nearly all those we
saw the next day had paired, and the day following the
fields were covered with their dead bodies." "Locusts have
been used as food from the earliest times. Herodotus speaks
of a Libyan nation who dried their locusts in the sun and
ate them with milk. The more common method, however, was to
pull off the legs and wings and roast them in an iron dish.
Then they thrown into a bag, and eaten like parched corn,
each one taking a handful when he chose." --Biblical
Treasury. Sometimes the insects are ground and pounded, and
then mixed with flour and water and made into cakes, or they
are salted and then eaten; sometimes smoked; sometimes
boiled or roasted; again, stewed, or fried in butter.
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There are ten Hebrew words used in Scripture to signify
locust.
In the New Testament locusts are mentioned as
forming part of
the food of John the Baptist (Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6).
By the
Mosaic law they were reckoned "clean," so that he
could lawfully
eat them. The name also occurs in Rev. 9:3, 7, in
allusion to
this Oriental devastating insect.
Locusts belong to the class of Orthoptera, i.e.,
straight-winged. They are of many species. The
ordinary Syrian
locust resembles the grasshopper, but is larger and
more
destructive. "The legs and thighs of these insects
are so
powerful that they can leap to a height of two
hundred times the
length of their bodies. When so raised they spread
their wings
and fly so close together as to appear like one
compact moving
mass." Locusts are prepared as food in various ways.
Sometimes
they are pounded, and then mixed with flour and
water, and baked
into cakes; "sometimes boiled, roasted, or stewed in
butter, and
then eaten." They were eaten in a preserved state by
the ancient
Assyrians.
The devastations they make in Eastern lands are
often very
appalling. The invasions of locusts are the heaviest
calamites
that can befall a country. "Their numbers exceed
computation:
the hebrews called them 'the countless,' and the
Arabs knew them
as 'the darkeners of the sun.' Unable to guide their
own flight,
though capable of crossing large spaces, they are at
the mercy
of the wind, which bears them as blind instruments
of Providence
to the doomed region given over to them for the
time.
Innumerable as the drops of water or the sands of
the seashore,
their flight obscures the sun and casts a thick
shadow on the
earth (Ex. 10:15; Judg. 6:5; 7:12; Jer. 46:23; Joel
2:10). It
seems indeed as if a great aerial mountain, many
miles in
breadth, were advancing with a slow, unresting
progress. Woe to
the countries beneath them if the wind fall and let
them alight!
They descend unnumbered as flakes of snow and hide
the ground.
It may be 'like the garden of Eden before them, but
behind them
is a desolate wilderness. At their approach the
people are in
anguish; all faces lose their colour' (Joel 2:6). No
walls can
stop them; no ditches arrest them; fires kindled in
their path
are forthwith extinguished by the myriads of their
dead, and the
countless armies march on (Joel 2:8, 9). If a door
or a window
be open, they enter and destroy everything of wood
in the house.
Every terrace, court, and inner chamber is filled
with them in a
moment. Such an awful visitation swept over Egypt
(Ex. 10:1-19),
consuming before it every green thing, and stripping
the trees,
till the land was bared of all signs of vegetation.
A strong
north-west wind from the Mediterranean swept the
locusts into
the Red Sea.", Geikie's Hours, etc., ii., 149.
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There shall the fire devour thee; the sword shall cut thee
off, it shall eat thee up like the cankerworm: make thyself
many as the cankerworm, make thyself many as the locusts.
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And Moses stretched forth his rod over the land of Egypt, and
the LORD brought an east wind upon the land all that day, and
all [that] night; [and] when it was morning, the east wind
brought the locusts.
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And there came out of the smoke locusts upon the earth: and
unto them was given power, as the scorpions of the earth have
power.
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And the LORD said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over the
land of Egypt for the locusts, that they may come up upon the
land of Egypt, and eat every herb of the land, [even] all that
the hail hath left.
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If there be dearth in the land, if there be pestilence, if
there be blasting, or mildew, locusts, or caterpillers; if
their enemies besiege them in the cities of their land;
whatsoever sore or whatsoever sickness [there be]:
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And the shapes of the locusts [were] like unto horses prepared
unto battle; and on their heads [were] as it were crowns like
gold, and their faces [were] as the faces of men.
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And the LORD turned a mighty strong west wind, which took away
the locusts, and cast them into the Red sea; there remained
not one locust in all the coasts of Egypt.
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