Ancient Near East
Marriage in Ancient Mesopotamia and Babylonia
As the bride approaches the ceremonial altar holding on to the arm of her father, the groom nervously takes a peek at the scene surrounding him... Not far away are the gifts, which shortly will be exchanged. Family members stand proudly around in a festive atmosphere. Is this taking place in upstate New York, a tropical garden in Miami, or a quaint old church in old Montreal? Perhaps, but it could well have happened somewhere in ancient Mesopotamia.Female Subordination
Women in Ancient Mesopotamia: The Mothers of Female Subordination By Jacqueline K. Hammack. Jackson State University, Department of History. The modern world has seen the liberation of females from male subjugation. Yet there are contemporary culture that consider women property. This phenomenon has existed, codified in law, for more than four thousand years. Why have men dominated women in all civilizations for all of recorded history? What happened in prehistorical times that females came to be subordinated by males for so many thousand years, or have females been in subordinate position since time immemorial?Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia
The ancient world of Mesopotamia (from Sumer to the subsequent division into Babylonia and Assyria) vividly comes alive in this portrayal of the time period from 3100 BCE to the fall of Assyria (612 BCE) and Babylon (539 BCE). Readers will discover fascinating details about the lives of these people taken from the ancients' own descriptions. Beautifully illustrated, this easy-to-use reference contains a timeline and a historical overview to aid student research.Marriage and Divorce Documents
From the Ancient Near East. Old Assyrian, 19th century B.C. Text: B. Hrozný, Inscriptions Cunéiformes du Kultépé (Praha, 1952). Transliteration and translation, Hrozný, in Symbolae Koschaker (Studia et Documenta II, 1939), 108ff. For bibliography of discussions cf. H. Hirsch, Orientalia, xxxv (1966), 259fAncient Mesopotamia: The Role of Women
From the earliest times in ancient Mesopotamia, women who came from a sector of society that could afford to have statues made placed their likenesses in temple shrines. This was done so that their images would stand in constant prayer while they continued to go about their daily chores. This female worshipper statue wears a standard fashion of the time, a simple draped dress with her right shoulder bare and hair done up in elaborate braided coils.Ancient Mesopotamia: Daily Life
Plaques such as this one were part of a door-locking system for important buildings in ancient Mesopotamia. The plaque was embedded into the doorjamb and then a peg was inserted into the hole. A hook or cord wrapped around the peg was covered with clay and secured the door.Ancient Mesopotamia: Mathematics and Measurement
During the earliest years of recorded history, the ancient Mesopotamians were experimenting with ways to count, measure, and solve mathematical problems. They were the first to give a number a place value and to recognize the concept of zero.Odyssey - Near East: Daily Life
For thousands of years, the needs of daily life in the Near East - shelter, tools, and domestic implements - have been resourcefully and creatively made from available natural materials. Houses were, and in some places still are, constructed of mud-brick, with flat roofs that served as sleeping porches in hot weather. Tools, weapons, and vessels were worked from stone.Odyssey - Near East: Death & Burial
In the ancient Near East burial, rather than cremation, was usually practiced. This tomb, called Tomb P1 by archaeologists, is from the ancient city of Jericho. It shows us one type of a Near Eastern tomb in its shape and in the contents buried inside.Thanks: Publix weekly ad, Kroger weekly ad, aldi ad, Walgreens weekly ad
Odyssey - Near East: People
In parts of the Near East today, people's lives are in some ways very similar to their ancestors' thousands of years ago. Researchers can observe today's lifestyles along with archaeological evidence from the past to better understand the people of the ancient Near East. Let's look at how people supported themselves over thousands of years and how their lifestyles developed in the "cradle of civilization."The Sumerian People
The people of Sumer could own slaves, although the majority of residents were free. Slaves had a number of rights, including the right to borrow money, transact business, and even buy their own freedom. The children of Sumer had few rights -- the authority of their parents was supreme. Children were expected to obey their parents in all cases. For example, the spouse of a Sumerian child was chosen by his/her parent. Those children who chose to disobey the authority of their parents faced being disinherited or sold into slavery. Women also possessed several rights, including the right to engage in business and own property.Sumerian Society
Religion was an intricate part of the daily life of a citizen of Sumer. Accordingly, the largest and most important structure in the city was the temple. Each city had a patron deity to which its main temple was dedicated. However, a multitude of gods were recognized and some of them might have shrines located in the main temple complex or have their own smaller temples.Everyday Life In Babylonia And Assyria
The way of life with which this book deals flourished for 2000 years of the most formative period of human history, and it would require far more than the space available even touch upon every significant aspect of this subject. I have there,-e had to confine myself to a more modest task. What I have empted has been to give an introduction to the subject by a sketch Babylonian and Assyrian life at a few key-points, seen in the context of the historical setting.Ancient Babylonia - Schools
For the most part the only education that a young Babylonian might have received would have been of a scribal type. Those who were sent to school to train as a scribe had to be children of wealthy or influential parents. Boys were admitted and possibly girls as well. There is no doubt that rich women often had a lot of freedom and influence. (Bible History Online)Religion in the Ancient Middle East
The Sumerians believed that the forces of nature (rain, wind, floods) were alive. The people couldn't control these forces of nature, so they worshipped them as gods. The people also believed that they were living on Earth only to please the gods.Ancient Babylonia - Temples and Rituals
The care and feeding of the gods in the great temples was a matter of daily concern. Elaborate rituals requiring the participation and support of numbers of temple personnel evolved around the daily presentation of offerings, the cleaning of the divine statues' garments, and the purification of the temples. Offerings were provided from the temple's land holdings, endowments by royal and wealthy people, and from occasional gifts such as war booty. (Bible History Online)Women In Babylonia Under The Hammurabi Law Code
The best known and most complete of the ancient pre-Roman law codes is that of Hammurabi, Eighteenth Century BCE ruler of Babylon. It was the Hammurabi Code that said that one who destroys the eye of another should have his own eye put out as punishment and one who murders should himself be put to death, thus giving rise to the expression "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth".The Ishtar Gate
Ancient Babylonia "" The Ishtar Gate (Bible History Online). The Ishtar Gate, one of the eight gates of the inner city of Babylon, was built during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (604- 562 BC). Only the foundations of the gate were found, going down some 45 feet, with molded, unglazed figures. The gateway has been reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin, from the glazed bricks found, so its original height is different in size. Reconstructed height is 47 feet.Hanging Garden's of Babylon
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were considered one of the wonders of the ancient world. The Greek historian Herodotus described Babylon in great detail. King Nebuchadnezzar built them in 580 BC apparently for his wife Amytis, daughter of the Median King Astyages, who was homesick for the mountains and vegetation of her native land. The site was located by an archaeologist named Koldeway at the northeast corner of Nebuchadnezzar's palace near the Ishtar Gate. The gardens were probably developed on a structure like a ziggurat and built in the form of elevated terraces. Koldeway discovered huge vaults and arches at the site. He also uncovered an ancient hydraulic system like a pump drawing water from the river. The building was about 75 feet high and the gardens were at different levels which grew around and on top of a building. (Bible History Online)The Ziggurats
Ancient Babylonia "" The Ziggurats (Bible History Online) One of the most important aspects of Babylonian religion and tradition, and probably the best known, is the ziggurat. Ziggurats were huge "stepped" structures with, on their summit, far above the ground, a temple. This Temple would have been to the city god. The city ziggurat would easily be the most conspicuous building in the city, towering above any visitors coming to their city. Therefore the ziggurat was not just a religious center but also a center of civic pride. Any visitor could not but see the ziggurat. The ziggurats were built on an immense scale: in the time of Hammurapi they would sometimes reach the height of 150 feet. Around the base there might be more temples or in some case accommodation for priests.Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III
The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III was discovered by the late Henry Layard in 1845. The 7 foot black limestone monument was found in the ruins of the palace of Shalmaneser III at ancient Calah, near Nineveh. It contains many panels displaying the Assyrian kings exploits. The Black Obelisk is one of the most important discoveries in Biblical Archaeology because one of the panels depicts the Hebrew king Jehu, or possibly one of his servants, bringing gifts to Shalmaneser and kneeling at his feet. The inscription above it reads: "The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri, silver, gold, bowls of gold, chalices of gold, cups of gold, vases of gold, lead, a sceptre for the king, and spear-shafts, I have received." (Bible History Online)Nebuchadnezzar's Palace
King Nebuchadnezzar's Palace in Ancient Babylon http://architecture.about...com/od/themiddleeast/ig/Iraq-Walls of Babylon
Ancient Walls of Babylon, 604 to 562 B.C. In its glory, Babylon was surrounded by thick masonry walls ornamented with images of the ancient God of Marduk.Babylon's Original Walls
Original Walls of Babylon, 604 to 562 B.C. In 604 to 562 B.C., thick masonry walls were built around Babylon.Reconstructed Images of the City of Babylon in Iraq
Ancient city that was located on the east side of the Euphrates river, and capital of Babylonia in 2nd and 1st millennia BCE. Its ruins are found 90 km south of modern Baghdad in Iraq.The main foundation for Babylon's economy was trade routes between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea, as well as agriculture fed by the rich Euphrates River. Babylon is today famous mainly for its size and architecture from the period of Nebuchadnezzar 2 in the 6th century BCE, when it covered about 10 km² and was by far the largest city in the world. But this city only survived for few decades before it was sacked by the Persians. Saddam Hussein ordered the reconstruction atop the ancient ruins that destroyed a lot of ancient artefacts on the site.Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad
Reconstruction image of the palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad, IraqHittite Palace in Turkey
Hittite palace area. This photograph shows the ruins of a Hittite palace in Turkey. Rectangular shaped stones show the outline of where rooms had been and grass grows up between them. Three large terra cotta jars can be seen in one of the "rooms". Visitors to the site are kept back from the ruins by barbed wire fences.Hattusa
Contains images of monuments on Hattusa. Hattuþa is a fantastic site. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The earliest traces of settlement on the site is from the 6th millennium BCE. Before 2000 BCE the site was settled by the Hatti, the pre-Hittites. Around 1700 BCE, this city was destroyed, apparently by King Anitta from Kushar. A generation later, a Hittite speaking king built Hattuþa. It became the capital of the Hittite Empire. At its peak, the city covered 1.8 km². The city was destroyed around 1200 BCE with the collapse of the Hittite Empire. The city has several large temple complexes, and many fortifications, including a large city wall. Nearby is Yazýlýkaya, a sanctuary of Hattuþa. It has some marvelous reliefs carved in the rock walls. The Hittites ruled a vast Empire in the Middle East.Winged Lion of Babylon
Human-headed winged lion (lamassu), 883 859 B.C.;Neo-Assyrian period, reign of Ashurnasirpal IIPhoenician Ships, Navigation and Commerce
The first attempts of the Phoenicians to navigate the sea which washed their coast were probably as clumsy and rude as those of other primitive nations. They are said to have voyaged from island to island by means of rafts.1 When they reached the shores of the Mediterranean, it can scarcely have been long ere they constructed boats for fishing and coasting purposes, though no doubt such boats were of a very rude construction. Probably, like other races, they began with canoes, roughly hewn out of the trunk of a tree. The torrents which descended from Lebanon would from time to time bring down the stems of fallen trees in their flood-time; and these, floating on the Mediterranean waters, would suggest the idea of navigation. They would, at first, be hollowed out with hatchets and adzes, or else with fire; and, later on, the canoes thus produced would form the models for the earliest efforts in shipbuilding. The great length, however, would soon be found unnecessary, and the canoe would give place to the boat, in the ordinary acceptation of the term. There are models of boats among the Phoenician remains which have a very archaic character,2 and may give us some idea of the vessels in which the Phoenicians of the remoter times braved the perils of the deep. They have a keel, not ill shaped, a rounded hull, bulwarks, a beak, and a high seat for the steersman. The oars, apparently, must have been passed through interstices in the bulwark.Phoenican Trading Ship
Marititme History/ Ancient Mesopotamian Ships/ Phoenican Trading Ship Phoenician cargo and trading ships of this design are known from the tomb of Sargon of Nineveh, c.700 B.C. where such ships were depicted loading cedar logs. These symmetrical, 'round', oared, sailing ships had high stem and stern posts upon which were carved horse heads. This ship appears to have a hogging truss which indicates an early design. Round trading ships had advantages for the transport of bulk goods.Phoenican Trading Ship
Marititme History/ Ancient Mesopotamian Ships/ Phoenican Trading Ship Phoenician cargo and trading ships of this design are known from the tomb of Sargon of Nineveh, c.700 B.C. where such ships were depicted loading cedar logs. These symmetrical, 'round', oared, sailing ships had high stem and stern posts upon which were carved horse heads. This ship appears to have a hogging truss which indicates an early design. Round trading ships had advantages for the transport of bulk goods.Turkey Bodrum
Replica of the Yassiada shipwreck from Byzantine times (7th c.), St. Peter's castle; Bodrum, TurkeyReconstruction of the Yassiada shipwreck
Turkey Bodrum (partial) reconstruction of the Yassiada shipwreck from Byzantine times (7th c.), St. Peter's castle; Bodrum, TurkeyTurkey Bodrum (partial) reconstruction
Turkey Bodrum (partial) reconstruction of the Yassiada shipwreck from Byzantine times (7th c.), St. Peter's castle; Bodrum, TurkeyReal-size Replica; Uluburun Shipwreck
Turkey Bodrum real-size replica; Uluburun shipwreck, St. Peter's castle, Bodrum, TurkeyMesopotamian Boats
The paucity of pictorial representation of Mesopotamian boats makes comparisons difficult. Their watercraft, as presently known, did not survive the ages. Despite advances in the maritime archaeology around the world, the ships and boats of Mesopotamia remain elusive. The little information we have is currently limited to iconography and texts.History of Boats and Ships
Humans have tended to live near water, and it is natural to make use of things that float. Logs or bundles of reeds can be lashed together to form rafts; hollow trunks can be improved to become dugout canoes. Once the principle of a watertight hull is understood, animal hides or the bark of trees can be attached to a framework of bamboo or wicker to make a simple coracle. Boats of all these kinds have been made by technologically primitive communities, and many continue to be made into the 20th century.Phoenician Ships
The best seafarers and ship builders of the ancient world were the Phoenicians. The famous Lebanese cedar tress covering the slopes of mountains of their native land was a perfect material for construction of strong seaworthy ships. The Phoenicians made important contributions to the marine science, having been credited with the division of a circle into 360 degrees and having reliable celestial reference points.Phoenician Cargo Ship
Considered the best shipbuilders of the time, the Phoenicians designed boats that depended more on wind than on manpower. Phoenician ships could carry more cargo than galley ships, which needed room for oars and rowers...Archaeological Site of Phoenician Shipwreck
Location of the two Phoenician ships of c. 750 B.C. that foundered 46km off Gaza with cargoes of wine in amphoras. The crew of the U.S. Navy deep submergence research submarine NR-1 discovered the sites in 1997 and in 1999 a team led by Robert Ballard and Harvard University archeology Professor Lawrence Stager investigated the wrecks.Ashkelon 1999
In June 1999, IFE mounted an expedition to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. The expedition team included archaeologists from the Leon Levy Expedition at Ashkelon under the direction of Dr. Lawrence Stager of Harvard University. Dr. Ballard, Project Leader for the Expedition, was joined by oceanographers and engineers from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Johns Hopkins University. The team surveyed two ancient shipwrecks at a depth of more than 1000 feet. The ships are the oldest vessels ever discovered in the deep sea.Phoenician Shipwrecks
A team of oceanographers and archaeologists led by Robert D. Ballard of the Institute for Exploration in Mystic, Connecticut, and Lawrence Stager of Harvard University has found two ancient Phoenician shipwrecks in the eastern Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Israel. Lying more than 1,000 feet (305 meters) below the surface, they are the oldest vessels ever discovered in the deep sea. The ships were most likely lost in a violent storm around 750 B.C., during the time of Homer. The expedition was partly sponsored by the National Geographic Society's Expeditions Council.Seytan Deresi
The institute's second excavation of 1975 was conducted near ªeytan Deresi (Devil's Creek), on the north coast of Turkey's Kerme Bay. AINA (now INA) had surveyed the wreck in 1973 and raised two huge pottery vessels, along with a number of pot sherds. The site seemed untouched since then. The jars had been found at the base of a sloping field of rock outcrops and boulders. No traces of wood had been found, to obvious disappointment, nor were there any non-ceramic objects other than a fishing weight, which was not necessarily antique.Uluburun Shipwreck
Bronze Age Shipwreck Excavation in Uluburun. The Institute of Nautical Archaeology's (INA) shipwreck excavation between 1984 and 1994 at Uluburun, near Kas in southern Turkey, brought to light one of the wealthiest and largest known assemblages of Late Bronze Age items found in the Mediterranean. The shipwreck lay on a steep rocky slope at a depth of 44 to 52 m, with artifacts scattered down to 61 m.Uluburun Shipwreck Website
Explore the wreck and view the artifacts in this website of the Uluburun Shipwreck. In 1984, sponge divers off the coast of Turkey found the remains of ancient shipwreck.Cape Gelidonya
Bronze Age Shipwreck Excavation at Cape Gelidonya. Cape Gelidonya, sometimes known also as Khelidonya or Silidonya Burnu, is the Chelidonian promontory of Pliny (Natural History 5.27.97) in Lycia. The cape marks the western extremity of the Bay of Antalya. Running south from the cape is a string of five small islands, the Chelidoniae of antiquity, called Celidoni by Italian sailors, and later, Selidonlar by the Turks, but today known simply as Besadalar (Five Islands). Strabo (14.2.1 and 14.3.8) noted only three of them and Pliny (Natural History 5.35.1 31 ) only four. In about 1200 BC, a merchant vessel apparently ripped its bottom open on a pinnacle of rock that nears the surface of the sea just off the northeast side of Devecitasi Abasi, the largest of the islands (36° 11'40" N, 30° 24'Z7" E). Spilling artifacts in a line as she sank, the ship eventually settled with her stern resting on a large boulder 50 meters or so away to the north; her bow landed on a flat sea-floor of rock. At some point during the hull's disintegration, the stern slipped off the boulder into a natural gully formed by the boulder and the base of the island.Mazarron Wrecks
The Vessel I of Mazarrón was excavated in the spring of 1995, inside the context of the 'Nave Fenicia' proyect, it began in October of 1993 and it concluded about June of 1995. In this project it were prospected systematically 72.000 m2 at the Playa de la Isla Mazarrón (Murcia), and it were recovered more than 7.000 fragments of phoenician objects, the wessel I (Mazzarrón I) was excavated, it was carried out an underwater mold of the remains, it was recovered and I carried to the Museum. and the Ship II was located, it is also a phoenician ship, with similar characteristics of the first one. This second ship was covered appropriately and it remains are, even, in the sea bottom of the mentioned bay.Shipwreck of lost 'Sea People' Found
By Environmental News Network staff. An ancient shipwreck, believed to be a Phoenician vessel lost about 2,500 years ago, has been discovered nearly 3,000 feet beneath the Mediterranean Sea. The shipwreck has been christened "Melkarth," after the Phoenician god of sailors and is believed to be the oldest ever discovered in deep water.Assyrian Stone Altar
Assyrian Stone Altar sketchAncient Lattice Windows
The lattice window looked very much like a fisherman's net, and was used in warm middle eastern countries. It was formed of reticulated work, and highly ornamental. They also had hinges which allowed them to be open or shut. On very hot days then sun is kept out while the air is let in through the trellis openings.Hanging Gardens of Babylon
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were considered one of the wonders of the ancient world. The Greek historian Herodotus described Babylon in great detail. King Nebuchadnezzar built them in 580 BC apparently for his wife Amytis, daughter of the Median King Astyages, who was homesick for the mountains and vegetation of her native land.A test with the category link
I am testing the category part now I am testingHanging Gardens of Babylon
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were considered one of the wonders of the ancient world. The Greek historian Herodotus described Babylon in great detail. King Nebuchadnezzar built them in 580 BC apparently for his wife Amytis, daughter of the Median King Astyages, who was homesick for the mountains and vegetation of her native land. The site was located by an archaeologist named Koldeway at the northeast corner of Nebuchadnezzar's palace near the Ishtar Gate.Mesha Stele Photo
Moabite StoneLanguage: Moabite (a West Semitic Language)
Medium: basalt stone stele
Size: 1.15 meters high, 60-68 centimeters wide
Length: 35 lines of writing
Honoree: Mesha, king of Moab
(late 9th century BCE)
Approximate Date: 830 BCE
Place of Discovery: Dhiban [in modern Jordan]
Date of Discovery: 1868
Current Location: Louvre Museum (Paris, France)
Inventory number: AO 5066
Dangerous Archaeology
Archaeology and the Near EastSelection from the Teachings of MerikaRe
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsTale of Sinuhe among the Asiatics
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsManetho on the Hyksos
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsThe 400 Year Inscription at Tanis
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsOn the destruction of land by the Hyksos (Hatshepsut)
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsCampaign of Thothmosis III against Megiddo
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsNoblemen's Tomb, Rekmire
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsCampaign of Thothmosis IV
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsAmarna Tablet 75. Letter from Rib-Hadda to the Pharaoh
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsRestoration of Tutankhamun
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsTheophoric Titles
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsFamine story, Tale of Aqhat
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsDying and Rising Baal, Ugaritic Myths
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsAnimal Sacrifice, Legend of King Keret
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsFunerary Rites, Tale of Aqhat
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsRameside Family
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsCampaign of Seti I in Northern Palestine
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsMajor Campaigns of Seti I
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsBeth Shan Stela of Seti I
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsMerneptah Stela
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsPapyrus Anastasi III
Claim that Egyptian records support a centuries-long Exodus. Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsThe Report of a Frontier Official,Papyrus Anastasi VI
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsThe Pursuit of Runaway Slaves,Papyrus Anastasi V
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsAhiram Sacrophagus Inscription
Alphabets & Writing Systems. Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsMesha Stela
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsBen-Hadad Stela
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsYehimilk's Temple Inscription
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsSiloam Pool Inscription
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsSennacherib's Campaign against Judah
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsSelection from Lachish Ostraca
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsFunerary Inscription of Tabnit of Sidon
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsChild Sacrifice, Philo of Byblos
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsSnake Worship introduced by Thoth, Philo of Byblos
Selected Ancient Near Eastern TextsEncarta Online information about Hammurabi
information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]Encarta Online information on Hammurabi's Code
Collection of the laws and edicts of the Babylonian king Hammurabi, and the earliest legal code known in its entirety. A copy of the code was unearthed by a team of French archaeologists during the winter of 1901 to 1902 at Susa, in a part of Iran that was once ancient Elam. [People in History] [Searches and Tools]Encarta on Hammurabi's Code
Info on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]Yale Law School with text of Hammurabi's Code
information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]Yale Law School with Babylonian background
information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]Yale Law School with still more about Hammurabi
information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]Myths and Legends
information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]Ancient Mesopotamia Teacher's Resource Guide
information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [Oriental Institute] [People in History] [Searches and Tools]Ancient Mesopotamia Timeline and Links
information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]Hammurabi's Code, View a Stela
information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]Hammurabi
Hammurabi made Babylon one of the great cities of the ancient world. Archaeologists have discovered that in his city the streets were laid out in straight lines that intersect approximately at right angles, an innovation that bears witness to city planning and strong central government. [information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi] [People in History] [Searches and Tools]Babylonian Clay Tablets, with cuneiform inscriptions
Samples of Babylonian Clay Tablets, with cuneiform inscriptions, dating from 2350 B.C. These tablets are original temple receipts. [Florida State Univ.]Cuneiform Inscription on a smal Babylonian clay tablet
An expert working at the British Museum has confirmed the existence of an important Biblical figure after deciphering a cuneiform inscription on a small Babylonian clay tablet. Austrian Assyriologist Dr Michael Jursa made the breakthrough discovery confirming the existence of a Babylonian official mentioned in the Old Testament and connected to the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar. The clay document is dated to the 10th year of Nebuchadnezzar II (595 BC) and names the official, Nebo-Sarsekim. According to chapter 39 of the Book of Jeremiah, he was present at the siege of Jerusalem in 587 BC with Nebuchadnezzar himself.Darius the Great: Naqš-i Rustam inscription
Darius I (Old Persian DÃ-rayavauÅ¡): king of ancient Persia, whose reign lasted from 522 to 486. He seized power after killing king GaumÃ-ta, fought a civil war (described in the Behistun inscription), and was finally able to refound the Achaemenid empire, which had been very loosely organized until then. Darius fought several foreign wars, which brought him to India and Thrace. When he died, the Persian empire had reached its largest extent. He was succeeded by his son Xerxes. Darius was buried at NaqÅ¡-i Rustam. The double inscription on his tomb (see picture) reads as follows:Cuneiform Tablets
In the late fourth and third milleniums B.C. a people called the Sumerians began to develop a writing system called "cuneiform" ("wedge-shaped"), written on wet clay with a sharpened stick, or stylus. At first the Sumerians used a series of pictures ("pictograms") to record information having to do with business and administration, but went on to develop a system of symbols that stood for ideas and later sounds (usually syllables). In the later stages of Sumerian writing there were about 600 signs that were used on a regular basis.Inscription of Nebuchadnezzar
The reign of Nebuchadnezzar extended from B.C. 604 to 561. In B.C. 598 he laid siege to Jerusalem (2 Kings xxiv.) and made Jehoiachin prisoner, and in 588 again captured the city, and carried Zedekiah, who had rebelled against him, captive to Babylon (2 Kings xxv.). Josephus gives an account of his expeditions against Tyre and Egypt, which are also mentioned with many details in Ezek. xxvii.-xxix. The name Nebuchadnezzar, or more accurately Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. xxi. 2, 7, etc.), is derived from the Jewish Scriptures. But in the inscriptions it reads Nebo-kudurri-ussur, i.e., "may Nebo protect the crown"; a name analogous to that of his father Nebo(Nabu)-habal-ussur. ("Nebo protect the son") and to that of Belshazzar, i.e., "Bel protect the prince." The phonetic writing of Nebuchadnezzar is "An-pa-sa-du-sis," each of which syllables has been identified through the syllabaries. The word "kudurri" is probably the (Hebrew - KeTeR) of (Page 251) Esther vi. 8, and the (Greek - kidaris) of the Greeks. The inscriptions of which a translation follows was found at Babylon by Sir Harford Jones Bridges, and now forms part of the India House Collection. It is engraved on a short column of black basalt, and is divided into ten columns, containing 619 lines.Cuneiform Inscriptions of the University of Minnesota
The University of Minnesota owns nineteen artifacts inscribed in cuneiform, the script of ancient Mesopotamia. This collection, which is kept in Special Collections and Rare Books at the Elmer L. Andersen Library, comprises sixteen clay tablets, two clay cones, and one inscribed and sealed clay tag. These documents include sixteen administrative records from various cities of Sumer in the Ur III period (late 3rd millennium BCE), and three short royal inscriptions from the cities of Isin and Uruk in the early Old Babylonian period (early 2nd millennium BCE). Most of the texts were published four decades ago by Tom B. Jones, then professor of ancient history at the University of Minnesota, and John W. Snyder. They are now made available to the public in new editions, including transliterations, translations, and photographs, through digital media.Persia
Deals with the Persian Empire [People in History] [Tools and Searches]Sparta
Deals with the Persian War [People in History] [Tools and Searches]Athens
Deals with the Persian War. Ancient Athens Athenian Rule Important Army [People in History] [Tools and Searches]The Battle of Issus or Battle of Alexander and the Persians
Details of mosaic from Naples, Italy. They depict a battle between Alexander the Great and Darius III, king of Persia. Photo gallery of 12 pictures for "Mosaic of the Battle of Issus" [Ancient Egypt] [Images]Alexander the Great Photo Gallery
Photos: Istanbul Archaeological Museums: Alexander the Great Photo Gallery by Andrys Basten at pbase.com [Ancient Near East] [Images]Xerxes
Born about 465 BC, to Darius Hystaspis and Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great. He was king of Persia from 486-465 BC. He tried to continue his father`s plans to conquer Greece from 483-480 BC, after which he returned to Persia. [Famous Battles] [Ancient Greece]Xerxes` march route
Interactive game. Xerxes was born about 465 BC, to Darius Hystaspis and Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great. He was king of Persia from 486-465 BC. He tried to continue his father`s plans to conquer Greece from 483-480 BC, after which he returned to Persia. [Maps] [Ancient Near East]Xerxes` march route
Born about 465 BC, to Darius Hystaspis and Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great. He was king of Persia from 486-465 BC. He tried to continue his father`s plans to conquer Greece from 483-480 BC, after which he returned to Persia. [Maps] [Ancient Near East]Map of the Hellespont
Description: A map showing the Hellespont, and the surrounding territory during the Peloponnesian War. Place Names: Greece, Ilium, Cressa, Abydus, Pactye, Parium, Lampascus, Aenus, Samothrace ISO Topic Categories: intelligenceMilitary, inlandWaters, oceans, location Keywords: Map of the Hellespont, physical, political, historical, peloponnesian war, physical features, local jurisdictions, other military, intelligenceMilitary, inlandWaters, oceans, location, Unknown, 405 B.C. Source: George Willis Botsford, Ph. D., A History of Greece (London, : The Macmillan Company, 1912) 236 Map Credit: The Private Collection of Roy Winkelman.[Maps] [Ancient Near East]Empires and Cities (Ancient Near East)
Until this section is finished being indexed into the main database you can click here to see a list of links including the Bible History Online general resources on this subject, although many of these links are outdated. [Ancient Near East]Poppa's Ancient World 3500-400 BC. (Timeline)
"From the start of recorded history, the Near East has played an integral part in shaping the world we know. From the first real civilisation, the Sumerians, through the struggle for power between the Egyptian and Hittite empires and the rise and fall of the Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian empires, this region provides a wealth of fascinating facts and stories. Here we will be taking a look at three main areas; Mesopotamia, Anatolia and Syria/Israel, which are all marked on the map below. Although the complete Egyptian history is not included in this section, Egypt did have a big influence and therefore have been included in the timelines." includes maps.Map of Ancient Near East
Map of Ancient Near East - Eastern Mediterranean Area- Eastern Mediterranean Area. Yale University.Royal Harp From Ur
Royal Harp: from the Tomb of Queen Puabi, Ur; c2685 BC The University Museum, Philadelphia. Wood with inlaid lapis lazuli and shell; 17" high [Image from Yale University]Head of an Akkadian Ruler
Nineveh, Iraq: Head of an Akkadian Ruler: c2300-2200 BC Iraq Museum, Baghdad; Bronze 14 3/8" high. [Image from Yale University]Gudea of Lagash (Yale Photo)
Gudea of Lagash: c2150 BC Metropolitan Museum of Art, Diorite. [Image from Yale University]Ziggurat at Ur (Yale Photo)
Ziggurat at Ur: (Ziggurat of King Urnammo) c2500-2100 BC [Image from Yale University]Restored Ishtar Gate (Yale Photo)
Restored Ishtar Gate: Babylon c575 BC; Pergamon Museum, Berlin, Glazed brick. [Image from Yale University]Ashurnasirpal II at War (Yale Photo)
Ashurnasirpal II at War: Palace of Nimrud. c875 BC British Museum, London. Limestone Approximately 23" high. [Image from Yale University]Stele with Law Code of Hammurabi
Babylon, Old (Babylon I): Stele with Law Code of Hammurabi: Medium Sculpture (carved basalt) Mesopotamia; Period: 2025-1594 BCE Object Date: c. 1780 BCE.Standard of Ur (War Side)
Sumerian Period: Standard of Ur (War Side): (Wood panel inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli and red limestone). Site: Royal Cemetery at Ur. Country: Mesopotamia. Period Date: c.2700-2300 BCE; Object Date c. 2700 BCE. [Image from Yale University]Bronze Statuettes
Syria: Tell Judaidah; Early Bronze Age;(Amuq Phase G), ca. 3100-2900 B.C. Bronze with silver-rich alloy. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1935-6. "Archaeologists found these three statuettes in a cache that contained three male and three female figurines. They are the earliest known metal castings of human figures in the round from Syria. The males wear broad belts and helmets covered with a silver alloy; they probably once held weapons in their upraised hands. The naked females' hair is held in place with a headband and bound in the back in an elaborate chignon. They cross their arms and grasp their breasts in their hands - a common ancient pose that probably connotes fertility. The statuettes were intended to be mounted in some fashion, for a tang projects below the feet of each one. The skill with which these unique pieces were modelled and the technical knowledge that was needed for their casting reveal surprisingly high standards of artistic and technical achievement in Syria at the beginning of the third millennium B.C.Male and Female Figurines
Syria: Tell Fakhariyah; ca. 1300-1000 B.C. Gypsum, painted, inlaid with bitumen and stone. Loan to the Oriental Institute. "A naked female and a partially clothed male are represented by this unique pair of red-coated stone figurines. Hair or headdresses made of a separate material were probably once attached to the pegs atop their heads. The male, who stands with his hands at his sides, wears a loincloth tied at the back. The female grasps her breasts with her hands-a common ancient pose that probably connotes fertility. She appears to be naked except for some type of foot-gear applied to her stump-like feet."Male and Female Sphinx
Syria: Tell Ta'yinat, Building 1, floor 2; Iron Age (Amuq Phase O), ca. 800 B.C. Basalt inlaid with white and green stone. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1936. "Sphinxes-imaginary creatures composed of a lion's body and a human head-are a motif that originated in Egypt and became common in the art of Western Asia beginning in the latter part of the second millennium B.C. This recumbent sphinx of local Syrian manufacture has an unusually vivacious character due to the position of the head, which is turned sideways with the chin slightly raised, not at the stiff right angle often found in ancient Near Eastern sculpture."Victorious Assyrian Soldiers
Syria: Tell Ta'yinat, Building VII; Iron Age (Amuq Phase O), ca. 750-725 B.C. Limestone. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1936. "After they had conquered Tell Ta'yinat, the Assyrians carved these reliefs and used them to decorate a palace or public structure. The scene shows victorious Assyrian soldiers carrying the cut-off heads of their defeated enemies to a location where the number of those slain would be counted. Beneath the soldiers' feet lie the decapitated bodies. Each soldier wears a helmet, carries a bow and quiver over his shoulder, and holds three arrows in his right hand."Portrait Head of a Ruler
Iran (Elamite) Portrait Head of a Ruler: ca. 2100-2000 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Neo-Assyrian King
Neo-Assyrian; Hunting scene with the king pouring libation over slain wild bull, attended by the Crown Prince(?) and servants carrying sun shade and fly whisk, detail of relief from NW. Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud (Kalakh). ca 883-859 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Neo-Assyrian King Closer
Neo-Assyrian; Hunting scene with the king pouring libation over slain wild bull, attended by the Crown Prince(?) and servants carrying sun shade and fly whisk, detail of relief from NW. Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud (Kalakh). ca 883-859 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Large Pair of Lamassau Figures
Neo-Assyrian; Pair of Lamassau figures flanking a gateway (restored), from the Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad (Dur-Sharrukin). ca. 713-706 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Large Lamassu Guardian Figure
Neo-Assyrian; Lamassu guardian figure [in background L., relief of the Hero Gilgamesh(?)], from the Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad (Dur-Sharrukin). ca. 713-706 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Hero (Gilgamesh ?), Mastering a Lion
Neo-Assyrian; Hero (Gilgamesh ?), mastering a lion, relief from facade of the throne room, Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad (Dur-Sharrukin). ca. 713-706 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Siege of Lachich (Judah)
Neo-Assyrian; Siege of Lachich (Judah): Assyrian army attacking the walls with a siege-engine, relief from SW. Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 701 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Siege of Lachich (Judah) Close
Neo-Assyrian; Siege of Lachich (Judah): Assyrian army attacking the walls with a siege-engine, relief from SW. Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 701 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Siege of Lachich (Judah) 3
Neo-Assyrian; Siege of Lachich (Judah): Assyrian army attacking the walls with a siege-engine, relief from SW. Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 701 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Siege of Lachich (Judah) 4
Neo-Assyrian; Siege of Lachich (Judah): Assyrian army attacking the walls with a siege-engine, relief from SW. Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 701 B.C. The city defenders hard pressed by the Assyrian attackers, detail [L] From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Siege of Lachich (Judah) 5
Neo-Assyrian; Siege of Lachich (Judah): Assyrian sappers undermine the city walls, detail [L.] relief from SW. Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 701 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Siege of Lachich (Judah) 6
Neo-Assyrian; Siege of Lachich (Judah): Captives led away from the city; [R.] the Assyrian assault on the city walls, relief from SW. Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 701 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Siege of Lachich (Judah) 7
Neo-Assyrian; Siege of Lachich (Judah): a city defender falls to his death from the battlements, detail [R.] relief from SW. Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 701 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Siege of Lachich (Judah) 8
Neo-Assyrian; Siege of Lachich (Judah): amphibious troops use inflated animals skins to cross a river teeming with fish, detail [R.] relief from SW. Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 701 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Siege of Lachich (Judah) 9
Neo-Assyrian; Siege of Lachich (Judah): captive musicians sing praises to the conqueror, detail of relief from SW. Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 701 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal
Neo-Assyrian; Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: the king on horseback, spearing a lion, detail of relief from royal palace at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 668-627 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal 2
Neo-Assyrian; Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: bodyguards at the rear of the royal chariot protect the king from a charging lion, detail of relief from royal palace at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 668-627 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal 3
Neo-Assyrian; Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: release of a captive lion into the hunting enclosure, detail of relief from royal palace at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 668-627 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal 4
Neo-Assyrian; Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: the king on foot, slaying a lion (after similar motif on the royal seal), detail of relief from royal palace at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 668-627 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal 5
Neo-Assyrian; Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: a lion, in agony, its head transfixed by an arrow; detail of relief from royal palace at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 668-627 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal 6
Neo-Assyrian; Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: wounded lion, detail of relief from royal palace at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 668-627 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal 7
Neo-Assyrian; Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: wounded lioness, detail of relief from royal palace at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 668-627 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal 8
Neo-Assyrian; Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: detail of wounded lioness, detail of relief from royal palace at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 668-627 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal 9
Neo-Assyrian; Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal: dying lion, detail of relief from royal palace at Nineveh (Kuyunjik). ca. 668-627 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ishtar Gate
Neo-Babylonian; Ishtar Gate, Babylon: (restored)ca. 575 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ishtar Gate 2
Neo-Babylonian; Ishtar Gate: detail of [R.] flanking tower with motifs of Bulls and Dragons, ca. 575 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ishtar Gate 3
Neo-Babylonian; Ishtar Gate: Processional Way, guardian lions on Right side, ca. 575 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ishtar Gate 4
Neo-Babylonian; Ishtar Gate: Processional Way, detail of guardian lions on Left side, ca. 575 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ishtar Gate 5
Neo-Babylonian; Ishtar Gate, Babylon: detail of single guardian lion from Left side, ca. 575 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ishtar Gate 6
Neo-Babylonian; Ishtar Gate, Babylon: detail of head of guardian lion from Left side, ca. 575 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Double Bull Capital from the Palace of Darius
Persian, Achaemenid: Double bull capital from the Apadana Hall, Palace of Darius at Persepolis. ca. 500 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Persian Guard in Headdress
Persian, Achaemenid: Persian guard in headdress of one of the Ten Thousand Immortals, fragment of relief from the Palace of Xerxes at Persepolis. ca. 486-464 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ancient Lamps from the Levant
Ancient Lamps Catalogue. Lamps from: Bronze & Iron Age Periods Greek Period Hellenistic Period Wheelmade Mouldmade Plastic Lamps Roman Period Volute Various Vogelkopflampe Factory Lamps Mediterranean Balkans Greece Asia Minor Cyprus Syro-Israel Egypt North Africa Late Roman & Byzantine Periods North Africa Mediterranean Syro-Israel Asia Minor Byzantine & Islamic Periods Metal Lamps Lamp Moulds Lamp HookPersepolis and Ancient Iran
Catalog of Expedition Photographs Oriental Institute, Chicago, ILMale Head
Male Head; Northern Arabia, al-`Ula (ancient Dedan), Lihyanite; 4th - 3rd centuries B.C. Sandstone.Pitcher with Built-In Strainer
Turkey: Alishar Huyuk, Stratum II; Assyrian Colony Period, ca. 1900-1750 B.C. Baked clay, slipped and burnished. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1929Pair of Bull Statuettes
Turkey (Central Anatolia); Early Bronze Age; 2300-2000 B.C. Bronze with copper-arsenic. Oriental Institute. These two bulls probably once adorned the top of a royal or divine standard.HUMAN-HEADED WINGED BULL
Iraq: Khorsabad, Palace, Court VIII; Neo-Assyrian Period; Reign of Sargon II, 721-705 B.C. Gypsum (?) Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1929 "This colossal sculpture was one of a pair that guarded the entrance to the throne room of King Sargon II. A protective spirit known as a "lamassu", it is shown as a composite being with the head of a human, the body and ears of a bull, and the wings of a bird. When viewed from the side, the creature appears to be walking; when viewed from the front, to be standing still. Thus it is actually represented with five, rather than four, legs."Assyrian Soldiers Towing a Boat
Iraq: Khorsabad, Palace, Throneroom Debris; Neo-Assyrian Period; Reign of Sargon II, 721-705 B.C. Gypsum. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1930. "Archaeologists from the Oriental Institute discovered this relief fragment in the debris of the throne room of King Sargon II. The fragment shows naked Assyrian soldiers towing a boat through a shallow river, perhaps during one of Sargon's campaigns against Marduk-apla-iddina II, king of Babylon, whose name is inscribed in the text above the scene. According to the Biblical account, that same Babylonian king (referred to as Merodach Baladan) sent envoys with presents to Hezekiah, king of Judah, upon his recovery from illness (cf. II Kings 20; Isaiah 39)."Two Assyrian Court Officials
Iraq: Khorsabad, Palace, Court VIII; Neo-Assyrian Period Reign of Sargon II, 721-705 B.C. Gypsum. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1928. "This relief comes from a wall just outside the throne room of Sargon II's palace. Two court officials - who are beardless and, therefore, possibly identifiable as eunuchs - are shown marching toward the king. The ankle-length robes of the attendants are ornamented with squares and trimmed with fringe and beads along the lower edges. A diagonal band of red crosses the chest. Each courtier wears wire bracelets, earrings, and sandals which are held in position with toe- thongs and straps. This relief stands about eleven feet high and weighs approximately two and a half tons."Diety Holding a Flowing Vase
Iraq: Khorsabad, Nabu Temple; Neo-Assyrian Period; Reign of Sargon II, 721-705 B.C. Gypsum (?). Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1932-33. "These two statues once flanked a doorway leading into the temple of Nabu, the god of writing and of knowledge. Each of these gods holds a small vessel from which flow four streams of. Figures of this type are common in the art of the ancient Near East; they probably represent fertility deities who are embodiments of the life-giving and life-sustaining forces within fresh water. The statues, when found, were in many pieces. These fragments were cleaned, soaked in a hardening solution, and then reassembled and restored by a member of the technical staff of the Oriental Institute.Bronze Band
Iraq: Khorsabad, Shamash Temple; Neo-Assyrian Period; Reign of Sargon II, 721-705 B.C. Bronze. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1931. "The fortress of Sargon II at Khorsabad included a complex of temples, one of which was devoted to the sun god Shamash. This bronze band encircled one of a pair of cedar poles-possibly supports for divine emblems-that once flanked the doorway to this temple. In the upper register, Sargon is shown grasping two massive bulls by the horns. This ancient motif, known as "the master of animals," was well established in Mesopotamian royal iconography and perhaps symbolized the dominance, vitality, and potency of the reigning monarch. To the left of the king and bulls is a large bird depicted in flight, to the right, facing the king and bulls, is an attendant wearing a kilt.King Ashurnasirpal II
Iraq: Nimrud, N.W. Palace, Room G. Neo-Assyrian Period Reign of Ashurnasirpal II, ca. 883-859 B.C. Gypsum (?). Exchange with the British Museum, 1974. "Room G in Ashurnasirpal II's palace may have served as the setting for a ritual by which weapons were purified. The walls of this chamber were adorned with exceptionally well-carved and minutely detailed reliefs showing the king standing between, alternately, two courtiers and two winged genies. This fragment shows the king himself, identifiable by his fez-shaped cap surmounted by a conical spike. Originally, this piece formed part of a scene. The king, grasping a bow, stood ready to pour a libation from a cup poised delicately on the tips of his fingers. Facing him was an attendant who carried a fly-whisk with which to banish insects from the royal presence.Clay Prism of King Sennacherib
Iraq: Nineveh (?); Neo-Assyrian Period; Reign of Sennacherib, ca. 689 B.C. Baked clay. Purchased in Baghdad, 1919. "On the six inscribed sides of this clay prism, King Sennacherib recorded eight military campaigns undertaken against various peoples who refused to submit to Assyrian domination. In all instances, he claims to have been victorious. As part of the third campaign, he beseiged Jerusalem and imposed heavy tribute on Hezekiah, King of Judah-a story also related in the Bible, where Sennacherib is said to have been defeated by "the angel of the Lord," who slew 185,000 Assyrian soldiers (II Kings 18-19)."Colossal Bull Head
Iran: Persepolis, Hundred-Column Hall; Achaemenid Period Reigns of Xerxes/Artaxerxes I, ca. 485-424 B.C. Dark gray limestone; restored. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1932. "Carved in the court style typical of the Achaemenid Empire, this highly polished stone head originally belonged to one of two guardian bulls flanking the portico of the hundred-columned Throne Hall at Persepolis. The heads of the bulls projected in the round and the bodies were carved in relief on the sidewalls of the porch; the ears and horns had been added separately. The use of pairs of guardian figures such as these to protect important buildings was a common architectural feature in the ancient Near East."Frieze of Striding Lions
Iran: Persepolis; Achaemenid Period; Reign of Darius I/Xerxes, ca. 522-465 B.C. Limestone. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1932-4. "An Achaemenid artisan carved this piece of stone to represent part of a cloth canopy that was decorated with woven or appliquéd figures of rosettes and striding lions. A pair of diamonds joined as a figure-eight can be seen in three places on the face of this stone. They are the marks of the sculptor or team of sculptors who carved this and numerous other Persepolis reliefs on which the same marks appear."Foundation Slab of Xerxes
Iran: Persepolis, Garrison quarters; Achaemenid Period; Reign of Xerxes, ca. 485-465 B.C. Gray limestone. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1935. "This stone tablet inscribed with Babylonian cuneiform characters lists the nations under Persian rule shortly after the uprisings that occurred when Xerxes came to the throne."Crater with Ibexes
Iran: Chogha Mish; Middle Susiana 3; Late 5th millennium B.C. Baked clay. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1965-6. "The geographical term "Susiana," referring to the area ruled in the historical period by the city of Susa, is also applied to the prehistoric cultures of lowland southwestern Iran. Representational designs such as the stylized wild goats with long sweeping horns painted beneath the rim of this krater are characteristic for an advanced stage of the Susiana sequence."Painted Bowl
Iran: Tall-i-Bakun A, Level III; Bakun A Period; Early 4th millennium B.C. Baked clay. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1932-4. "Many of the pottery vessels from the site of Tall-i-Bakun in the plain of Persepolis show a highly sophisticated use of negative designs in conjunction with more usual painted patterns. On this bowl, two patterns alternate in rhythmic sequence. One is a painted design of anthropomorphic inspiration with a "head" flanked by upraised "arms" facing both the rim and base of the bowl. The other pattern, which is given in negative by the buff surface of the vessel, consists of a cross and two lozenges."Disc-Headed Pin
Iran: Surkh Dum-i-Luri, Sanctuary, Level 2B; Early Iron Age III, ca. 750-700 B.C. Copper. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1938. "Large numbers of decorated disc-headed pins were found in the sanctuary at Surkh Dum-i-Luri. They may have been votive offerings to a fertility goddess. The pins were worn with the head hanging down and the shaft pointing up."Persian Snarling Lion Roundel
Iran: Ecbatana (?); Achaemenid Period; Reign of Artaxerxes II, ca. 404-359 B.C. Gold. Purchased in New York, 1948. "This snarling winged lion worked in gold repoussé attests to the exceptional skill of Achaemenid goldsmiths. The back of the horned feline's body and the slender twisted cord that surrounds it bear sixteen tiny loops for attachment to a garment or textile. Greek writers often speak of the tremendous wealth of the Persians, and Herodotus writes that King Xerxes' troops "were adorned with the greatest magnificence...they glittered all over with gold, vast quantitites of which they wore about their persons" (vii.83)."Foundation Figurine of King Ur-Nammu
Iraq: Nippur, E-kur Court, S gate, SE tower; Third Dynasty of Ur; Reign of Ur-Nammu, ca. 2111-2095 B.C. Bronze. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1955-6. "King Ur-Nammu rebuilt and enlarged one of the most important temples in ancient Mesopotamia - the E-kur of Enlil, the chief god of the pantheon. This figurine, which was buried in a foundation box beneath one of the temple towers, represents the king at the start of the building project - carrying on his head a basket of clay from which would be made the critically important first brick. The foundation deposit also contained an inscribed stone tablet; beads of frit, stone and gold; chips of various stones; and four ancient date pits found perched atop the basket carried by the king."Striding Lion
Iraq: Babylon, Processional Avenue north of the Ishtar Gate Neo-Babylonian Period; Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, ca. 604-562 B.C. Molded brick with polychrome glaze; Purchased in Berlin, 1931. "This colorful striding lion, its mouth opened in a threatening roar, once decorated a side of the 'Processional Way' in ancient Babylon (the Biblical city of Babel). The 'Processional Way' led out of the city through a massive gate named for the Mesopotamian goddess of love and war, Ishtar, whose symbol was the lion. Each year, during the celebration of the great New Year Festival, the images of the city's deities were carried out through the Ishtar Gate and along the 'Processional Way' past some 120 lions such as this one to a special festival house north of the city."Female Figurine from Ur
Iraq: Tell Asmar, Trench D; Ur III/Isin-Larsa Period, ca. 2100-1800 B.C. Baked clay. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1935-6. "Figurines like this one have been found in the excavated remains of Mesopotamian houses, temples, and other public buildings of the early second millennium B.C. They have no definite divine attributes and their exact function is not known. This female has characteristic broad, flat hips, a large and elaborately incised pubic triangle, and prominent breasts with applied disk-shaped nipples."Cup Supported by Heroes and Animals
Iraq: Tell Agrab, Shara Temple; Jamdat Nasr/Early Dynastic I, ca. 3100-2750 B.C. Gypsum (?). Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1935-6. This elaborate vessel was discovered in the Shara Temple where it was probably used to place offerings before the god. The decoration of its openwork support shows a hero, naked except for a double-strand belt, grasping the rumps of two lions in his hands. The curling tails of two additional lions are tucked under his arms, and all four felines menace a bearded bull at the opposite end of the stand. Series of figures such as these, engaged in static combats, are common in ancient Mesopotamian art. Their exact meaning is unknown.Four-Faced God and Goddess
Iraq: Ishchali (?); Old Babylonian Period, 18th-17th century B.C. Bronze. Purchased in Baghdad, 1930. "Illicit diggers found these four-faced statuettes, which may represent a god of the four winds and a goddess of rainstorms. The god wears a low cap with a pair of horns meeting above each face. He carries a scimitar in his right hand and places his left foot upon the back of a crouching ram. The goddess's tall crown, again with a pair of horns above each face, has the shape of a temple facade or altar. She grasps in her hands a vase from which flow streams of water; a rippled water pattern covers her garment."Sumerian Statuette
Iraq: Tell Asmar, Square Temple I, Shrine II; Early Dynastic I-II, ca. 2900-2600 B.C. Gypsum (?) inlaid with shell and black limestone(?). Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1933-4. "During the Early Dynastic Period in Mesopotamia, statuettes were placed in sanctuaries as votive offerings and were later buried when the temple was remodelled or rebuilt. This representation of a Sumerian standing reverently before his god is one of a group of sculptures found buried in a pit next to the altar of the Abu Temple at Tell Asmar. It is thought to depict a priest because it lacks the full beard and long hair of other male statues of its type."Persian Spearman
5th century B.C.; Iranian, Achaemenid Dynasty; Limestone. This fragment from a stair balustrade depicts a file of Persian spearmen wearing the characteristic fluted felt or feathered headdress. Only the head of one warrior survives with a portion of his spear and that of the soldier behind him. Although unfinished (the beard`s curls are not defined), the smooth contours of the suave profile and the richly curled hair demonstrate the elegance of Achaemenid court art. Text and images courtesy The Detroit Institute of Arts.Court Official
359-338 B.C.; Iranian, Achaemenid Dynasty; Limestone.The palace of Darius the Great was restored by Artaxerxes III by the addition of a western staircase with relief representations of dignitaries from the twenty-six subject states of the empire bearing gifts to the "king of kings." Each foreign group is led by a Persian official holding a staff. This relief illustrates such a marshall wearing the Persian headdress and robe with a dagger thrust into the belt. His left hand once grasped that of the leader of the next delegation. In front of him a fragment of the garment of another envoy survives. This late relief, flatter and more linear than those of the reigns of Darius and Xerxes, nonetheless still conveys the power and refinement of the Achaemenid court. Text and images courtesy The Detroit Institute of Arts.Earring
Late 5th to early 4th century B.C.; Iranian, Achaemenid Dynasty; Gold and faience. Many of the Persian courtiers and delegates on the reliefs of Persepolis are shown wearing elaborate earrings. This earring, probably from Susa (the southern administrative capital of the empire), is characteristic of jewelry of this period. When in motion, the beads tremble like a tiny chandelier and the gold surfaces brilliantly reflect the light. Text and images courtesy The Detroit Institute of Arts.Court Servant with Covered Tray
5th century B.C.; Iranian, Achaemenid Dynasty; Limestone. This relief depicts a Persian court servant holding a covered tray on his shoulder. He wears the distinctive Persian garment of long sleeves and draped skirt, with a folded soft cap. Text and images courtesy The Detroit Institute of Arts.Court Servant with Covered Tray
From The Detroit Institute of Arts: Court Servant with Covered Tray; 5th century B.C.; Iranian, Achaemenid Dynasty; Limestone; height 54.6 cm (21 1/2 in.); Gift of Lillian Henkel Haass; 31.340. "This relief depicts a Persian court servant holding a covered tray on his shoulder. He wears the distinctive Persian garment of long sleeves and draped skirt, with a folded soft cap." [The AMICA Library]Whetstone with bronze handle
Luristan culture, about 1000-700 BC This is a whetstone, used to sharpen weapons and tools of bronze and iron. It dates to the early first millennium BC. Although by this time the use of iron had become widespread, bronze remained one of the most commonly used metals. Normally they were very simple tools: just a stone perforated at the top and fitted with a metal ring, for suspension from a belt. This example, however, comes from Luristan in western Iran where, as nowhere else in the Near East, whetstones had richly decorated bronze handles. The combination of animals in the decoration is known earlier in Elam in south west Iran and this may have been a source of inspiration for the Luristan metal workers.Cheekpiece from Horse Bit
Cheekpiece from Horse Bit. Western Iran, Luristan ca. 8th - 7th centuries B.C. Bronze.Quiver Plaque Luristan Bronze
Quiver Plaque. Western Iran, Luristan, 8th - 7th centuries B.C. Bronze. 8TH-6TH CENTURY B.C. The sheet bronze decorated with three rectangular compartments divided by moulded ribs, each bordered by rows of repouss"š bosses, similar bosses contained within the rectangles and between the dividing ribs, the narrow everted edges and each end pierced with multiple holes for attachment to the quiver, repaired with slight restoration 22 7/8 in. (58.1 cm.) long NOTES Cf. P. Calmeyer, Altiranische Bronzen der Sammlung Br"ckelschen, Berlin, 1964, p. 48, pl. 50, no. 104 for a similar example of a quiver with rectangular panels and rows of repouss"š bosses. This quiver was the original from which the replica on the Urartian archer waxwork model (lot 12) was made.Luristan Bronze Quiver Plaque
Quiver Plaque. Western Iran, Luristan, 8th - 7th centuries B.C. Bronze. 8TH-6TH CENTURY B.C. The sheet bronze decorated with three rectangular compartments divided by moulded ribs, each bordered by rows of repouss"š bosses, similar bosses contained within the rectangles and between the dividing ribs, the narrow everted edges and each end pierced with multiple holes for attachment to the quiver, repaired with slight restoration 22 7/8 in. (58.1 cm.) long NOTES Cf. P. Calmeyer, Altiranische Bronzen der Sammlung Br"ckelschen, Berlin, 1964, p. 48, pl. 50, no. 104 for a similar example of a quiver with rectangular panels and rows of repouss"š bosses. This quiver was the original from which the replica on the Urartian archer waxwork model (lot 12) was made.Ancient Iran Site Map
Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. This first installment of the Oriental Institute Map Series presents seven Site Maps covering the ancient Near East (Egypt, Sudan, The Levant, Syria, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran), locating primary archaeological sites, modern cities, and river courses set against a plain background. They enlarge to 300 dpi.Ancient Iraq Site Map
Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. This first installment of the Oriental Institute Map Series presents seven Site Maps covering the ancient Near East (Egypt, Sudan, The Levant, Syria, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran), locating primary archaeological sites, modern cities, and river courses set against a plain background. They enlarge to 300 dpi.Banquet Plaque
Iraq: Khafajah, Sin Temple IX; Early Dynastic II-III, ca. 2700-2600 B.C. Gypsum. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1933-4. "The top register of this plaque shows a seated man and woman celebrating an unidentified event or ritual by participating in a banquet. Two servants attend them while others bring a jar (probably filled with beer), an animal to be slaughtered, and other edibles carried in bundles on their heads. Musicians and dancers in the bottom register add to the festivities. Plaques such as this were part of a door-locking system for important buildings. The plaque was embedded in the doorjamb and a peg, inserted into the central perforation, was used to hold a hook or cord that secured the door and was covered with clay impressed by one or more seals.Clay Tablet and Envelope
Iraq: Nuzi; Mitannian Period; Second half of the 15th century B.C. Baked clay. Oriental Museum. Gift of the Iraq Museum and the American Schools of Oriental Research, 1934. "Enclosed in its clay envelope, this tablet was stored in a private archive of more than 1,000 texts. The tablet records the outcome of a litigation between two men, both of whom claimed to own the same estate. The judges ruled in favor of the individual who provided written statements attesting to his ownership of the land from residents of nine neighboring towns. Two court officials rolled their cylinder seals across the front of the tablet after it was inscribed, guaranteeing that the information it contained was correct."Gazelle Head Stamp Seal
Iraq: Tell Agrab; Jamdat Nasr/Early Dynastic I, ca. 3100-2750 B.C. Gypsum (?). Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1935-6. "In central and southern Mesopotamia, both stamp and cylinder seals appeared together near the end of the third millennium B.C. Many stamp seals were carved in the form of an animal or an animal head, and the sealing surface was decorated with simple designs - often representing animals - comprised of drill-holes and incised lines. It is possible that many of the stamps were not actually used as seals but were worn primarily as amulets."Cylinder Seal
Iraq; Akkadian Period; Reign of Naramsin or Sharkalishari, ca. 2254-2193 B.C. Black stone. Oriental Museum. Purchased in New York, 1947. "This cylinder seal was dedicated to a little-known goddess, Ninishkun, who is shown interceding on the owner's behalf with the great goddess Ishtar. Ishtar places her right foot upon a roaring lion, which she restrains with a leash. The scimitar in her left hand and the weapons sprouting from her winged shoulders indicate her war-like nature."Pazuzu Demon
Iraq; ca. 800-600 B.C. Bronze. Oriental Museum. Purchased in New York, 1943. "The demon Pazuzu represented by this figurine stands like a human but has a scorpion's body, feathered wings and legs, talons, and a lion-like face on both front and back. Pazuzu, the "king of the evil wind demons," was not entirely unfriendly to mankind. As an enemy of the dreaded Lamashtu demon, bearer of sickness especially to women and children, Pazuzu is often portrayed on amulets used as protection in childbirth. The ring at the top of this figurine suggests that it was such an amulet."Duck Weights
Iraq: Ishchali(?); Early second millennium B.C. Hematite. Oriental Museum. Purchased in Baghdad, 1930. "The Mesopotamians used sets of standard weights in conducting business and set stiff penalities for those who used false weights. The weights themselves were usually made of a very hard stone like hematite. A simple barrel shape was the most common form, but weights such as these in the form of a duck, with its neck and head resting along its back, were also prevalent."Plaque Showing a Harpist
Iraq: Ishchali (?); Isin-Larsa / Old Babylonian Period, ca. 2000-1600 B.C. Baked clay. Oriental Museum. Purchased in Baghdad, 1930. "Harps are known from the earliest period of written history, but the fringed robe and close-fitting cap of this harpist are typical for the early second millennium B.C. in Mesopotamia. Clay plaques from this period depict musicians playing a variety of stringed, percussion, and wind instruments. The casting of plaques was a simple and inexpensive way to produce relief images, since numerous plaques could be made from a single mold."Sumerian Mythology FAQ
FAQ providing an overview of mythology, discusses Biblical parallels, also a bibliography. [Mythology and Religion]Christus Rex et Redemptor Mundi
Vast resource, scholarly, and devotional [Mythology and Religion]Assyro-Babylonian Mythology FAQ
frequent questions [Mythology and Religion]Canaanite/Ugaritic Mythology FAQ
[Mythology and Religion]Hittite/Hurrian Mythology REF
Frequently Asked Questions [Mythology and Religion]Persian & Iranian Kings
dynasties and kings through the eighteenth century, archaeological sites, palaces and other architectural sites, philosophical information, and other historical sites. [People in History]The Assyrian Kings List
Names. Dates, etc. [People in History]Mesopotamian Timeline
[People in History]Cleopatra's Children
Check out this unique series brought to you by Bible History Online Includes Real Audio. Trace the interesting history of the children of the great Queen of Egypt [Ancient Egypt Rome] [People] [Cleopatra]Banquet of Ashurnasirpal
The following account comes from the Royal Archives of Assyria and dates from the seventh century BCE. The speaker is the Emperor Ashurnasirpal (883-859 BCE) displaying his royal power. The feast was held to commemorate the inauguration of his new palace in the capital city of Calah.The Code of Hammurabi : Introduction
Charles F. Horne, Yale Law SchoolBabylonian Law--The Code of Hammurabi
By the Rev. Claude Hermann Walter Johns, Ency. Brit. Yale Law SchoolThe Code of Hammurabi - Translation
Translated by L. W. King, Yale Law SchoolAncient Near East - Definitions
Avalon Project, Yale Law SchoolAncient Near East (Babylonia) Glossary and Texts
This page lists most of the important Ancient Near Eastern characters, a short glossary and links to online Sumerian or Akkadian Texts.Glossary of Gods and Placenames
An Electronic Publication of the Avalon ProjectGlossary of Gods and Placenames
Code of Hammurabi, Avalon ProjectMyths & Legends
Quite exhaustive Myths and MythologyKing Darius
In 521 BC Cambyses, the King of Persia, dies and the person who takes over his job is named Darius. Many of the smaller cities that made up the Persian Empire thought that King Darius and his huge army were invincible. They were so afraid that they listened to his commands and never disobeyed him. [People in History] [Tools and Searches]King Darius (Maps)
Maps of Persian Empire. Deals with the Persian Empire battles locations. [People in History] [Tools and Searches]King Darius Battles
Achaemenid Persia w/ Persian battles and army info. Deals with the Persian Empire battles: The Ionian Revolt, The Battle of Marathon, The Battle of Thermopylae [People in History] [Tools and Searches]King Darius War Timeline 521 - 480 BC
Persian Empire wars timeline [People in History] [Tools and Searches]Warfare in the Ancient Near East
Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History Author: William J. Hamblin...* recruitment and training of the infantry * the logistics and weaponry of warfare * the shift from stone to metal weapons * the role played by magic * narratives of combat and artistic representations of battle * the origins and development of the chariot as military transportation * fortifications and siegecraft *developments in naval warfare. [General Ancient War Links]Warfare in the Ancient Near East
Book which covers * recruitment and training of the infantry * the logistics and weaponry of warfare * the shift from stone to metal weapons * the role played by magic * narratives of combat and artistic representations of battle * the origins and development of the chariot as military transportation * fortifications and siegecraft *developments in naval warfare. [General Ancient War Links]The Coins and History of Asia
Containing information and scans of over 3000 coins, these pages are to be a resource for students of Near Eastern, Persian, Indian, Central Asian and Chinese history from 600 BC to 1600 AD. Permanent exhibits with emphasis on Sasanian, Hunnic and Central Asian coinages. Check back often and reload everything because I'm adding all the time. Begun in July 1996, I've resigned myself to the fact that this will take the better part of several dozen more years to complete. Oh well. In a state of continuous flux, Summer, 2008. Want to learn more about Oriental coins? Join the Oriental Numismatic Society. AV=Gold, AR=Silver, AE=Bronze, Brass, Copper, etc., PB=Lead, FE=Iron, Billon=an alloy of AE and AR v. after a catalogue number means it is a variant of that type (?) means i'm not sure; (!) signifies an unusual or unique aspect [Persian Empire] [coins]Seleucid Empire (coins)
The coins and history of asia. The Seleucid empire at its greatest stretched from Thrace to India and included almost all of Alexander the Great's conquests, except Egypt. Seleucus, one of Alexander's generals, became satrap of Babylonia in 321 BC. In a prolonged power struggle between the "Successors" (Diadochoi) -- Ptolemy (Egypt), Lysimachos (Thrace), Cassander (Macedon and Greece) and Seleucus ganged up on Antigonas (Asia), defeating him at the battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Seleucus was assassinated by the disgruntled son of Ptolemy in 281 BC. The kingdom was a major center of Hellenistic culture, maintaining the pre-eminence of Greek customs and manners over the Middle East. It began to decline in 190 BC after a first defeat by the Romans and lasted until 64 BC when the last Seleucid king, Antiochus XIII, was murdered by Sampsiceramus, an Arab emir, at the behest of Pompey. [Persian Empire] [coins]Kerkenes Dag Project
Here you will find web pages giving summaries of the main aspects of the project, illustrations of methods employed and results obtained, and a selection of reports and research papers.Dead Sea Scrolls Exhibit
The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Scholarship. An Exhibit at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC. The Library's exhibition describes the historical context of the scrolls and the Qumran community from whence they may have originated; it also relates the story of their discovery 2,000 years later. In addition, the exhibition encourages a better understanding of the challenges and complexities connected with scroll research.Les Petroglyphes du Fujairah
(Emirats Arabes Unis). Grégoire de Ceuninck - page personnelle.Finnish Archaeological Project in Petra
Monastery on the Mount of Aaron. Magnificent and mysterious Petra is known best for its royal tombs cut in soft sandstone. Being the most important tourist site in Jordan today, the city used to serve as the center of trade and agriculture in the area at the crosspoint of great caravan routes. Charred papyri from 513 A.D., found in an excavated church in Petra, mention also a nearby monastery on the Mount of St. Aaron, the high priest and brother of Moses.National Museum of Asian Art
The Freer Gallery Of Art and The Arthur M. Sackler Gallery - The National Museum of Asian Art For the United StatesSecond Temple Synagogues
This site is devoted to the study of Second Temple Synagogues""that is, synagogues which existed prior to the Jerusalem Temple's destruction in year 70 A.D.Tell Ahmar Excavations
Historical Significance of Til Barsib.Tel Dor Archaeological Expediton
Tel Dor Archaeological Excavations/The Voyage of the Planaet MagEric Kondratieff's Tel Dor Web Site
Also known as Tantura or Khirbet el-Burq (its Arabic names), Tel Dor is located fifteen miles south of Haifa, and just eight miles north of Caesarea; As you will see from some of the pictures on the following pages, Dor had some of the best harbor facilities available on this part of the coast in antiquity; that is, until Herod the Great built his man-made harbor at Caesarea ca. 20 B.C., from which point in time one can date the beginning of the decline of Dor's fortunes.Hoplite Sword (Greece)
The hoplite sword was essentially a slashing weapon and was generally worn slung from a baldric over the right shoulder so that it hung almost horizontally on the left. Alexander the Great is shown with a sword of this type in a period mosaic from Pompeii.Parthian Empire (coins)
The coins and history of asia. In 247 BC, Arsaces, leader of a Scythian group in Central Asia called the Parni (a branch of the Dahae) is crowned king. He overthrows the Seleucid governor of Parthia in 238 BC and establishes a nation that lasts for almost 500 years. 95 - 57 BC is referred to as the Parthian 'dark age,' and civil wars make the chronology of this period a matter of conjecture. At the height of their power, the Parthians were second only to Rome and were the only civilized nation able to stand up to her. The empire began its decline in the 2nd century AD and the rebellion of Ardashir of Persis in 220 AD was its death knell. The last Parthian king, Artabanos IV, was killed in the battle of Hormuzdagan in 224 AD and Ardashir became the first Sasanian king. [Persian Empire] [coins]Sasanian 4 (coins) Sasanian Empire
The coins and history of asia [Persian Empire] [coins]Sasanian 5 (coins)
The coins and history of asia [Persian Empire] [coins]Sasanian 6 (coins)
The coins and history of asia [Persian Empire] [coins]Sasanian 7 (coins)
The coins and history of asia [Persian Empire] [coins]Table of mints (Pahlavi) (coins)
The coins and history of asia. PAHLAVI ALPHABET Pahlavi (Middle Persian) is read from right to left. Many letterforms are similar: B and Y; R and L; D and K; G and Z; U, V, W and N. [Persian Empire] [coins]Table of Dates (Pahlavi) (coins)
The coins and history of asia. Based on Mochiri's tables of dates (circa Khusro I through Khusro II), with a newer transliteration scheme; variations abound. I'll probably end up changing it some more... [Persian Empire] [coins]Mint signatures and locations (Pahlavi) (coins)
Map of mint cities. The coins and history of asia [Persian Empire] [coins]Parthian Empire 2 (coins)
The coins and history of asia. About Parthian related coins - Saka/Sacaraucae issues, Sanabares, Farn-Sasan, etc. [Persian Empire] [coins]Elymais (coins)
The coins and history of asia. Not much is known of the history of the Elymaid rulers. It seems they were quasi-independent but subject to the Parthian kings. Their kingdom was located south of Susa and northwest of Persis, at the head of the Persian Gulf in what would be modern southwestern Iran. Their coinage commences about 150 BC and lasts until about 225 AD, when the Parthians are overthrown by the Sasanians. Elamais is the 'Graecized' form of the more ancient name, Elam. [Persian Empire] [coins]Characene (coins)
The coins and history of asia. The Kingdom of Characene, located at the head of the Persian Gulf near the mouth of the Tigris, served as a trading center between the Roman Empire and the East for over three centuries. It fell under Sasanian rule in 228 AD. [Persian Empire] [coins]Sasanian (coins) Empire
The coins and history of asia. Ardashir I, a king of Persis, defeats the Parthian king Artabanos IV and two years later is crowned as the first Sasanian king in 226 AD. His son, Shapur I, expands the borders to include all of modern Iran and parts of Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and the Gulf Coast of the Arabian peninsula. 400 years of war with Rome, Kushans, Chionites and Hephthalites takes its toll and in the mid 7th century the Arabs overrun the Sasanians, replacing Zoroastrianism with Islam. [Persian Empire] [coins]Sasanian 2 (coins) Imitations
The coins and history of asia [Persian Empire] [coins]Sasanian 3 (coins) Seals
The coins and history of asia [Persian Empire] [coins]Armenia (coins)
The coins and history of asia. Armenia is a mountainous country to the northeast of Asia Minor, once part of the Achaemenid, Alexandrine and Seleucid Empires. After the defeat of Antiochus III by the Romans in 190 BC, an independent kingdom was set up under her guidance. A 600 year long tug-of-war followed between Rome, the Parthians and later, the Sasanians, ending in the late 4th century division of the country between the east Romans and the Persians. Armenia was the first land to adopt the Christian religion officially and the oldest Christian nation to survive into modern times. [Persian Empire] [coins]Islamic dynasties (coins)
The coins and history of asia. The Islamic Era year AH 1 is equal to the western year 622 AD, the year Mohammed fled from Mecca to Medina (on July 15th). Based on the lunar year, it is 11 days shorter. To (roughly) calculate an AH date from the AD, subtract 622 and then add 3%. [Persian Empire] [coins]Arabia (coins)
Several small kingdoms that existed in what is now Syria, Jordan and the southern Arabian penninsula, bordering the Indian Ocean and Red Sea (modern Yemen). [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Judaean Kingdom (coins)
Judaea was part of the Persian Empire until Alexander the Great subjugated it in 332 BC. After Alexander's death, the Jews came under the rule of the Ptolomies of Egypt and the Seleucids in 198 BC. Before the end of the 2nd century the Hasmoneans had won full autonomy from their former Greek rulers. In 63 BC Pompey incorporated Israel into the Roman Empire and in 6 AD it had become a Roman province. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Phoenicia (coins)
Existing as several city-states, the Phoenicians replaced the Mycenaeans as the principal eastern Mediterranean seafaring power in the 10th century BC. Its long and complex history includes the founding of colonies throughout the Mediterranean, including Carthage in north Africa circa 800 BC. Defeated by Alexander in 332 BC, Phoenicia became subject to the Ptolemies, Seleucids and finally to the Romans in 63 BC. The Phoenicians regarded themselves as Canaanites. Cities listed from north to south. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Cappadocia (coins)
Eastern Turkey. Once part of the Hittite, Persian and Seleucid Empires, it was independent by the middle of the 3rd century BC. In 17 AD it became part of the Roman Empire. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Commagene (coins)
[Ancient Near East] [Coins]Osrhoene (coins)
The Kingdom of Osrhoene was an independent kingdom, alternately under Parthian and Roman domination, from the end of the Seleucid period until it became a Roman province in 244 A.D. This coin was minted in the name of Lucilla, Augusta and wife of the emperor Lucius Verus. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Kings of Scythia (coins)
About the Kings of Scythia. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Kings of Bosporus (coins)
A kingdom situated at the northern end of the Black Sea, running between it and the Sea of Maeotis. Begun in the 5th century B.C., it remained a semi-autonomous client kingdom under the Romans and continued into the 4th century A.D. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Romaion/Byzantine Empire (coins)
Renamed Constantinople in 330 AD, the ancient city of Byzantion gave its name to a combined Greek and Roman culture that lasted for almost 1000 years. The `Byzantines` never referred to each other as such; they called themselves Romaioi, the Greek word for Roman. In 1453 AD, the Ottoman Turks overran Constantinople, putting an end to the Romaioi and the Middle Ages. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Romaion/Byzantine Empire 2 (coins)
Renamed Constantinople in 330 AD, the ancient city of Byzantion gave its name to a combined Greek and Roman culture that lasted for almost 1000 years. The `Byzantines` never referred to each other as such; they called themselves Romaioi, the Greek word for Roman. In 1453 AD, the Ottoman Turks overran Constantinople, putting an end to the Romaioi and the Middle Ages. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Romaion/Byzantine Empire 3 (coins)
Renamed Constantinople in 330 AD, the ancient city of Byzantion gave its name to a combined Greek and Roman culture that lasted for almost 1000 years. The `Byzantines` never referred to each other as such; they called themselves Romaioi, the Greek word for Roman. In 1453 AD, the Ottoman Turks overran Constantinople, putting an end to the Romaioi and the Middle Ages. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Crusader Kingdoms (coins)
About the Crusaders. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Historical Timeline 600 BC - 1400 AD
Nicely done, in color. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Map of Asia Minor/Near East circa 150 BC
Nicely done, in color. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Map of Asia Persia/Central Asia
Nicely done, topographic and in color. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Coins references/bibliography
numismatic references. [Ancient Near East] [Coins]Babylonian calendar
The ancient Babylonians used a calendar with alternating 29- and 30-day months. This system required the addition of an extra month three times every eight years, and as a further adjustment the king would periodically order the insertion of an additional extra month into the calendar.Other calendars used in the ancient Near East
Of the calendars of other peoples of the ancient Near East, very little is known. Thus, though the names of all or of some months are known, their order is not. The months were probably everywhere lunar, but evidence for intercalation is often lacking; the Assyrians, the Hittites and Iran.The Legend of Solomon
Solomon, the King of Israel, the son of David and Bathsheba, ascended the throne of his kingdom 2989 years after the creation of the world, and 1015 years before the Christian era. He was they only twenty years of age, but the youthful monarch is said to have commenced his reign with the decision of a legal question of some difficulty, in which he exhibited the first promise of that wise judgement for which he was ever afterward distinguished....[Mesopotamia] [People]The Sumerians
[Mesopotamia] [People]Hittite Home Page
Introduction] / [Hittite Studies] / [Ancient Anatolia] / [Museums and Institutes] / [Excavations and Places] / [Other Web Sites] / [Images] / [Books] / [In the Neighborhood] [Mesopotamia] [People]Kassites
[Mesopotamia] [People]Nebuchadnezzar II
(r. 605""562 bc), greatest king of the neo-Babylonian, or Chaldean, dynasty, who conquered much of southwestern Asia; known also for his extensive building in the major cities of Babylonia. [Mesopotamia] [People]New Societies in West Asia
[Mesopotamia] [People]The Persians
[Mesopotamia] [People]Sumerians of Mesopotamia
These Sumerians were constantly at war with one another and other peoples, for water was a scarce and valuable resource. The result over time of these wars was the growth of larger city-states as the more powerful swallowed up the smaller city-states. Eventually, the Sumerians would have to battle another peoples, the Akkadians, who migrated up from the Arabian Peninsula. The Akkadians were a Semitic people, that is, they spoke a Semitic language related to languages such as Hebrew and Arabic. When the two peoples clashed, the Sumerians gradually lost control over the city-states they had so brilliantly created and fell under the hegemony of the Akkadian kingdom which was based in Akkad, the city that was later to become Babylon. [Mesopotamia] [People]Ancient Civilizations (Computer Graphics): Mesopotamia
[Mesopotamia] [Places]Ancient Near East Links
[Mesopotamia] [Places]Archaeology of the Land of Israel
An important part of the collection is devoted to ancient Hebrew script, with a wide range of items with inscriptions in Paleo-Hebrew. These include inscribed jars, ostraca, seals, papyri, and burial inscriptions. [Mesopotamia] [Places]Canaan, Israel & Judah, and the Hebrew Bible
[Mesopotamia] [Places]Garden of Eden (Judeo-Christian Tradition)
Hanging Gardens of Babylon [Mesopotamia] [Places]Genesis in Sumer
History of the Sumerians and their origin. [Mesopotamia] [Places]The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
The approach to the Garden sloped like a hillside and the several parts of the structure rose from one another tier on tier... On all this, the earth had been piled... and was thickly planted with trees of every kind that, by their great size and other charm, gave pleasure to the beholder... The water machines [raised] the water in great abundance from the river, although no one outside could see it. [Mesopotamia] [Places]Hatti , homeland of the Hittites
HATTI, homeland of the Hittites, was one of the most powerful near-eastern empire of the second millennium B.C. The heart of HATTI-land and hittite power was located in central Anatolia. From terrible wars to peaceful and prosperous trade, the Assyrians and the Egyptians learned to respect the Hittites. [Mesopotamia] [Places]Jericho
Jericho is one of the most interesting archaeological sites in Israel. The Jericho of the Old Testament period before the Hellenistic is called Tell es-Sultan and is located in the Jordan valley approximately 16 km (10 miles) northwest of the northern bank of Dead Sea and 825 ft below sea level. The University of Texas at Austin [Mesopotamia] [Places]Political Change in Ancient Mesopotamia 3000-1000 BCE
Shockwave (University of Oregon) [Mesopotamia] [Places]Political Change in Ancient Mesopotamia 3000-1000 BCE (map)
Shockwave (University of Oregon) [Mesopotamia] [Places]The Late Aegean Bronze Age: cities & palaces 1250-1000 BCE
map. (University of Oregon) [Mesopotamia] [Places]Sea Peoples: in the Late Bronze Age (map)
map. (University of Oregon) [Mesopotamia] [Places]Ancient Near East: Empires from 700-300 BCE (map)
map. Shockwave. (University of Oregon) [Mesopotamia] [Places]Natural Resources of the Eastern Mediterranean (map)
map. (University of Oregon) [Mesopotamia] [Places]Map of Israel's 12 Tribes (map)
map. [Mesopotamia] [Places]Mausoleum of Halicarnassus
I have lying, over me in Halicarnassus, a gigantic monument such as no other dead person has, adorned in the finest way with statues of horses and men carved most realistically from the best quality marble. - King Maussollos in Lucian`s "Dialogues of the Dead" [Mesopotamia] [Places]Mesopotamia 8000-2000 B.C. timeline
timeline [Mesopotamia] [Places]Ancient Mesopotamia
Ancient Mesopotamia is a seventh gradeWorld History/World Geography unit designed to be used by both students and teachers. It is designed in such a way that it can be used by students as an educational resource supplementary to the traditional social studies textbook, or it can be used by teachers in order to attain important vocabulary terms, vocabulary exercises, a study guide, an example quiz, hands-on activities, and final unit evaluations. [Mesopotamia] [Places]Mesopotamia - Maps and History
The word 'Mesopotamia' is in origin a Greek name (mesos `middle' and 'potamos' - 'river' so `land between the rivers'). 'Mesopotamia' translated from Old Persian Miyanrudan means "the fertile cresent". Aramaic name being Beth-Nahrain "House of Two Rivers") is a region of Southwest Asia. [Mesopotamia] [Places]Nineveh
Nineveh, Assyrian Ninua was an important city in ancient Assyria. This "exceeding great city", as it is called in the Book of Jonah, lay on the eastern bank of the Tigris (modern-day Mosul, Iraq). Ancient Nineveh's mound-ruins are located on a level part of the plain near the river within an 1800-acre area circumscribed by a seven and one-half mile brick-rampart. This whole extensive space is now one immense area of ruins. If Jonah is referring to what some scholars call Greater Nineveh, the term could include the region around Nineveh proper with a sixty mile perimeter including Kuyunjik, Khorsabad, and Nimrud. Situated at the confluence of the Tigris and Khosr, Nineveh was an important junction for commercial routes crossing the Tigris. Occupying a central position on the great highway between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, thus uniting the East and the West, wealth flowed into it from many sources, so that it became one of the greatest of all ancient cities. [Mesopotamia] [Places]Nippur At The Center Of The World
[Mesopotamia] [Places]Nippur -Sacred City of Enlil
[Mesopotamia] [Places]History of Babylonia
The city of Babylon was the capital of the ancient land of Babylonia in southern Mesopotamia. It was situated on the Euphrates River about 50 miles south of modern Baghdad, just north of what is now the modern Iraqi town of al-Hillah. The tremendous wealth and power of this city, along with its monumental size and appearance, were certainly considered a Biblical myth, that is, until its foundations were unearthed and its riches substantiated during the 19th century. Archaeologists stood in awe as their discoveries revealed that certain stories in the Bible were an actual situation that had happened in time.The Old Babylonian Period
The Old Babylonian Period (2000-1595 BC). [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Amorites
Most scholars date the beginning of Babylonia to the fall of the third dynasty of Ur, around 2000 BC because many Amorites apparently migrated from the desert into Mesopotamia. The Amorites were a group of Semitic speaking nomads, who captured the local city-states where they established new dynasties and adapted to the culture of the surrounding area. The Amorites had helped destroy the Sumerian civilization and dominated Mesopotamia for about 300 years (1900-1600 BC). They ruled the land out of the city of Babylon. But soon the Amorite immigrants and the previous locals began fighting for power, in this caused considerable confusion during this early period. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineIsin and Larsa
Around the middle of the 18th century BC two cities, Isin and Larsa ultimately dominated the scene so that the era has been called the Isin-Larsa period. The city-state of Larsa was soon captured by an Amorite ruler named Kudur-mabug, who appointed his two sons Warad-Sin and Rim-Sin, to rule over Larsa while he was away on military campaigns. Larsa's period of glory lasted for little while longer, approximately 30 years (1763 BC), when Hammurapi of Babylon came to conquer, thus ushering in a new era. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineDetailed Map of Ancient Mesopotamia
Black and white printable map.Abraham
Catholic Encyclopedia [Mesopotamia] [People]Time-Line for the History of Judaism
Timeline of Jewish History [Mesopotamia] [People]The Story of Abraham from the Hebrew Bible
Importance of Abraham to both the Muslims and the Jews. [Mesopotamia] [People]Assyrians
beginnings of Jewish Diaspora. [Mesopotamia] [People]Medical Arts in Ancient Mesopotamia
The ancient Babylonians developed a systematic practice of the Medical Arts. Writings found on cuneiform tablets include specific herbal remedies to treat eye infections, intestinal disorders and other maladies. In 1990, archeologists working in Iraq discovered the remains of an enormous temple (c. 1300 bce), nearly the size of a football field, dedicated to the ancient goddess of medicine, Gula. Pilgrims travelled to the temple, it is believed, to secure healing. Often they brought figures or figurines with them to register their complaint. These figures are from the Temple of Gula, goddess of Medicine, excavated at Nippur (ancient Mesopotamia), Iraq. Earlier known as Bau, or Ninkarrak, in Mesopotamian religion, city goddess of Urukug in the Lagash region and, under the name Nininsina, the Queen of Isin, city goddess of Isin, south of Nippur. [Mesopotamia] [People]Chaldeans: Historical Background
Information on history, language, and religion. [Mesopotamia] [People]Cyrus the Great
Artwork and information. Has info about cylinder.[Mesopotamia] [People]King David
from Timeline of Jewish History [Mesopotamia] [People]David: a Man after God's Heart
[Mesopotamia] [People]Gudea of Lagash
Of all the rulers of ancient Mesopotamia, Gudea, ensi (governor) of Lagash, emerges the most clearly across the millennia due to the survival of many of his religious texts and statues. He ruled his city-state in southeast Iraq for twenty years, bringing peace and prosperity at a time when the Guti, tribesmen from the northeastern mountains, occupied the land. His inscriptions describe vast building programs of temples for his gods. [Mesopotamia] [People]Code of Hammurabi
[Hammurabi] was the ruler who chiefly established the greatness of Babylon, the world`s first metropolis. Many relics of Hammurabi`s reign ([1795-1750 BC]) have been preserved, and today we can study this remarkable King....as a wise law-giver in his celebrated code. . . [Mesopotamia] [People]The Hebrews
The ancient Middle East and Mesopotamia was a dynamically multicultural society composed of small, often insignificant kingdoms frequently torn between the forces of mighty empires, from Babylon to Egypt to Greece to Rome. But one of these small kingdoms, for the most part utterly insignificant in the drama of early civilization, became through its religion, philosophy, and law one of the most important cultures in Middle Eastern and Western history. Beginning inauspiciously as a closely-knit, war-like group of wandering tribes, this culture enjoyed for a blink of a historical eye a mighty empire, but it soon lapsed into a small and besieged state. Curiously, it was in defeat, dominated over by foreigners whose fathers came from across the Mediteranean sea, that the Hebrews would emerge as one of the most significant progenitors of the culture of the West and Middle East, giving us monotheism, law, and a new history for the west. The journey is an epic one, from dim and unpromising beginnings to empire to the loss of home and dispersion throughout the world, from Hebrew to Israelite to Jew, carrying with them always the promise that the one god would protect and preserve them over all others. [Mesopotamia] [People]The Hebrews
[Mesopotamia] [People]Nebuchadnezzar II
Nebuchadnezzar II marched back to Babylon and was crowned king, which inaugurated one of the most powerful periods in Babylonian history. Nebuchadnezzar continued his brilliant campaigns focusing his military maneuvers on the west, which he effectively brought under his control. It was the kingdom of Judah who had called upon Egypt to assist them against the Babylonians. King Nebuchadnezzar continued his attacks and on his second conquest the conquered Jerusalem in 586 BC taking the survivors as prisoners back to Babylon. This was known in Jewish history has "the Babylonian captivity" and "the exile". After he destroyed Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar focused his attacks upon Egypt and he conquered it in 668 BC though there has been no detailed account of this invasion ever discovered, it remains a tremendous success for the king of Babylon and the first time any Chaldean king had ever conquered Egypt. [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Fall of Babylon
In 539 BC Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon. The Bible records in the Book of Daniel about the "Handwriting on the Wall" where Belshazzar who had been ruling in Babylon on behalf of his father Nabonidus, saw handwriting on his palace wall during a feast, which Daniel the Hebrew interpreted as the end of the Babylonian Empire. [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineList of Kings and Neo-Babylonian Rulers
Following is a partial list of the 22 kings who ruled until the destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib, when the Assyrian kings assumed direct control. Ashurbanipal, however, introduced a new policy and viceroys were appointed. [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlinePersian Rulers of Babylonia (List)
Cyrus 538-529 BC to Darius III 335-331 BC [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineLiterature of Ancient Babylonia
Sumerian origins, scribes, epics, prophecy and cuneiform. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineReligion of Ancient Babylon
Marduk, Gods, Temples, Astreology, Prophecy and more. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineLaw and Justice in Ancient Babylon
Shamash, Legal Documents, Disputes, Criminals and more. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineKing and State in Ancient Babylon
the King's Palace, Harem, Scribes and Nebuchadnezzar. Nebuchadnezzar's palace was considered by Herodotus to be the most magnificent building ever erected on earth. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineEconomy and Social Structure in Ancient Babylon
Houses, Families, Schools and more. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineScience in Ancient Babylon
Astronomy, the Calendar, Mathematics and more. We Owe Much of our Calendar System to the Babylonians. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineArchaeology of Ancient Babylon
Many discoveries. The modern recovery of the history of Babylonia began in the 19th century, following in the wake of the great archaeological discoveries in Assyria. Although initially the finds were not as spectacular as those in the northern region, the gradual exploration of Babylonia has awakened knowledge of its great civilization, which has developed throughout the 20th century. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineQuestions about Babylon Answered in the Bible
What does the Bible say about Babylonia? [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineMaps of Ancient Babylonia
This ancient tablet from the 7th Century BC depicts the world at the time of Sargon (2300 BC) as a circle surrounded by water, with Babylon at its center. (British Museum) [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineGeography of Ancient Babylonia
Babylonia was situated in the area known as Mesopotamia (Greek for "between the rivers"). Mesopotamia was in the Near East in roughly the same geographical position as modern Iraq. Two great rivers flowed through this land: the Tigris and the Euphrates. Along these two rivers were many great trading cities such as Ur and Babylon on the Euphrates. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineMesopotamia
Mesopotamia was known as "The land between the rivers", which was a name given by Polybius and Strabo of the lands lying between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineThe Tigris River
The Tigris River was known by the Hebrews as "Hiddekel" and is one of the two large rivers of Mesopotamia, which the Bible says, flowed from the Garden of Eden (Gen 2:14). It is formed by the confluence of two rivers that flow from the mountains of Armenia. In ancient times the courses of the Tigris and Euphrates were separate. Their confluence before they flow into the Persian Gulf is very recent. The Tigris has a greater volume of water than the Euphrates and flows faster, making upstream navigating impossible. The powerful and prosperous cities of Nineveh, Calah and Ashur flourished along its shores. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineThe Euphrates River
The Euphrates River is one of the largest rivers of western Asia, about 1700 miles long. In the Bible it is referred to by several names such as the "great river" or just "the river" and is among the four rivers, which flowed from the Garden of Eden (Gen 2:14). It formed the northeastern limit of the Promised Land (Gen 15:18). The river, which receives its waters from the mountains of Armenia, flows through a deep and narrow gorge, but as it descends toward Babylon, the Euphrates and the Tigris take different routes, which form the great broad plain of Mesopotamia. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineBibliography
[Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlinePredictions Concerning Babylon
Jeremiah and Isaiah. [Ancient Babylonia] Bible History OnlineThe Old City: King David's Capital
PEACE OF JERUSALEM | JEWISH UNIVERSE | HOLY CITY | CULTURE | KING DAVID'S CAPITAL | CAPITAL OF ISRAEL [Mesopotamia] [Places]Palace of Ashurnasirpal (movie)
These short movie clips are part of a larger 3-D animated fly-through of the Palace of Ashurnasirpal. [Mesopotamia] [Places]Persian History
Around 1200 BC, some new people invaded West Asia from the north. These people were called the Persians and the Medes. Both of them were Indo-European people, distantly related to the Hittites, the Greeks and the Romans. Like the Scythians, the Medes and the Persians were nomadic people. They travelled around Siberia with their horses and their cattle, and grazed the cattle and the horses on the great fields of grass there. Usually they lived well enough this way. [Mesopotamia] [Places]Petra: Myth and Reality
[Mesopotamia] [Places]Stolen Stones
The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold. (Byron, "The Destruction of Sennacherib," 1815) [Mesopotamia] [Places]Virtual Tour of Jerusalem
[Mesopotamia] [Places]Hammurapi of Babylon
The remainder of the Old Babylonian Period (1763-1595 BC) was characterized by a shift of power in the north with Hammurapi of Babylon (1792-1750 BC) as the main figure. Hammurapi was the sixth king of the first dynasty of Babylon. During his reign he dealt with his enemies through diplomacy or military force. His main rivals consisted of Larsa, Eshunna, Mari and Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria (1813-1781 BC). [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Code of Hammurapi
Hammurapi realized that he could not rule by sword alone and therefore gathered laws into a unified code and then had them administered by judges closely supervised by his own advisors. This code had a profound effect upon the whole near-Orient world. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Full Text of Hammurapi's Law Code
2500 B.C. Translated by L. W. King. With commentary from Charles F. Horne, Ph.D. (1915) [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Classical Period of the Babylonians
The Old Babylonian period and mainly the Hammurapi Age are generally referred to as the classical period in Babylonian civilization. This is when the "Babylonian" culture really began to develop. The culture was the product of a conglomeration of various ethnic strains, mainly the earlier Sumero-Akkadian civilization that had flourished in the Babylonian plain during the third millennium BC. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Language of the Babylonians
The Babylonian language was a dialect of Akkadian, a Semitic language, written in cuneiform script. Politically and economically Babylonia remained a number of small autonomous city-states ruled by local dynasties and later emerging into an imperial structure. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineReligion, Law Science and the Arts
Religion, law, science and the arts altered very little. The three main gods, An, Enlil and Enki (Ea in Akkadian) headed the pantheon of gods, but when Babylon rose as a dynasty the chief God of that city was Marduk. Marduk rose in status almost to that of Enki, who was said to be his father. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineBabylon in the Old Babylonian Period
The city-state of Babylon, especially under the leadership of Hammurapi, made an impressive mark upon history and Babylon was regarded as a natural capital, even when it was not the actual capital. After Hammurapi's death, the imperial structure, which he founded, was being continually challenged. Foreign peoples and powers were placing an unbearable strain upon Hammurapi's successors. One of these forces were the horse-riding Kassites who descended on Babylon and put an end to the Amorites as well as civilized progress for the next 400 years. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Kassites
Just exactly who The Kassites were, and anything about their origins and history, is very obscure. Before entering Mesopotamia they were illiterate mountain people speaking a language that is not known today. According to history, what we do know is that they first appeared as a military force in the time of Samsuiluna (1749-1712 BC), Hammurapi's successor, but that is all we know about them until the time that they established a dynasty in Babylonia, around 1595 BC. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe People of the Sealand
A second group of people who proved to be a formidable force was the people of the Sealand, a kingdom to the extreme south of Babylonia along the Persian Gulf. Little is known about these people as well, a list of the names of their Kings is all that has been discovered, but no native sources. We do know that it was a powerful nation that continually challenged Hammurapi's successors, and for a period of time controlled Nippur in the center of the plain. Because of their location in the south they were strongly Sumerian in character. The Kassites eventually conquered the people of the Sealand. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Hittite Kingdom
It was the Hittite kingdom in Anatolia (Asia Minor) who brought to an end the first dynasty of Babylon. Mursilis I, king of the Hittites, invaded Babylonia by surprise and sacked Babylon. But for some strange reason he withdrew from the area after he had exceeded. The Kassites saw this power vacuum and seized control. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe First Dynasty of Babylon List of Kings
About the time the Nisin Dynasty came to a close, and while the Larsa Dynasty was ruling, the First Dynasty of Babylon was established. Following is a list of 11 rulers of this dynasty who ruled 300 years: [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineTime chart of Early Mesopotamian History
3200-539 B.C. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineHISTORICAL TIME CHART (Biblical and Historical)
2090 B.C. - 70 A.D. [Old Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineMiddle Babylonian Period
Various dynasties and culture [Middle Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Kassite Dynasty
The Kassite Dynasty was founded in Babylonia (1595 BC) and, as previously mentioned, very little is known about them other than a list of the names of their kings. One of the early kings after 1595 BC was Agum-kakrime, who boasted that he ruled over most of Babylonia and that he brought back to statue of the god Marduk, which had been carried off by the Hittites when they had sacked Babylon. There is an ancient literary composition in which Marduk himself described his sojourn in the land of the Hittites. [Middle Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineKadashman-Enlil I and Burnaburiash II
The next period of Babylonian history for which we have limited information is the 14th century BC There was a discovery at Amarna in Egypt of a cache of clay tablets inscribed in cuneiform, which has shed considerable light on this time period. These tablets contain letters to the Egyptian pharaohs (Tuthmosis III to Amenophis IV) from various parts of the Fertile Crescent, including Babylonia. The letters were written in Akkadian, which had been the language of international relations for some time. [Middle Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineKurigalzu II
Toward the end of the reign of Burnaburiash II there was a conflict with the Assyrians and as a result Kurigalzu II (1332-1308 BC) took the throne. This was a great period in Kassite history, for Kurigalzu led his army on many successful military campaigns with victories over various enemies including the Elamites and the Assyrians. [Middle Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineElam and Assyria
There is little known about the history of Babylonia after the Amarna Age until the latter days of the Kassite dynasty. Most of this time period was characterized by many wars between Babylonia and her two closest neighbors, Elam and Assyria. At one point Babylonia was invaded and the city of Babylon was captured by an Assyrian king named Tukulti-Ninurta (1243-1207 BC), who carried off the image of the god Marduk to Assyria. It wasn't too long before the Babylonians recaptured the city and brought back the statue of their deity. The battles between Babylonia and her two rivals Elam and Assyria continued for decades, but suddenly both enemies made an attack in one year that brought to an end the Kassite dynasty (1155 BC). [Middle Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineDur Kurigalzu, a New Capital
Though there is not a lot of information concerning the Kassite period, the information we have indicates that it was not a culturally deprived era. The new capital that was created was called Dur-Kurigalzu (its modern name is Aqar Quf near Baghdad), after King Kurigalzu. The city developed extensive building projects and great artistic achievements. The Kassite rulers had so revered the Babylonian civilization that there are very few traces of anything distinctively Kassite. [Middle Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Kudurru
Something interesting appeared during this time, and object called a Kudurru. It was a large stone with inscribed details of land grants that were grants of tax exemption on land. Most of the Kudurru were actually large boundary stones bearing the symbols of the deities, which were invoked in the text to guard from terrestrial encroachment. [Middle Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineNebuchadnezzar I
There soon emerged a new line of rulers who had descended from Isin, who were known as the second dynasty of Isin. At this time Babylon became the capital again, and it was at Babylon that the most important members of this dynasty reigned. One of the great rulers in this time period who had become a legend in Babylonian tradition was Nebuchadnezzar I (1125-1104 BC). Many important literary texts come from this period. A successful war against Elam resulted in bringing back the divine image of Marduk from the Elamites who had carried it off at the fall of the Kassite dynasty. Marduk was once again installed in his temple in Babylon and for the first time publicly declared "King of all gods", even above the ancient god An of the Sumerians. Nebuchadnezzar did a great deal of building both in Babylon and other Babylonian cities. He protected the plain and made Babylonia prosperous. [Middle Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Aramaeans
Toward the end of the millennium Babylonia was raided continuously by a group of nomads called the Aramaeans. Gradually the Aramaeans created so much chaos and confusion across the Babylonian plain that Babylonia entered into another dark phase in her history. Their effects were felt for a long time to come. [Middle Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineCulture
Though information regarding the period of the second dynasty of Isin is rather scarce, evidence from later Babylonian history indicates that the time of Nebuchadnezzar I was a very important period culturally. There were major religious developments in connection with the god Marduk, and in literature there was a movement to almost canonize the writings that had been passed on from the Old Babylonian and earlier periods. [Middle Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Kassite and Isin Dynasty List of Kings
The First Dynasty of Babylon came to an end through an invasion of the Hittites. They plundered Babylon and perhaps ruled that city for a number of years. A new dynasty emerged about 1750 BC by a foreign people known as the Kassites. There were 36 kings in this dynasty ruling 576 years and 9 months. Unfortunately the tablet containing the list is fragmentary. [Middle Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineNeo Babylonian Period
Little is known about events during the early centuries of the first millennium BC because of the continual invasions by the Aramaeans. Though these people caused much disruption they eventually settled down and became part of Babylonian society. Because of them some changes did occur, for example the Aramaic language soon replaced Babylonian as a common language. Babylonian continued to be written and spoken by the educated classes. [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineAssyria
Around the 9th century, Assyria, Babylonia's neighbor, was a major political power yet they made no real threats against Babylonia. They were even treaties signed showing mutual respect between Assyrian and Babylonian Kings. At one point a revolution broke out in during the reign of Marduk-zakir-shumi I, and Shalmanaser III (858-824 BC) of Assyria came to the aid of the Babylonian King and helped him regain his throne. But it wasn't long before friction developed and hostilities began to break out. During this time Assyria was the weaker of the two powers. [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineNabu-nasir
Nabu-nasir (747-734 BC) ushered in a new era in Babylonian history during his reign. The practice of astrology became highly developed and worship of astrological deities was popular among the people. [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Hebrews to 1000 BCE
History of the Hebrews. [Mesopotamia] [People]Tiglath pileser III
During Nabu-nasir's reign a great Assyrian king named Tiglath-pileser III (744-727 BC) marched right into Babylonia and took the crown for himself. [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineHittites
[Mesopotamia] [People]The Babylonian Chronicles
During this time the Babylonian chronicles were written, a recording of events in Babylonia for the remainder of her history. A portion of this has been discovered. This clay tablet is a Babylonian chronicle recording events from 605-594 BC. It was first translated in 1956 and is now in the British Museum. The cuneiform text on this clay tablet tells, among other things, 3 main events:1. The Battle of Carchemish (famous battle for world supremacy where Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon defeated Pharoah Necho of Egypt, 605 BC.),
2. The Accession to the Throne of Nebuchadnezzar II, the Chaldean, and
3. The Capture of Jerusalem on the 16th of March, 598 BC. [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History Online
1200 BC: The Phoenicians
Includes information about their alphabet. [Mesopotamia] [People]The Chaldeans
Toward the end of the 8th century BC a great leader arose from a tribe of the Semitic-speaking peoples near the coast of the Persian Gulf. He was a Chaldean, of the Yakin tribe, named Merodach-baladan II. This Chaldean ruler attempted to seize the Babylonian crown, with the help of the Elamites, and he actually succeeded on two occasions, 721-710 and 703 BC. Even the Assyrians made attempts to defeat and capture Merodach-baladan II but he outwitted them every time. Sometimes he would withdraw into the marshes of the southern plain, which seemed to be almost impenetrable. It seemed as though the during this time period the political power in Babylonia passed back and forth between the Chaldeans, the Assyrians and Babylonians.[Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineThe Queen of Sheba
[Mesopotamia] [People]Sennacherib
Tiglath-Pileser III and other Assyrian kings had assumed Babylonian sovereignty except the periods when Merodach-baladan II ruled. But when the mighty Assyrian monarch Sennacherib (704-681 BC) gained power and built his empire, he placed puppet kings throughout his empire to assure non-resistance. This system worked well for Sennacherib's empire, that is until his own son was captured by the Babylonians and handed over to the Elamites. Sennacherib was so outraged that he not only led fierce campaigns against the Elamites, but he conquered and then destroyed Babylon in 689 BC. [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineTablet of Sargon's 8th Campaign
His Eighth Campaign was meant to put an end to the dispute over Mannea and produce a lasting pro-Assyrian government. In the form of a letter to the god Assur, this tablet relates the eighth military campaign led by Sargon II against, among others, the kingdom of Urartu, which englobed Armenia and Kurdistan. The text, of 430 lines, tells how the king led the operations and captured the holy town of Musasir." [Mesopotamia] [People]Ashurbanipal
After Sennacherib had died, Babylon and the surrounding territories were so appalled over the fact that he had sacked Babylon, that his successors found it very difficult to establish any sort of peace. A major rebellion broke out and lasted for four years (652-648 BC) during the reign of Shamash-shuma-ukin, an Assyrian king who had been placed to rule in what was left of Babylon. Shamash-shuma-ukin was also the brother of the new Assyrian monarch Ashurbanipal (668-627 BC). When the Babylonians, the Elamites and all their Arab allies came against Ashurbanipal, they were defeated. [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineKing Saul: The Bible's Tragic Hero
Summary .. Saul Chosen as King .. The Rescue of Jabesh .. Saul's First Disobedience .. Saul's Foolish Order .. Saul's Downfall Foretold .. Saul's Jealousy of David .. Saul Murders the High Priest .. David Spares Saul's Life .. David Again Spares Saul's Life .. The Witch of Endor .. Saul's Death [Mesopotamia] [People]Nabopolassar
About 20 years after this rebellion, the Chaldeans regrouped and gained control of the whole Babylonian plain. They established a dynasty that became the most powerful in all of Babylonian history. The famous leader of the Chaldean dynasty was Nabopolassar (625-605 BC). He defeated the Assyrians and was crowned king of Babylon. He brought in the Medes as allies and came to conquer Assyrian territory. He pushed through one city after another until finally he conquered the capital, Nineveh, after a three-month siege in 612 BC. The Assyrians would not give up easily and the dynasty which was in the West at Harran merged with Egypt to fight against Nabopolassar's armies. In 605 BC it was actually Nabopolassar's son, Nebuchadnezzar II who defeated them at Carchemish when he received word that his father had died thus Babylonia won not only the battle but also the Assyrian Empire. [Neo Babylonian Period] Bible History OnlineSolomon
[Mesopotamia] [People]Chronology: The Near East
Historical Timeline of Near East. That dates from 4500 BC to 1286 BC with the Hitties fight off invading Egyptians. Images are includedAncient Near East Internet Resource
Chronology of rise of civilizations in Ancient Near East the real-life game of age of Empires. A brief timeline of events and achievements of ancient Near East.Ancient Near Eastern Cross-Cultural Time Line
Egypt, Nubia, Mesopotamia, and Persia comparing dates.Timelines and Chronologies
This collection of links for timelines and chronologies includes country histories, significant events, and chronologies of historical individuals. Interested in other historical facts?Sumerian Timeline
This site provides an historical overview of ancient Sumeria. The text is supplemented by definitions, maps, a timeline, and examples of art and architecture. The History of Ancient Sumeria (Sumer) including its cities, kings, religions culture and contributions or civilizationMesopotamian Timeline
This site provides a timeline of the ancient Near East, color-coded for the various civilizations. There is an historical and cultural overview provided for each civilization.Ancient Near Eastern Timeline
Time Line Of The Ancient Near East Prior to the rise of the Persian EmpireArt Timeline
Timeline of Art Printable version in vertical format ... Golden Age Alexander the Great,Rome dominates Near East, Peak of Roman Empire, Rome falls, Charlemagne,etc...Rewriting The Timeline Of The Bronze And Iron Ages
Ruprecht-Karls-Universitat Heidelberg (Germany) have given a new kind of precision to the timeline of the Bronze and Iron Ages in the Aegean and the Near East.The Media History Project Timeline
King Asoka's edicts. 250: In Near East city of Pergamum, parchment is ... the Project Sources for the timeline and accompanying information.Plaque with Male Head
The Detroit Institute of Arts: South Arabian Sculpture; Plaque with Male Head (100-1 BCE). 1st century B.C.; South Arabian (Yemen); Alabaster; The eyes and brows of this head were originally inlaid in a darker stone and the "dimple" on the chin with bronze, indicating perhaps a tattoo which was probably meant as a mark of nobility or power. The South Arabian taste for abstract forms is reflected in the treatment of the smooth beard and geometric hairstyle, combined here with a more naturalistic rendering of the face derived from a Greco-Roman style of sculpture.Funerary Stele
The Detroit Institute of Arts: South Arabian Sculpture; Funerary Stele; 3rd century B.C.; South Arabian (Yemen); Alabaster. This commemorative stele is decorated with the head of a bull, symbol of the moon god `Anbay, chief of the state. It is inserted into a separate alabaster base inscribed in the South Arabian alphabetic script with "Taba`karib," the name of the deceased or dedicant and by "M`dm," his clan or tribe name.Whetstone Handle in the Form of a Leaping Ibex
Whetstone with bronze handle 1000-700 BC Luristan Culture. Whetstone Handle in the Form of a Leaping Ibex. Western Iran, Luristan; 10th - 8th centuries B.C. Bronze, modern whetstone.Trefoil Juglet
A very large Phoenician trefoil jug, Eastern Mediterranean. Late 6th - 5th centuries B.C. Glass, core-formed.Unguentaria (Perfume Bottles)
Unguentaria (Perfume Bottles) 1st-4th Centuries AD.A Scene from the Gilgamesh Epic
From K. C. Hanson's Photo Gallery of Mesopotamia. A scene from the Gilgamesh Epic Tablet 11: The Flood Narrative ? century BC. Gilgamesh (cylinder seal impression).Assyrian Officers
From K. C. Hanson's Photo Gallery of Mesopotamia. Assyrian Officers; 8th century BC; bas relief; Pergamon Museum, Berlin.Assyrian Spearmen
From K. C. Hanson's Photo Gallery of Mesopotamia. Assyrian Soldiers #1: Spearmen; bas relief; 8th century BC; Pergamon Museum, BerlinShamshi-Adad V
From K. C. Hanson's Photo Gallery of Mesopotamia. Shamshi-Adad V; Assyrian Emperor; (reigned 823""811 BC); limestone stele; Pergamon Museum, BerlinEsarhaddon
From K. C. Hanson's Photo Gallery of Mesopotamia. Esarhaddon; Assyrian Emperor; (ruled 681""669 BC); stele; Pergamon Museum, BerlinEsarhaddon and Vassals
From K. C. Hanson's Photo Gallery of Mesopotamia. Esarhaddon; Assyrian Emperor; (ruled 681""669 BC); with Tirhaka (Ethiopian King of Egypt); and Ba'alu (King of Tyre); dolerite stele; 3.22 meters high; Pergamon Museum, BerlinAssyrian Warrior King
Assyrian Cavalry (bas relief)7th century BCDr. K. C. Hanson's Photo Galleries
Map of the Ancient Near East from Dr. K. C. Hanson's home page. © 1995 Fortress PressMap of Near Eastern Sites
Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. Oriental Institute expeditions have worked in virtually every region of the Near East, excavating the remains of these ancient cultures and studying and recording their monuments. The scattering of red dots (each representing a site where the Institute has worked) on the map attests to the broad range of that involvement.Map of Sites in Southern Syria and Palestine
Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. ORIENTAL INSTITUTE MAP SERIES - LEVANT SITE MAP. This Map enlarges to 300 dpi for a great picture.Ancient Near East Site Maps
Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. This first installment of the Oriental Institute Map Series presents seven Site Maps covering the ancient Near East (Egypt, Sudan, The Levant, Syria, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran), locating primary archaeological sites, modern cities, and river courses set against a plain background.Ancient Syria Site Map
Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. This first installment of the Oriental Institute Map Series presents seven Site Maps covering the ancient Near East (Egypt, Sudan, The Levant, Syria, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran), locating primary archaeological sites, modern cities, and river courses set against a plain background. They enlarge to 300 dpi.Ancient Turkey Site Map
Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. This first installment of the Oriental Institute Map Series presents seven Site Maps covering the ancient Near East (Egypt, Sudan, The Levant, Syria, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran), locating primary archaeological sites, modern cities, and river courses set against a plain background. They enlarge to 300 dpi.Tell Ahmar Excavations
Til Barsib (also spelled Til Barsip; also called Tell Ahmar) is located along the eastern bank of the Euphrates River, c.100km northeast of Aleppo, Syria. The site (enclosed by a D-shaped fortification wall) is situated on the edge of a terrace, on elevated ground, overlooking the alluvial plain of the Euphrates.MESOPOTAMIA Art Gallery
After an extensive study, it became quite certain to us that Native Iraqis (Chaldean/ Syriac & Jews of Iraq) community, are in an indispensable need of such an innovative art gallery such as Mesopotamia (Learning Studio & Art Gallery).Zagarell's Archaeology Page: Bakhtiari Archaeological Finds
Bakhtiari Mountains of Southwest Iran The Bakhtiari project was begun in 1974 and was interrupted in 1978 by the Iranian Revolution. The project focused upon the long-term history (Epi-paleolithic-Bronze Age-Iron Age) and changing patterns of settlement over time. The research has also focused on the long-term adaptations, in an ecological and historical context of the peoples of this high mountain zone bordering the heartland of Mesopotamian civilization.Sumerian and Babylonian Numerals
The Babylonian civilisation in Mesopotamia replaced the Sumerian civilisation and the Akkadian civilisation. We give a little historical background to these events in our article Babylonian mathematics. Certainly in terms of their number system the Babylonians inherited ideas from the Sumerians and from the Akkadians. From the number systems of these earlier peoples came the base of 60, that is the sexagesimal system. Yet neither the Sumerian nor the Akkadian system was a positional system and this advance by the Babylonians was undoubtedly their greatest achievement in terms of developing the number system. Some would argue that it was their biggest achievement in mathematics.Babylon Lingua
Language: Akkadian. Links and fonts.A history of ancient Babylon
Babylonia, A history of ancient Babylon (Babylonia) including its cities, laws, kings and legacy to civilization. Babylonia (Babylonian BÃ-bili,"gate of God"; Old Persian Babirush),Was the ancient country of Mesopotamia, known originally as Sumer and later as Sumer and Akkad, lying between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, south of modern BaghdÃ-d, Iraq. The International History ProjectThe Code of Hammurabi (Full Text)
Hammurabi`s Code of Laws Translated by L. W. KingAchaemenid Royal Inscriptions
1997-98 Annual ReportAncient Economies II
Ancient Economies II deals with more speculative matters such as the economic content in ancient mythology. Morris Silver Economics Department City College of New YorkMedicine in Ancient Mesopotamia
Most of the information available to modern scholars comes from cuneiform tablets. There are no useful pictorial representations that have survived in ancient Mesopotamian art, nor has a significant amount of skeletal material yet been analyzed. Unfortunately, while an abundance of cuneiform tablets have survived from ancient Mesopotamia, relatively few are concerned with medical issues. Many of the tablets that do mention medical practices have survived from the library of Asshurbanipal, the last great king of Assyria.Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Mesopotamia
Ancient Near EastSumeria (c. 3100-c. 2000 BC)
Akkadia (c.2350-2200 BC)
Babylonia (c.2000-1600 BC)
Kassites and Hittites (c.1600-717 BC)
Assyria (c.1350- 612 BC)
Chaldea/Neo-Babylonia (612-539 BC)
Syrian Cities: Ebla, Ugarit, Emar
Phoenicia 950 BC
Carthage: The Punic Empire
ANE Arts and Architecture
ANE Mathematics and Astronomy
Gender and Sexuality
Modern Perspectives on Mesopotamia
Common Issues: Mesopotamian/Egyptian/Hebrew/Greek History
Mesopotamia 9000 B.C. -500 B.C.
The name Mesopotamia (meaning "the land between the rivers") refers to the geographic region which lies near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and not to any particular civilization. In fact, over the course of several millennia, many civilizations developed, collapsed, and were replaced in this fertile region. The land of Mesopotamia is made fertile by the irregular and often violent flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. While these floods aided agricultural endeavors by adding rich silt to the soil every year, it took a tremendous amount of human labor to successfully irrigate the land and to protect the young plants from the surging flood waters. Given the combination of fertile soil and the need for organized human labor, perhaps it is not surprising that the first civilization developed in Mesopotamia. The origins of civilization can be traced to a group of people living in southern Mesopotamia called the Sumerians. By c.3500 BCE, the Sumerians had developed many of the features that characterized subsequent civilizations.Mesopotamia: Root Entry
Mesopotamia stands at the very dawn of human recorded history; we are often fooled into thinking of Mesopotamia as some distant relative, but it is, in fact, a culture stunningly different from our own. We are going to tour the mysteries of this foundational civilization: it's life, it's words, it's gods, and it's writing; you're invited to browse through the dust and heat of one of first cultures to inscribe for the future the story of its existence. History and Peoples, Mesopotamian History and Peoples, The Sumerians, The Akkadians, The Amorites, The Hittites, The Kassites, The Assyrians, The Chaldeans, Mesopotamian Culture , Cuneiform , Resources , A Gallery of Mesopotamia , Mesopotamian Timeline , An Anthology of Mesopotamian Readings , A Glossary of Mesopotamia , Internet Resources on MesopotamiaMesopotamian Bronze Age
[Sargon of Akkad] [Naram-Sin] [Sack of Akkad] [Neo Sumerian Renaiessance] [Gudea of Lagash] [Third Dynasty of Ur] [Urnammu] [Shulgi] [End of the URIII Period] [Old Babylonian Period] [Amorites] [Isin-Larsa Period] [Hammurabi of Babylon] [Old Assyrian Period] [Kültepe texts] [The Commercial Process] [Merchandise]Mesopotamian Year Names
Neo-Sumerian and Old Babylonian Date Formulae. The list of more than 2,000 year names which is made accessible here has been compiled as a tool for the dating of cuneiform tablets as well as for supporting historical studies on early bookkeeping techniques. This tool essentially consists of a collection of date formulae in administrative documents as they were used by the scribes in ancient Mesopotamia, and of computer generated indices for a quick identification of incomplete date formulae on damaged cuneiform tablets and of issues and events mentioned in these formulae.NASA Observatorium Education- Ubar: The Lost City
The legend goes like this: Ubar, a rich and fabulous trading center of ancient Arabia rose out of the desert and then mysteriously vanished back into the sands. References to Ubar in the Koran, the Arabian Nights, and countless Bedouin tales told around desert campfires have captivated the imaginations of explorers and archaeologists. But all searches were fruitless and the city remained lost. Now, centuries after Ubar's disappearance, a combination of hard work, dedicated research, and remote sensing technology has perhaps unraveled this ancient mystery.The Nation of Iraq
History, Geography, Business, Culture, Transportation and more. ArabNetNear East Map
Oriental Institute Map Series - Site Maps Combining the separate 300 dpi prints will produce a composite map of the ancient Near East approximately 14" to 19" square, depending upon the printing methods used. The Site Maps will be updated periodically, so check back for the latest versions. Each Site Map is presented as a 300 dpi grayscale image sized for convenient printing on an 8 1/2" x 11" laser printer.Photographs of Mesopotamia
Sam Ruff's Photographs of Mesopotamia 1954-1956A Political Collapse in the Old Babylonian Period
Political Change and Cultural Continuity in Eshnunna from the Ur III to the Old Babylonian Period A dissertation proposal presented to The Department of Near Eastern Languages and CivilizationsMesopotamian Protohistory
[Writing] [The Sumerians] [The Sumerian King Lists] [Early Cities] [The Flood Story] [Jemdet Nasr Period] [Old Sumerian Age] [The Golden Age] [The Heroic Age] [Early Dynastic-III]The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Some stories indicate the Hanging Gardens towered hundreds of feet into the air, but archaeological explorations indicate a more modest, but still impressive, height.Sumerian Beer:
Did beer come before bread? To answer the question scholars helped concoct a Mesopotamian brew from a 3,800-year-old recipe etched in clay. By Solomon H. Katz and Fritz Maytag.Women`s Lives in Ancient Mesopotamia
Ancient Tablets, Ancient Graves: Accessing Women`s Lives in Mesopotamia. Women In World History CurriculumBa'al Ugaritic god of Storms & War
Ba'al Ugaritic god of Storms & War From K. C. Hanson's Gallery of Photos of Syria & Israel. Ba'al Ugaritic God of Storms & War (14th century BC) Louvre Museum, ParisMesopotamian Mythology
The Gods Of Mesopotamian Mythology. Many Mesopotamian Gods have Sumerian and Akkadian variations. They're virtually identical, but with cunning changes of name. For example, TAMMUZ is the Akkadian equivalent of DUMUZI. (This can become confusing; is that one God or two? For the purposes of Godchecker we've tended to treat them separately.) Things became a little easier when the two regions joined together to form Babylonia. At least until the Tower of Babel came along and confused it all again.Ugaritic Clay Tablet
From K. C. Hanson's Gallery of Photos of Syria & Israel. Ugaritic clay tablet From Sapanu. Banco de Datos Filolsgicos Semmticos Noroccidentales (CSIC-Instituto de Filologma, Madrid) note: The Semitic language of ancient Ugarit closely related to Phoenician and HebrewAncient Art: Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, was the fertile river plain where civilization was born and where writing first appeared. Southern Mesopotamia was under the control of a series of kings from 3000 B.C. to the 6th century B.C. In its early history, Mesopotamia was a collection of agricultural city-states. These later gave way to centrally controlled empires which spread through conquest.Carlos Museum - Ancient Near Eastern Art: Introduction
The Near Eastern collections of the Carlos Museum embody the legacy of the ancient Near East from the beginnings of agriculture and writing to the growth of the first cities and empires.Aramean Queen (?) with servant
From K. C. Hanson's Gallery of Photos of Syria & Israel. Aramean Queen(?)and servant; funerary stele; 8th century BCE (Berlin VA 2995) Pergamon Museum, Berlin. Note: Aramaean is in Latin Aramaeus, from Greek Aramaios, from Hebrew `ArAm Aramaic, ancient name for Syria, a Semitic people of the second millennium B.C. in Syria and Upper Mesopotamia.Canaanite Lions
From K. C. Hanson's Gallery of Photos of Syria & Israel. Canaanite Lions; basalt stele; 14th century BC. Discovery: 1928 in Beth-Shean/Sythopolis (Tel el-Husn). Current Location: Israel Museum (Jerusalem) Hanson has a couple good verses from the Bible on the page. One reads: "Then Samson went down with his father and mother to Timnah, and he came to the vineyards of Timnah. And behold, a young lion roared against him; and the spirit of Yahweh came upon him powerfully, and he tore the lion apart as one tears a goat-kid. And he had nothing in his hand." (Judges 14:5-6)The Hammurabi Stele
THE HAMMURABI STELE. Partially Retold in English, by Stan Rummel, Director of The Humanities Program, Texas Wesleyan University, Fort Worth, Texas. "In the following selections, I have frequently changed the grammar and sequence of words from that of the original text, and I have omitted sections of material, so that what is given will read comprehensibly in English. I have grouped regulations by topical categories for discussion, rather than simply following their numerical sequence." Also includes an image: Detail of the top of the Hammurabi Stele, picturing King Hammurabi coming before the god Shamash.Manumission and Bridewealth Document
Manumission and Bridewealth Document (14th cent. BC?)TRANSLATION by K. C. Hanson (Adapted from Finkelstein 1969:546). Language: Akkadian; Medium: Clay tablet; Size: 43 centimeters long 5 centimeters wide; Length: 25 lines of writing Genre: Manumission & Marriage Contract Approximate Date: 14th cent. BC? Place of Discovery: Ugarit acropolis, Ras Shamra, Syria Date of Discovery: 1936 Current Location: Musée National d'Alep Aleppo, Syria.Manumission and Bridewealth Document
Manumission and Bridewealth Document (14th cent. BC?)TRANSLATION by K. C. Hanson (Adapted from Finkelstein 1969:546). Language: Akkadian; Medium: Clay tablet; Size: 43 centimeters long 5 centimeters wide; Length: 25 lines of writing Genre: Manumission & Marriage Contract Approximate Date: 14th cent. BC? Place of Discovery: Ugarit acropolis, Ras Shamra, Syria Date of Discovery: 1936 Current Location: Musée National d'Alep Aleppo, Syria.Ishtar Gate Inscription
Dedicatory Inscription on the Ishtar Gate, Babylon; TRANSLATION (Adapted from Marzahn 1995:29-30)Language: Akkadian Medium: glazed brick Size: c. 15 meters high c. 10 meters wide Length: 60 lines of writing Genre: Dedication Inscription Dedicator: Nebuchadnezzar King of Babylonia (reigned 605""562 BCE) Approximate Date: 600 BCE Place of Discovery: Babylon (near modern Baghdad, Iraq) Date of Excavation: 1899""1914 Current Location: Pergamon Museen (Berlin, Germany)Ishtar Gate Inscription
Dedicatory Inscription on the Ishtar Gate, Babylon; TRANSLATION (Adapted from Marzahn 1995:29-30)Language: Akkadian Medium: glazed brick Size: c. 15 meters high c. 10 meters wide Length: 60 lines of writing Genre: Dedication Inscription Dedicator: Nebuchadnezzar King of Babylonia (reigned 605""562 BCE) Approximate Date: 600 BCE Place of Discovery: Babylon (near modern Baghdad, Iraq) Date of Excavation: 1899""1914 Current Location: Pergamon Museen (Berlin, Germany)Gilgamesh Epic
From K. C. Hanson's Photo Gallery of Mesopotamia. Gilgamesh Epic Tablet 11: The Flood Narrative ? century BCAerial Survey Flights
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
View of East Stairway of the Apadana, looking northwest
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN
Palace of Darius, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/PA/IRAN/PAAI/PAAI_Palace_Darius.html
Palace of Darius
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/PA/IRAN/PAAI/PAAI_Palace_Darius.html
Palace Complex: Structures, Reliefs, and Inscriptions
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/PA/IRAN/PAAI/PAAI_Palace_Darius.html
The Apadana
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/PA/IRAN/PAAI/PAAI_Palace_Darius.html
The Throne Hall
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/PA/IRAN/PAAI/PAAI_Palace_Darius.html
The Throne Hall
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/PA/IRAN/PAAI/PAAI_Palace_Darius.html
The Gate of Xerxes
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
The Treasury
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
The Palace of Xerxes
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
The Council Hall
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
The Harem of Xerxes
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
Miscellaneous Structures at Persepolis
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
Contents of the Treasury and Other Discoveries
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
Gudea of Lagash
2141-2122 B.C.; Mesopotamian, Neo-Sumerian period. Of all the rulers of ancient Mesopotamia, Gudea, ensi (governor) of Lagash, emerges the most clearly across the millennia due to the survival of many of his religious texts and statues. He ruled his city-state in southeast Iraq for twenty years, bringing peace and prosperity at a time when the Guti, tribesmen from the northeastern mountains, occupied the land. His inscriptions describe vast building programs of temples for his gods. This statuette depicts the governor in worship before his gods wearing the persian-lamb fur cap of the ensi and a shawl-like fringed robe with tassles. The serene, heavily lidded eyes and calm pose create a powerful portrait of this pious ruler.Cuneiform Tablets
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
Dragon of Marduk
604-562 B.C.; Mesopotamian, Neo-Babylonian Period; Ishtar Gate, Babylon; Molded, glazed bricks. The mythical Dragon of Marduk with scaly body, serpent`s head, viper`s horns, front feet of a feline, hind feet of a bird, and a scorpion`s tail, was sacred to the god Marduk, principal deity of Babylon. The striding dragon was a portion of the decoration of one of the gates of the city of Babylon. King Nebuchadnezzar, whose name appears in the Bible as the despoiler of Jerusalem (Kings II 24:10-16, 25:8-15), ornamented the monumental entrance gate dedicated to Ishtar, the goddess of love and war, and the processional street leading to it with scores of pacing glazed brick animals: on the gate were alternating tiers of Marduk`s dragons and bulls of the weather god Adad; along the street were the lions sacred to Ishtar. All of this brilliant decoration was designed to create a ceremonial entrance for the king in religious procession on the most important day of the New Year`s Festival.Tiglath-Pileser III Receiving Homage
745-27 B.C.; Mesopotamian, Neo-Assyrian period; Limestone. Tiglath-Pileser, a powerful king of Assyria, built a royal palace at Nimrud in northern Iraq. Its principal rooms and courtyards were decorated with large relief sculptures designed to awe visitors to his court. The king`s power and majesty were expressed in scenes of war, the hunt, and solemn court ceremonies. In this relief Tiglath-Pileser, wearing a tall headdress and holding a bow, is receiving three courtiers; a helmeted warrior prostrates himself at the king`s feet. Behind the royal figure stands a servant with a fly whisk. Horizontal lines of a cuneiform inscription describing a military campaign run just above the heads of the figures. Tiglath-Pileser`s campaigns into Syria and Israel are documented in the Bible (II Kings 15:19, 29; 16:7). Text and images courtesy The Detroit Institute of Arts.Eagle-Headed Deity
883-59 B.C.; Mesopotamian, Neo-Assyrian; Limestone. An eagle-headed, winged divinity stands facing a tree of life (the ends of the branches are just visible at the right edge). The figure was a small section of the wall decoration in the state apartments of the royal palace at Nimrud in northern Iraq, built by Assurnasirpal II, King of Assyria. The deity holds a bucket in one hand and in the other a spathe (leaflike sheath for the flowers) of the date palm. He is tending the tree, a symbol of vegetal life and fertility. He, and many more like him, originally brightly highlighted with black, white, red, and blue paint, formed the ornamentation around a room near the throne room thought to have served as a place of ritual bathing. The motif stresses the political and religious importance of nurturing both the kingship and the land for the prosperity of Assyria. Text and images courtesy The Detroit Institute of ArtsVase
8th-7th century B.C.; Mesopotamian, Neo-Assyrian period; Glazed earthenware. The use of colorful glazes extended to the ornamentation of ceramic vessels. Perhaps the most characteristic shape was an ovoid vase with high rimmed neck and pointed, rounded base, its shoulder defined by a row of pendant petals. Text and images courtesy The Detroit Institute of Arts.Seals and Seal Impressions
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
Glazed Brick Representing a Birdman
7th century B.C.; Mesopotamian, Neo-Assyrian Period; Glazed terracotta. The walls of Assyrian palaces and temples were sometimes adorned with glazed terracotta decoration. A tradition for using glazed brick as wall adornment began in the Ancient Near East during the 13 century B.C. in southern Iran. The Birdman, a magical creature, appeared first in the 3rd millennium B.C. as a mischievous being who was bound and brought before the gods. By the late Neo-Assyrian period, his role is less clear: here he seems beneficent, his arms raised to support, in all probability, a winged sun-disk, the symbol of divinity. Text and images courtesy The Detroit Institute of Arts.Miscellaneous Finds
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
Miscellaneous Finds
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
Human-Headed Winged Lion
Mesopotamia, Neo-Assyrian, Nimrud, 883-859 B.C. Limestone. In the palace of Ashurnasirpal ll, pairs of human-headed lions and bulls decorated the gateways and supported the arches above them. This lion creature wears the horned cap of divinity and a belt signifying his superhuman power. The Neo-Assyrian sculptor gave these guardian figures five legs. Viewed from the front, the animal stands firmly in place; from the side he appears to stride forward. During the ninth century B.C. the great Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II built a new capital at Nimrud, where the palace was decorated with large stone slabs ornamented with low-relief carvings and with sculpted figures guarding the doorways. Gift of John D. Rockefeller Jr., 1932. Text and Images coutesy The Metropolitan Museum of Art.Sculpture
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
The Royal Tombs and Other Monuments
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
Cuneiform Cylinder of Nabopolassar
Cuneiform Cylinder of Nabopolassar Recording Repair of the City Wall of Babylon; Mesopotamia, Babylon. Neo-Babylonian Period, Reign of Nabopolassar, 625 - 605 B.C. Clay.The Sasanian Rock Reliefs: Naqsh-i-Rustam and Naqsh-i-Rajab
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
Brocade Style Cylinder Seal
Sumerian Limestone Brocade Style Cylinder Seal Early Dynastic Mesopotamia, Ca. 3100-2600 BC. Dark limestone carved with three horned quadrupeds and a rhomb. Ex Erlenmeyer Collection. (acquired between 1943 and 1955) 4.7 x 1.6 cm. Pierced for suspension. Ex Erlenmeyer Collection of Western Asiatic Antiquities.Yale Babylonian Collection
Some 5000 years ago, writing developed in the lower valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and spread from there to the rest of ancient Mesopotamia, approximately present-day Iraq. The writing, called cuneiform ("wedge-shaped"), spread from there over the entire Near East. The Babylonian Collection houses the largest assemblage of cuneiform inscriptions in the United States, and one of the five largest in the world. The bulk of the inscriptions consists of clay tablets in all sizes and shapes. There are also a number of inscribed monuments on stone and other materials, some of considerable artistic interest, including a large collection of stamp and cylinder seals. In addition, the Collection maintains a complete library in the fields of Assyriology (the study of ancient Mesopotamia), Hittitology (ancient Anatolia, roughly equivalent to modern Turkey), and Near Eastern archaeology. It publishes several monograph series through the Yale University Press.Cylinder Seal with Images of Dieties
Cylinder Seal with Watergod, Birdman, and Deities Mesopotamia; Akkadian Period, 2300 - 2200 B.C. Serpentine. Ea: Ea and attendant deities. Ea (seated) and attendant deities, Sumerian cylinder seal, c. 2300 bc; in the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York.A Balikh Prospect
LANDSCAPE STUDIES IN UPPER MESOPOTAMIA. Oriental Institute, University of ChicagoThe Deh Luran Archaeological Project
In the 1960s Deh Luran was the focus of research designed to illuminate the development of agriculture, the concurrent development of early villages and towns, and the first complex societies. The research was undertaken by various U.S. teams, in cooperation with the Archaeological Service of Iran, and with the support of the U.S. National Science Foundation.Babylonian Cylinder Seal 1800 B.C.
Cylinder Seal with Presentation to the Weathergod; Mesopotamia. Old Babylonian Period, ca. 2000 - 1600 B.C. Hematite.A Great Assemblage
An Exhibit of Judaica in honor of the opening of the Joseph Slifka Center for Jewish Life at Yale. 1 Kings 8:65Cylinder Seal with Winged Sun Disk
White Calcite Cylinder Seal 3200-3000 BC Mesopotamia. Cylinder Seal with Winged Sun Disk and Lion Attacking Animals. Syria, Syro-Mittannian; 1500 - 1300 B.C. Calcite.Copper bowl with a procession of animals
Period: Sumerian or Elamite, early 3rd Millennium B.C. Culture: Mesopotamian Category: Metalwork, Vessels Dimensions: Height: 9.2 cm, Diameter: 16.2 cm (max.) Price: POR Provenance: Ex-M. de Sancey Collection, Switzerland. Condition: Slightly crackled at the edge, the external surface has been cleaned and is in a remarkable state of preservation. The interior metal is covered with a thick, rough green patina.The Jerablus - Tahtani Project, Syria
The Jerablus Tahtani Project, North Syria, is an interdisciplinary research programme designed to investigate four key themes: the precocious expansion of the Uruk civilisation in the 4th millennium BC, secondary state formation in Early Bronze Age Syria, environmental and political reasons for widespread urban recession in the late 3rd millennium BC in the Near East, and the early history of archaeologically inaccessible Carchemish.NASA - The Search For Ubar
This pair of images from space shows a portion of the southern Empty Quarter of the Arabian Peninsula in the country of Oman. On the left is a radar image of the region around the site of the fabled Lost City of Ubar, discovered in 1992 with the aid of remote sensing data.Master-of-Animals Standard Finial
Master-of-Animals Standard Finial Western Iran, Luristan 8th - 7th centuries B.C. Bronze. An important industry in bronze and copper artifacts flourished in the region of Luristan, western Iran, between about 1400 and 600 B.C.E. This object is one of the most typical Luristan bronzes: a finial, or ornamental pole top, which was originally mounted on a bottle-shaped support (see S1995.111). The finials were often fashioned in the form of a demon flanked by panthers (or other leonine creatures). As in this example, the flanking leonine creatures often terminate in predatory heads with a cock's head projecting from the neck.Near East Section: University of Pennsylvania Museum
Special objects from the exhibition Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur are now on display on the second floor of the Museum near the main Museum Shop. The full exhibition will return to Penn Museum on or after 2012. This is a renowned collection from the Royal Cemetery at Ur (in modern-day Iraq), including a famous gold and lapis lazuli bullheaded lyre and a "Ram in the Thicket" sculpture, as well as Lady Pu-abi's headdress and jewelry, all from ca. 2650-2550 B.C. The story of the excavations at Ur as well as the archaeological and historical context of the finds are displayed, offering insight into this ancient civilization through its Royal Tombs.Nippur, Sacred City of Enlil: Supreme God of Sumer and Akkad
The importance of the Mesopotamian holy city, Nippur (Fig. 1), is reflected even today in the great size of the mound, Nuffar (Fig. 2), located between Baghdad and Basra in southern Iraq. Nippur was one of the longest-lived sites, beginning in the prehistoric Ubaid period (c. 5000 B. C. ) and lasting until about A. D. 800, in the Islamic eraThe Detroit Institute of Arts: Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, was the fertile river plain where civilization was born and where writing first appeared. Southern Mesopotamia was under the control of a series of kings from 3000 B.C. to the 6th century B.C. In its early history, Mesopotamia was a collection of agricultural city-states. These later gave way to centrally controlled empires which spread through conquest.The Metropolitan Museum of Art: The Gudea of Lagash
2141-2122 B.C.; Mesopotamian, Neo-Sumerian period; Paragonite; 41 cm (16 1/8 in.); Founders Society Purchase, Robert H. Tannahill Foundation Fund; 82.64.Of all the rulers of ancient Mesopotamia, Gudea, ensi (governor) of Lagash, emerges the most clearly across the millennia due to the survival of many of his religious texts and statues. He ruled his city-state in southeast Iraq for twenty years, bringing peace and prosperity at a time when the Guti, tribesmen from the northeastern mountains, occupied the land. His inscriptions describe vast building programs of temples for his gods.
This statuette depicts the governor in worship before his gods wearing the persian-lamb fur cap of the ensi and a shawl-like fringed robe with tassles. The serene, heavily lidded eyes and calm pose create a powerful portrait of this pious ruler.
A Sumerian cuneiform inscription on the back describes the building of a temple to the goddess Geshtinanna, consort of Gudea`s personal god, and the making of this statue for her. [The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Permanent Collection]
Semitic Museum - Nuzi Home Page
By about 2400 BCE, Hurrians - people who spoke the Hurrian language - had expanded southward from the highlands of Anatolia. They infiltrated and occupied a broad arc of fertile farmland stretching from the headwaters of the Habur River to the foothills of the Zagros Mountains.The Oriental Institute Museum
The Oriental Institute Museum is a showcase of the history, art and archaeology of the ancient Near East. An integral part of the University of Chicago`s Oriental Institute, which has supported research and archaeological excavation in the Near East since 1919, the Museum exhibits major collections of antiquities from Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran, Syria, Israel, and Anatolia.Learning Sites Inc. - Til Barsib Syria
The Aramaean city of Tel Barsib, and a provincial capital of the Assyrian empire for some 250 years beginning about 850 BC, from the Department of Classics and Archaeology at the University of Melbourne. [Archaeological Sites] [Iraq]Umm al-Hafriyet
Part of the Nippur program, a nearby site, occupied in the Uruk (ca. 3500 b.c.), Ur III to Old Babylonian (2200-1800 b.c.), Kassite (ca. 1250 b.c.), and Seleucid (ca. 300 b.c.) periods. Excavations from the Oriental Institute. [Archaeological Sites] [Iraq]Ur
From the University of Pennsylvania Museum, a bit of information on this Mesopotamian culture, in a site put together for a new travelling exhibit. [Archaeological Sites] [Iraq]University College at London
Department of Western Asiatic Archaeology, research in Bahrain, Yemen, Turkmenistan, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. [Archaeological Sites] [Iraq] [University Programs]Assyrian and Babylonian Cuneiform Texts
Assyrian and Babylonian textsInscription of Tiglath Pileser I - (38k)
Assyrian and Babylonian textsBlack Obelisk of Shalmaneser II - (24k)
Assyrian and Babylonian textsAnnals of Assur-Nasir-Pal - (71k)
Assyrian and Babylonian textsInscription of Nebuchadnezzar - (30k)
Assyrian and Babylonian textsSir Austen Henry Layard - Discoveries at Nineveh
Discoveries At Nineveh by Austen Henry Layard, Esq., D.C.L. Text source: A Popular Account of Discoveries at Nineveh. Austen Henry Layard. J. C. Derby. New York. 1854. [Archaeology]Assyrian Texts
- Provides a way to purchase texts of new translations of Assyrian texts [Electonic Text Sites]Nineveh
A news brief from Archaeology Magazine describing the recent looting at this important archaeological site. [Archaeological Sites]Nippur
The history and current excavations of the capital of the Mesopotamian culture, first settled around 6,000 years ago, from the Oriental Institute.[Archaeological Sites]Tell Abu Duwari
A large early second millennium B.C. village, research abstracted in Journal of Field Archaeology; and an abstract from a subsequent season.[Archaeological Sites] [Iraq]The Ka'bah-i-Zardusht
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
The Prehistoric Mound Of Tall-i-Bakun
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
ISTAKHR, THE ISLAMIC CITY MOUND
PERSEPOLIS AND ANCIENT IRAN, Multiple images (with high resolution photos)Oriental Institute, University of Chicago
http://www-oi.uchicago.edu
A Scene from The "Epic of Gilgamesh" (Ur)
The "Epic of Gilgamesh" is perhaps the oldest known story in the world. It centered on a legendary king from the Sumerian city-state of Uruk. Later Mesopotamian civilizations adopted this myth as their own. It was finally written down on clay tablets like the one above, in the wedge-shaped written language of cuneiform. [THE ROYAL TOMBS OF UR] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Statue Figurines (Ur)
These statues were placed in Sumerian temples by worshippers. The statues were believed to pray for the person who put them there. [THE ROYAL TOMBS OF UR] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Cylinder Seals (Ur)
Sumerian merchants used cylinder seals to mark the completion of a trade agreement. [THE ROYAL TOMBS OF UR] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Gudea (Ur)
Gudea was an important ensi, or priest-ruler, of the city-state of Lagash. [THE ROYAL TOMBS OF UR] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Female Head (Ur)
This female head originated in the city-state of Uruk. [THE ROYAL TOMBS OF UR] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Sargon (Akkad)
The city-states of Mesopotamia were finally conquered and unified by the ambitious ruler, Sargon. He created the world's first empire, Akkad. [AKKAD] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Assyrian Archer
This stela depicts an Assyrian archer. The Assyrian Empire was unrivaled in its cruel, ruthless methods of warfare. [ASSYRIA] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Hammurabi Stela
A wealthy empire eventually rose to challenge the supremacy of Assyria. This empire was known as Babylonia. Hammurabi, an early ruler of Babylonia, created an important written law code. This stela depicts Hammurabi receiving the law code from Shamash, the sun-god. [BABYLONIA] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Tower of Babel 3D Remake
A truly enormous ziggurat dominated the skyline of the capital city of Babylon. It was referred to as "E-temen-enki", the "foundation of heaven and earth", or the Tower of Babel. [BABYLONIA] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]The Ishtar Gate
was the triumphant entry-way into the city of Babylon. It was dedicated to Ishtar, the goddess of carnal love. [BABYLONIA] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]The lions that adorn the Ishtar Gate
Close up of the lions that adorn the Ishtar Gate. [BABYLONIA] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Close uo of The lion that adorns the Ishtar Gate
Close up of the lions that adorn the Ishtar Gate. [BABYLONIA] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Write Like a Babylonian
see your monogram in cuneiform, the way an ancient Babylonian might have written it. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and AnthropologyPersians and Aryan Origin
Since ancient times, Persians have used the term Aryan as a racial designation in an ethnic sense to describe their lineage and their language, and this tradition has continued into the present day amongst modern Iranians (Encyclopedia Iranica, p. 681, Arya). In fact, the name Iran is a cognate of Aryan and means "Land of the Aryans." Darius the Great, King of Persia (521""486 BC), in an inscription in Naqsh-e Rustam (near Shiraz in present-day Iran), proclaims: "I am Darius the great King"" A Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan, having Aryan lineage..." He also calls his language the "Aryan language," commonly known today as Old Persian. According to the Encyclopedia Iranica, "the same ethnic concept was held in the later centuries" and was associated with "nobility and lordship." The word has become a technical term in the theologies of Zoroastrianism, but has always been used by Iranians in the ethnic sense as well. In 1967, Iran's Pahlavi dynasty (overthrown in the 1979 Iranian revolution) added the title ÂryÃ-mehr "Light of the Aryans" to those of the monarch, known at the time as the Shahanshah (King of Kings). [Ach¿mids/Medes]Early Persia
Class notes on the Persians, includes their Aryan origins. [AchÃ"mids and Medes]Images of the Median and Achæmenid Empire
, Iran Architecture, stone carving and art of the AchÃ"menid Empire.[AchÃ"mids and Medes]Tomb of Cyrus the Great
(c. 550-529), near his palace at PasargadÃ". Cyrus, founder of the Persian Empire, won independence from the Media and expanded his control to Mesopotamia. He drew from Mesopotamia some ideological elements for a reconstructed monarchy. Tombs are above ground to prevent the corpse's being defiled. [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid architecture]Stone relief from doorway of Cyrus' palace at Pasargadæ
. A winged figure, probably a protective spirit of the royal household. The crown resembles a Near Eastern figure that wards off evil spirits. [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid stone carving]Relief of winged creatures at the gate of Persopolis
. Probably derived from Babylonian supernatural beings who guard the entrances to sacred places, and perhaps Babylonia is also the source for reconstituting the AchÃ"menid dynasty in terms of sacral kingship. [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid stone carving]Stone relief from palace of Persopolis.
This typical Persian motif draws it wings and central ring from Egyptian and Mesopotamian prototypes. Traditional view is that the figure represents Ahura Mazda [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid stone carving]Bull's head carving from column capital at Persopolis.
[AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid stone carving]Griffin's head from column at Persopolis
. May reflect a borrowing a Mesopotamian political symbolism. [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid stone carving]Lion's head from top of a column at Persopolis.
[AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid stone carving]Relief of soldiers from Persopolis
with wicker shields. 6th c. B.C. (East Berlin: Pergamum Museum). [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid stone carving]Head from a statue of an archer
from the walls of the palace at Persopolis. Typical AchÃ"menid aesthetic interest in repeated patterns. [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid stone carving]Soldiers from the Ten Thousand Immortals.
Glazed tile relief showing soldiers from the Ten Thousand Immortals. This imperial guard was an élite force made up of trustworthy ethnic Persians. From the AchÃ"menid winter palace at Susa, Elam. 520-500 B.C. (Paris: Louvre) [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid glazed tile relief]Persian winter palace at Susa
Glazed tile relief originally from the Persian winter palace at Susa, capital of Elam. 520-500 B.C. (Paris: Louvre). Another imperial guard. The light military dress was designed for offensive combat, to rush out to address crises within the far-flung Persian Empire. [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid glazed tile relief]Immortal infantry. A lancer and archer.
Frieze of glazed tiles showing Immortal infantry. A lancer and archer. [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid glazed tile relief]A Persian helmet
lost during the Olympia campaign in Greece, 490 B.C. (Olympia Museum). The inscription added by the Greeks indicates that it ended as booty dedicated to the gods. The helmet style is Assyrian. [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid metal working and coinage]Gold coin.
AchÃ"menid daric showing a warrior, perhaps based on Elam model. [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid metal working and coinage]IRANSAGA Persian History and Culture
From the dawn of history, Persia has been a distinct and important cultural entity. Its position as a vast natural fortress, with mountain ranges, enabled the Persians to preserve their individuality inspite of the conquests by the Arabs (7th century), the Turks (10th century), and the Mongols (13th to 15th centuries). Today, Iran remains a country rich in traditions, with a culture which has had great influence on other countries, both in Central Asia, and throughout the world.Iran - Demography
World Jewish Congress, Jerusalem. The Jewish community of Persia, modern-day Iran, is one of the oldest in the Diaspora, and its historical roots reach back to the 6th century b.c., the time of the First Temple. The Council of the Jewish Community, which was established after World War II, is the representative body of the community, which also has in parliament a representative who is obligated by law to support Iranian foreign policy and its anti-Zionist position. [AchÃ"mids - Medes]Palace relief of Tiglathpileser III, king of Assyria
Stone panel Attacking on an enemy town. Assyrian Bureaucrats 8th C BC palace relief from the British Museum showing scribes entering the spoils of war. [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Palace relief of Tiglathpileser III, king of Assyria 2
Stone panel - King in chariot. Assyrian Bureaucrats 8th C BC palace relief from the British Museum showing scribes entering the spoils of war. [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Palace relief of Tiglathpileser III, king of Assyria 2
Assyrian Bureaucrats 8th C BC palace relief from the British Museum showing scribes entering the spoils of war. [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Achæmenid gold plaque from the Oxus Treasure.
A Persian magus carries the barsom - the sacred twigs associated with priesthood. [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid metal working and coinage]A torque pair with lion-head terminals.
Some of the cloisonne inlays survive. Achaemenid grave at Susa, 4th c. B.C. (Paris: Louvre). 20 cm. [AchÃ"mids and Medes] [images] [AchÃ"menid metal working and coinage]Ubaid terracotta figurine from Ur
, c. 4500 B.C., of a woman suckling a child. Painted jewelery, body paint or tattoos. Slim figure (in contrast to the North), elongated head and protruding eyes characterize the Ubaid figure style. [images] [Al-`Ubaid] (6-4th millenium, South Mesopotamia)Map of Achaemid Empire
Map shows the extent of the empire from Libya, Ethiopia, Thrace, and Macedonia in the West to India in the East. [images] [AchÃ"mids - Medes] [Maps]Origins of the Armenian People
The Armenians became part of the Achaemid Empire from 560 BC on. [AchÃ"mids - Medes]Sumerian streets and markets
were busy with life-sustaining trade. [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Ziggurat (Ur)
The Sumerian city-state of Ur contained an enormous mountain temple, known as a ziggurat, to honor the moon-god, Nanna. [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]The city-state of Ur
Most Sumerian cities were surrounded by high walls to keep out would-be invaders. The city-state of Ur is believed to have also been surrounded by a great moat. [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]A harp, made in the image of a bull (Ur)
[THE ROYAL TOMBS OF UR] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Ram-in-the-thicket (Ur)
[THE ROYAL TOMBS OF UR] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Headdress (Ur)
This headdress belonged to a Sumerian queen. [THE ROYAL TOMBS OF UR] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]The Standard of Ur (two mosiac panels)
The Standard of Ur is comprised of the two mosiac panels of an inlaid box. The Standard is important because it portrays the 3 main social levels in the city of Ur. [THE ROYAL TOMBS OF UR] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Boardgame (Ur)
This boardgame, found in the Royal Tombs of Ur, is perhaps the oldest in the world. [THE ROYAL TOMBS OF UR] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]The "Epic of Gilgamesh" (Ur)
The "Epic of Gilgamesh" is perhaps the oldest known story in the world. It centered on a legendary king from the Sumerian city-state of Uruk. Later Mesopotamian civilizations adopted this myth as their own. It was finally written down on clay tablets like the one above, in the wedge-shaped written language of cuneiform. [THE ROYAL TOMBS OF UR] [Near East] [Art] [Archaeology] [Architecture]Sennacherib's Throne Room Plan Illustrations
Plan of Sennacherib's throne-room suite at Nineveh's Southwest Palace allows access to photographs of intact reliefs and looted fragments from these rooms. John M. Russell, "Stolen Stones" from Archaeological Institute of AmericaNear East Archaeological Sites
INDEX OF REPORTS ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN THE NEAR EAST AND RELATED MATERIAL. A project and publication of The Research Archives of the Oriental Institute, ChicagoAncient Near East (Babylonia) Glossary and Texts
This page lists most of the important Ancient Near Eastern characters, a short glossary and links to online Sumerian or Akkadian Texts.ANCIENT NEAR EAST IMAGES
Lots of Ancient Images. J. CohenThe Babylonians
HTML supplement to my BKA 41 program called "The Babylonians" You can download it on Bible History online or by going to ZDnet.com.EIKON Image Database for Biblical Studies
The EIKON Image Database for Biblical Studies is a faculty-library initiative at Yale Divinity School that provides digital resources for teaching and research in the field of Biblical studies.Archaeological & Biblical Study Tours - Turkey
Turkish Ministry of Tourism.Institute of Archaeology
at Hebrew University in Jerusalem Israel.Biblical Archaeology
Explore the lands of the Bible, encounter their ancient cultures, and learn more of biblical archaeology. Use the resources of this site to learn how archaeology illuminates biblical text.Egypt Exploration Organization in Southern California
Join us as we explore Ancient Egypt through monthly lectures, expeditions and special events. We welcome interested members of the general public to our society of professional and amateur Egyptologists, archaeologists and scholars.Digital Archaeological Atlas of the Holy Land
- Global Moments in the LevantSpace Radar Images of Earth
Giza, Egypt. Jerusalem and the Dead Sea. Lost City of Ubar, Arabian Peninsula. Safsaf Oasis, Egypt. Tetraktys. Ubar in S. Oman, Arabian Peninsula. Wadi Kufra, Libya.The West Semitic Research Project
Ancient images and commentary relating to the Bible and the ancient Near East. (U.S.C.)The German Palestinian Society
The Deutscher Palästina-Verein (German Society for the Exploration of Israel) focuses primarily on scientific research into the history and culture of Israel, especially biblical history. To achieve its aim the Society brings together people with a common interest in Israel and makes their research available to the wider public.Council for British Research in the Levant
CBRL research projects are actively promoted through lectures, journals and monographs.Biblical Archaeological Institute
German Site.Jerusalem and the Dead Sea
This space radar image shows the area surrounding the Dead Sea along the West Bank between Israel and Jordan. This region is of major cultural and historical importance to millions of Muslims, Jews and Christians who consider it the Holy Land. The yellow area at the top of the image is the city of Jericho. A portion of the Dead Sea is shown as the large black area at the top right side of the image. The Jordan River is the white line at the top of the image which flows into the Dead Sea. Jerusalem, which lies in the Judaean Hill Country, is the bright, yellowish area shown along the left center of the image.Institute of Archaeology (IL)
The Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology and The Jacob M. Alkow Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures website!American Schools of Oriental Research Publications (US)
Information on publications of ASOR, focused on Near Eastern archaeology and history. Find more information on our books and journals, Near Eastern Archaeology, the Bulletin of ASOR (BASOR), and the Journal of Cuneiform Studies (JCS).Annual Egyptological Bibliography (NL)
Home page of the Annual Egyptological Bibliography.Link: http://www.aebnet.nl/...
