Ancient Near East

Marriage in Ancient Mesopotamia and Babylonia

As the bride approaches the ceremonial altar holding on to the arm of her father, the groom nervously takes a peek at the scene surrounding him... Not far away are the gifts, which shortly will be exchanged. Family members stand proudly around in a festive atmosphere. Is this taking place in upstate New York, a tropical garden in Miami, or a quaint old church in old Montreal? Perhaps, but it could well have happened somewhere in ancient Mesopotamia.

Link: http://ehistory.osu.edu/world/articles/ArticleView.cfm?AID=58

Female Subordination

Women in Ancient Mesopotamia: The Mothers of Female Subordination By Jacqueline K. Hammack. Jackson State University, Department of History. The modern world has seen the liberation of females from male subjugation. Yet there are contemporary culture that consider women property. This phenomenon has existed, codified in law, for more than four thousand years. Why have men dominated women in all civilizations for all of recorded history? What happened in prehistorical times that females came to be subordinated by males for so many thousand years, or have females been in subordinate position since time immemorial?

Link: http://jkhammack.com/5-9body&cvrpg.pdf

Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia

The ancient world of Mesopotamia (from Sumer to the subsequent division into Babylonia and Assyria) vividly comes alive in this portrayal of the time period from 3100 BCE to the fall of Assyria (612 BCE) and Babylon (539 BCE). Readers will discover fascinating details about the lives of these people taken from the ancients' own descriptions. Beautifully illustrated, this easy-to-use reference contains a timeline and a historical overview to aid student research.

Link: http://www.hendrickson.com/html/product/37127.trade.html

Marriage and Divorce Documents

From the Ancient Near East. Old Assyrian, 19th century B.C. Text: B. HroznÃ½, Inscriptions CunÃ©iformes du KultÃ©pÃ© (Praha, 1952). Transliteration and translation, HroznÃ½, in Symbolae Koschaker (Studia et Documenta II, 1939), 108ff. For bibliography of discussions cf. H. Hirsch, Orientalia, xxxv (1966), 259f

Link: http://www.history.upenn.edu/~humm/Topics/Contracts/marri02.html

Ancient Mesopotamia: The Role of Women

From the earliest times in ancient Mesopotamia, women who came from a sector of society that could afford to have statues made placed their likenesses in temple shrines. This was done so that their images would stand in constant prayer while they continued to go about their daily chores. This female worshipper statue wears a standard fashion of the time, a simple draped dress with her right shoulder bare and hair done up in elaborate braided coils.

Link: http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/MESO/women.html

Ancient Sumer Daily Life

Link: http://mesopotamia.mrdonn.org/Sumerlife.html

Ancient Mesopotamia: Daily Life

Plaques such as this one were part of a door-locking system for important buildings in ancient Mesopotamia. The plaque was embedded into the doorjamb and then a peg was inserted into the hole. A hook or cord wrapped around the peg was covered with clay and secured the door.

Link: http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/MESO/life.html

Ancient Mesopotamia: Mathematics and Measurement

During the earliest years of recorded history, the ancient Mesopotamians were experimenting with ways to count, measure, and solve mathematical problems. They were the first to give a number a place value and to recognize the concept of zero.

Link: http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/MESO/math.html

Odyssey - Near East: Daily Life

For thousands of years, the needs of daily life in the Near East - shelter, tools, and domestic implements - have been resourcefully and creatively made from available natural materials. Houses were, and in some places still are, constructed of mud-brick, with flat roofs that served as sleeping porches in hot weather. Tools, weapons, and vessels were worked from stone.

Link: http://www.carlos.emory.edu/ODYSSEY/NEAREAST/daily.html

Odyssey - Near East: Death & Burial

In the ancient Near East burial, rather than cremation, was usually practiced. This tomb, called Tomb P1 by archaeologists, is from the ancient city of Jericho. It shows us one type of a Near Eastern tomb in its shape and in the contents buried inside.

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Link: http://www.carlos.emory.edu/ODYSSEY/NEAREAST/d&b.html

Odyssey - Near East: People

In parts of the Near East today, people's lives are in some ways very similar to their ancestors' thousands of years ago. Researchers can observe today's lifestyles along with archaeological evidence from the past to better understand the people of the ancient Near East. Let's look at how people supported themselves over thousands of years and how their lifestyles developed in the "cradle of civilization."

Link: http://www.carlos.emory.edu/ODYSSEY/NEAREAST/people.html

The Sumerian People

The people of Sumer could own slaves, although the majority of residents were free. Slaves had a number of rights, including the right to borrow money, transact business, and even buy their own freedom. The children of Sumer had few rights -- the authority of their parents was supreme. Children were expected to obey their parents in all cases. For example, the spouse of a Sumerian child was chosen by his/her parent. Those children who chose to disobey the authority of their parents faced being disinherited or sold into slavery. Women also possessed several rights, including the right to engage in business and own property.

Link: http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/middle_east/sumer_citizens.html

Sumerian Society

Religion was an intricate part of the daily life of a citizen of Sumer. Accordingly, the largest and most important structure in the city was the temple. Each city had a patron deity to which its main temple was dedicated. However, a multitude of gods were recognized and some of them might have shrines located in the main temple complex or have their own smaller temples.

Link: https://coursebible.com/ancient-cultures/sumer

Everyday Life In Babylonia And Assyria

The way of life with which this book deals flourished for 2000 years of the most formative period of human history, and it would require far more than the space available even touch upon every significant aspect of this subject. I have there,-e had to confine myself to a more modest task. What I have empted has been to give an introduction to the subject by a sketch Babylonian and Assyrian life at a few key-points, seen in the context of the historical setting.

Link: http://www.aina.org/books/eliba/eliba.htm

Ancient Babylonia - Schools

For the most part the only education that a young Babylonian might have received would have been of a scribal type. Those who were sent to school to train as a scribe had to be children of wealthy or influential parents. Boys were admitted and possibly girls as well. There is no doubt that rich women often had a lot of freedom and influence. (Bible History Online)

Link: https://bible-history.com/babylonia/BabyloniaSchools.htm

Religion in the Ancient Middle East

The Sumerians believed that the forces of nature (rain, wind, floods) were alive. The people couldn't control these forces of nature, so they worshipped them as gods. The people also believed that they were living on Earth only to please the gods.

Link: http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/articles/worldhistory/ancientmiddleeastreligion1.htm

Ancient Babylonia - Temples and Rituals

The care and feeding of the gods in the great temples was a matter of daily concern. Elaborate rituals requiring the participation and support of numbers of temple personnel evolved around the daily presentation of offerings, the cleaning of the divine statues' garments, and the purification of the temples. Offerings were provided from the temple's land holdings, endowments by royal and wealthy people, and from occasional gifts such as war booty. (Bible History Online)

Link: https://bible-history.com/babylonia/BabyloniaTemples_and_Rituals.htm

Women In Babylonia Under The Hammurabi Law Code

The best known and most complete of the ancient pre-Roman law codes is that of Hammurabi, Eighteenth Century BCE ruler of Babylon. It was the Hammurabi Code that said that one who destroys the eye of another should have his own eye put out as punishment and one who murders should himself be put to death, thus giving rise to the expression "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth".

Link: http://www.womenintheancientworld.com/hammurabilawcode.htm

The Ishtar Gate

Ancient Babylonia "" The Ishtar Gate (Bible History Online). The Ishtar Gate, one of the eight gates of the inner city of Babylon, was built during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (604- 562 BC). Only the foundations of the gate were found, going down some 45 feet, with molded, unglazed figures. The gateway has been reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin, from the glazed bricks found, so its original height is different in size. Reconstructed height is 47 feet.

Link: https://bible-history.com/babylonia/BabyloniaThe_Ishtar_Gate.htm

Hanging Garden's of Babylon

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were considered one of the wonders of the ancient world. The Greek historian Herodotus described Babylon in great detail. King Nebuchadnezzar built them in 580 BC apparently for his wife Amytis, daughter of the Median King Astyages, who was homesick for the mountains and vegetation of her native land. The site was located by an archaeologist named Koldeway at the northeast corner of Nebuchadnezzar's palace near the Ishtar Gate. The gardens were probably developed on a structure like a ziggurat and built in the form of elevated terraces. Koldeway discovered huge vaults and arches at the site. He also uncovered an ancient hydraulic system like a pump drawing water from the river. The building was about 75 feet high and the gardens were at different levels which grew around and on top of a building. (Bible History Online)

Link: https://bible-history.com/sketches/ancient/hanging-gardens-babylon.html

The Ziggurats

Ancient Babylonia "" The Ziggurats (Bible History Online) One of the most important aspects of Babylonian religion and tradition, and probably the best known, is the ziggurat. Ziggurats were huge "stepped" structures with, on their summit, far above the ground, a temple. This Temple would have been to the city god. The city ziggurat would easily be the most conspicuous building in the city, towering above any visitors coming to their city. Therefore the ziggurat was not just a religious center but also a center of civic pride. Any visitor could not but see the ziggurat. The ziggurats were built on an immense scale: in the time of Hammurapi they would sometimes reach the height of 150 feet. Around the base there might be more temples or in some case accommodation for priests.

Link: https://bible-history.com/babylonia/BabyloniaThe_Ziggurat.htm

Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III

The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III was discovered by the late Henry Layard in 1845. The 7 foot black limestone monument was found in the ruins of the palace of Shalmaneser III at ancient Calah, near Nineveh. It contains many panels displaying the Assyrian kings exploits. The Black Obelisk is one of the most important discoveries in Biblical Archaeology because one of the panels depicts the Hebrew king Jehu, or possibly one of his servants, bringing gifts to Shalmaneser and kneeling at his feet. The inscription above it reads: "The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri, silver, gold, bowls of gold, chalices of gold, cups of gold, vases of gold, lead, a sceptre for the king, and spear-shafts, I have received." (Bible History Online)

Link: https://bible-history.com/archaeology/assyria/black-obelisk.html

Nebuchadnezzar's Palace

King Nebuchadnezzar's Palace in Ancient Babylon http://architecture.about...com/od/themiddleeast/ig/Iraq-

Link: http://architecture.about.com/od/themiddleeast/ig/Iraq-Photos/Nebuchandezzar-s-Palace.htm

Walls of Babylon

Ancient Walls of Babylon, 604 to 562 B.C. In its glory, Babylon was surrounded by thick masonry walls ornamented with images of the ancient God of Marduk.

Link: http://architecture.about.com/od/themiddleeast/ig/Iraq-Photos/Ancient-Walls-of-Babylon.htm

Babylon's Original Walls

Original Walls of Babylon, 604 to 562 B.C. In 604 to 562 B.C., thick masonry walls were built around Babylon.

Link: http://architecture.about.com/od/themiddleeast/ig/Iraq-Photos/Original-Walls-of-Babylon.htm

Reconstructed Images of the City of Babylon in Iraq

Ancient city that was located on the east side of the Euphrates river, and capital of Babylonia in 2nd and 1st millennia BCE. Its ruins are found 90 km south of modern Baghdad in Iraq.The main foundation for Babylon's economy was trade routes between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea, as well as agriculture fed by the rich Euphrates River. Babylon is today famous mainly for its size and architecture from the period of Nebuchadnezzar 2 in the 6th century BCE, when it covered about 10 kmÂ² and was by far the largest city in the world. But this city only survived for few decades before it was sacked by the Persians. Saddam Hussein ordered the reconstruction atop the ancient ruins that destroyed a lot of ancient artefacts on the site.

Link: http://lexicorient.com/e.o/babylon01_img.htm

Palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad

Reconstruction image of the palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad, Iraq

Link: http://www.biblepicturegallery.com/pictures/IranIraq/Reconstruction%20of%20the%20palace%20of%20Sargon%20II%20at%20Khor%20pa.htm

The Hammurabi Stele

Link: http://picasaweb.google.com/polymoose/Europe2007#5156221990595783298

Hittite Palace in Turkey

Hittite palace area. This photograph shows the ruins of a Hittite palace in Turkey. Rectangular shaped stones show the outline of where rooms had been and grass grows up between them. Three large terra cotta jars can be seen in one of the "rooms". Visitors to the site are kept back from the ruins by barbed wire fences.

Link: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/multimedia/5059

Hattusa

Contains images of monuments on Hattusa. HattuÃ¾a is a fantastic site. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The earliest traces of settlement on the site is from the 6th millennium BCE. Before 2000 BCE the site was settled by the Hatti, the pre-Hittites. Around 1700 BCE, this city was destroyed, apparently by King Anitta from Kushar. A generation later, a Hittite speaking king built HattuÃ¾a. It became the capital of the Hittite Empire. At its peak, the city covered 1.8 kmÂ². The city was destroyed around 1200 BCE with the collapse of the Hittite Empire. The city has several large temple complexes, and many fortifications, including a large city wall. Nearby is YazÃ½lÃ½kaya, a sanctuary of HattuÃ¾a. It has some marvelous reliefs carved in the rock walls. The Hittites ruled a vast Empire in the Middle East.

Link: http://gei.aerobaticsweb.org/turkey_hattusa.html

Winged Lion of Babylon

Human-headed winged lion (lamassu), 883 859 B.C.;Neo-Assyrian period, reign of Ashurnasirpal II

Link: http://www.crystalinks.com/wingedlionbabylon.jpg

Phoenician Ships, Navigation and Commerce

The first attempts of the Phoenicians to navigate the sea which washed their coast were probably as clumsy and rude as those of other primitive nations. They are said to have voyaged from island to island by means of rafts.1 When they reached the shores of the Mediterranean, it can scarcely have been long ere they constructed boats for fishing and coasting purposes, though no doubt such boats were of a very rude construction. Probably, like other races, they began with canoes, roughly hewn out of the trunk of a tree. The torrents which descended from Lebanon would from time to time bring down the stems of fallen trees in their flood-time; and these, floating on the Mediterranean waters, would suggest the idea of navigation. They would, at first, be hollowed out with hatchets and adzes, or else with fire; and, later on, the canoes thus produced would form the models for the earliest efforts in shipbuilding. The great length, however, would soon be found unnecessary, and the canoe would give place to the boat, in the ordinary acceptation of the term. There are models of boats among the Phoenician remains which have a very archaic character,2 and may give us some idea of the vessels in which the Phoenicians of the remoter times braved the perils of the deep. They have a keel, not ill shaped, a rounded hull, bulwarks, a beak, and a high seat for the steersman. The oars, apparently, must have been passed through interstices in the bulwark.

Link: http://phoenicia.org/ships.html

Phoenican Trading Ship

Marititme History/ Ancient Mesopotamian Ships/ Phoenican Trading Ship Phoenician cargo and trading ships of this design are known from the tomb of Sargon of Nineveh, c.700 B.C. where such ships were depicted loading cedar logs. These symmetrical, 'round', oared, sailing ships had high stem and stern posts upon which were carved horse heads. This ship appears to have a hogging truss which indicates an early design. Round trading ships had advantages for the transport of bulk goods.

Link: http://www.ahrtp.com/EarlyShipsOnLine/pages/MesopotamianShip2.htm

Phoenican Trading Ship

Link: http://www.ahrtp.com/EarlyShipsOnLine/pages/MesopotamianShip2.htm

Turkey Bodrum

Replica of the Yassiada shipwreck from Byzantine times (7th c.), St. Peter's castle; Bodrum, Turkey

Link: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Turkey.Bodrum054.jpg

Reconstruction of the Yassiada shipwreck

Turkey Bodrum (partial) reconstruction of the Yassiada shipwreck from Byzantine times (7th c.), St. Peter's castle; Bodrum, Turkey

Link: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Turkey.Bodrum055.jpg

Turkey Bodrum (partial) reconstruction

Turkey Bodrum (partial) reconstruction of the Yassiada shipwreck from Byzantine times (7th c.), St. Peter's castle; Bodrum, Turkey

Link: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Turkey.Bodrum056.jpg

Real-size Replica; Uluburun Shipwreck

Turkey Bodrum real-size replica; Uluburun shipwreck, St. Peter's castle, Bodrum, Turkey

Link: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Turkey.Bodrum091.jpg

Mesopotamian Boats

The paucity of pictorial representation of Mesopotamian boats makes comparisons difficult. Their watercraft, as presently known, did not survive the ages. Despite advances in the maritime archaeology around the world, the ships and boats of Mesopotamia remain elusive. The little information we have is currently limited to iconography and texts.

Link: http://www.egyptorigins.org/mesoboats.htm

History of Boats and Ships

Humans have tended to live near water, and it is natural to make use of things that float. Logs or bundles of reeds can be lashed together to form rafts; hollow trunks can be improved to become dugout canoes. Once the principle of a watertight hull is understood, animal hides or the bark of trees can be attached to a framework of bamboo or wicker to make a simple coracle. Boats of all these kinds have been made by technologically primitive communities, and many continue to be made into the 20th century.

Link: http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=102&HistoryID=aa14

Phoenician Ships

The best seafarers and ship builders of the ancient world were the Phoenicians. The famous Lebanese cedar tress covering the slopes of mountains of their native land was a perfect material for construction of strong seaworthy ships. The Phoenicians made important contributions to the marine science, having been credited with the division of a circle into 360 degrees and having reliable celestial reference points.

Link: http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Parliament/2587/ships.html

Phoenician Cargo Ship

Considered the best shipbuilders of the time, the Phoenicians designed boats that depended more on wind than on manpower. Phoenician ships could carry more cargo than galley ships, which needed room for oars and rowers...

Link: http://encarta.msn.com/media_461530722/phoenician_cargo_ship.html

Archaeological Site of Phoenician Shipwreck

Location of the two Phoenician ships of c. 750 B.C. that foundered 46km off Gaza with cargoes of wine in amphoras. The crew of the U.S. Navy deep submergence research submarine NR-1 discovered the sites in 1997 and in 1999 a team led by Robert Ballard and Harvard University archeology Professor Lawrence Stager investigated the wrecks.

Link: http://wikimapia.org/7000230/Archeological-Site-of-Phoenician-Shipwreck

Ashkelon 1999

In June 1999, IFE mounted an expedition to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. The expedition team included archaeologists from the Leon Levy Expedition at Ashkelon under the direction of Dr. Lawrence Stager of Harvard University. Dr. Ballard, Project Leader for the Expedition, was joined by oceanographers and engineers from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Johns Hopkins University. The team surveyed two ancient shipwrecks at a depth of more than 1000 feet. The ships are the oldest vessels ever discovered in the deep sea.

Link: http://www.mysticaquarium.org/INSTITUTEFOREXPLORATION/IFEResearch/IFEExpeditions/Ashkelon1999/tabid/392/Default.aspx

Phoenician Shipwrecks

A team of oceanographers and archaeologists led by Robert D. Ballard of the Institute for Exploration in Mystic, Connecticut, and Lawrence Stager of Harvard University has found two ancient Phoenician shipwrecks in the eastern Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Israel. Lying more than 1,000 feet (305 meters) below the surface, they are the oldest vessels ever discovered in the deep sea. The ships were most likely lost in a violent storm around 750 B.C., during the time of Homer. The expedition was partly sponsored by the National Geographic Society's Expeditions Council.

Link: http://www.aoun.name/node/62

Seytan Deresi

The institute's second excavation of 1975 was conducted near Âªeytan Deresi (Devil's Creek), on the north coast of Turkey's Kerme Bay. AINA (now INA) had surveyed the wreck in 1973 and raised two huge pottery vessels, along with a number of pot sherds. The site seemed untouched since then. The jars had been found at the base of a sloping field of rock outcrops and boulders. No traces of wood had been found, to obvious disappointment, nor were there any non-ceramic objects other than a fishing weight, which was not necessarily antique.

Link: http://ina.tamu.edu/seytan/seytanderesi.htm

Uluburun Shipwreck

Bronze Age Shipwreck Excavation in Uluburun. The Institute of Nautical Archaeology's (INA) shipwreck excavation between 1984 and 1994 at Uluburun, near Kas in southern Turkey, brought to light one of the wealthiest and largest known assemblages of Late Bronze Age items found in the Mediterranean. The shipwreck lay on a steep rocky slope at a depth of 44 to 52 m, with artifacts scattered down to 61 m.

Link: http://ina.tamu.edu/ub_main.htm

Uluburun Shipwreck Website

Explore the wreck and view the artifacts in this website of the Uluburun Shipwreck. In 1984, sponge divers off the coast of Turkey found the remains of ancient shipwreck.

Link: http://sara.theellisschool.org/~shipwreck/ulusplash.html

Cape Gelidonya

Bronze Age Shipwreck Excavation at Cape Gelidonya. Cape Gelidonya, sometimes known also as Khelidonya or Silidonya Burnu, is the Chelidonian promontory of Pliny (Natural History 5.27.97) in Lycia. The cape marks the western extremity of the Bay of Antalya. Running south from the cape is a string of five small islands, the Chelidoniae of antiquity, called Celidoni by Italian sailors, and later, Selidonlar by the Turks, but today known simply as Besadalar (Five Islands). Strabo (14.2.1 and 14.3.8) noted only three of them and Pliny (Natural History 5.35.1 31 ) only four. In about 1200 BC, a merchant vessel apparently ripped its bottom open on a pinnacle of rock that nears the surface of the sea just off the northeast side of Devecitasi Abasi, the largest of the islands (36Â° 11'40" N, 30Â° 24'Z7" E). Spilling artifacts in a line as she sank, the ship eventually settled with her stern resting on a large boulder 50 meters or so away to the north; her bow landed on a flat sea-floor of rock. At some point during the hull's disintegration, the stern slipped off the boulder into a natural gully formed by the boulder and the base of the island.

Link: http://ina.tamu.edu/capegelidonya.htm

Mazarron Wrecks

The Vessel I of MazarrÃ³n was excavated in the spring of 1995, inside the context of the 'Nave Fenicia' proyect, it began in October of 1993 and it concluded about June of 1995. In this project it were prospected systematically 72.000 m2 at the Playa de la Isla MazarrÃ³n (Murcia), and it were recovered more than 7.000 fragments of phoenician objects, the wessel I (MazzarrÃ³n I) was excavated, it was carried out an underwater mold of the remains, it was recovered and I carried to the Museum. and the Ship II was located, it is also a phoenician ship, with similar characteristics of the first one. This second ship was covered appropriately and it remains are, even, in the sea bottom of the mentioned bay.

Link: http://www2.rgzm.de/navis/ships/Ship058/Ship058Engl.htm

Mazarron Wrecks Images

Link: http://www2.rgzm.de/scripts/dbWeb/dbwebc.dll/SearchImagesOneShip?getxresults

Shipwreck of lost 'Sea People' Found

By Environmental News Network staff. An ancient shipwreck, believed to be a Phoenician vessel lost about 2,500 years ago, has been discovered nearly 3,000 feet beneath the Mediterranean Sea. The shipwreck has been christened "Melkarth," after the Phoenician god of sailors and is believed to be the oldest ever discovered in deep water.

Link: http://edition.cnn.com/TECH/science/9810/16/shipwreck.yoto/

Assyrian Stone Altar

Assyrian Stone Altar sketch

Link: https://bible-history.com/sketches/assyria/assyrian_stone_altar.html

Ancient Lattice Windows

The lattice window looked very much like a fisherman's net, and was used in warm middle eastern countries. It was formed of reticulated work, and highly ornamental. They also had hinges which allowed them to be open or shut. On very hot days then sun is kept out while the air is let in through the trellis openings.

Link: https://bible-history.com/sketches/ancient/lattice.html

Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Link: https://bible-history.com/sketches/ancient/hanging-gardens-babylon.html

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Link: http://www.yahoo.com

Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Link: https://bible-history.com/sketches/ancient/hanging-gardens-babylon.html

Mesha Stele Photo

Moabite Stone
Language: Moabite (a West Semitic Language)
Medium: basalt stone stele
Size: 1.15 meters high, 60-68 centimeters wide
Length: 35 lines of writing
Honoree: Mesha, king of Moab
(late 9th century BCE)
Approximate Date: 830 BCE
Place of Discovery: Dhiban [in modern Jordan]
Date of Discovery: 1868
Current Location: Louvre Museum (Paris, France)
Inventory number: AO 5066

Link: https://bible-history.com/acp/images/artifacts/moabite_stone.jpg

Dangerous Archaeology

Archaeology and the Near East

Link: http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Exhibits/DangerousArchaeology/MainDangerous.html

Selection from the Teachings of MerikaRe

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Tale of Sinuhe among the Asiatics

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Manetho on the Hyksos

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

The 400 Year Inscription at Tanis

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: http://www.specialtyinterests.net/inscr400.html

On the destruction of land by the Hyksos (Hatshepsut)

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Campaign of Thothmosis III against Megiddo

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Noblemen's Tomb, Rekmire

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Campaign of Thothmosis IV

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Amarna Tablet 75. Letter from Rib-Hadda to the Pharaoh

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: http://www.kchanson.com/ANCDOCS/meso/amarna75.html

Restoration of Tutankhamun

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Theophoric Titles

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Famine story, Tale of Aqhat

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Dying and Rising Baal, Ugaritic Myths

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Animal Sacrifice, Legend of King Keret

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Funerary Rites, Tale of Aqhat

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Rameside Family

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Campaign of Seti I in Northern Palestine

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Major Campaigns of Seti I

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Beth Shan Stela of Seti I

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Merneptah Stela

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Papyrus Anastasi III

Claim that Egyptian records support a centuries-long Exodus. Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

The Report of a Frontier Official,Papyrus Anastasi VI

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

The Pursuit of Runaway Slaves,Papyrus Anastasi V

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Ahiram Sacrophagus Inscription

Alphabets & Writing Systems. Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: http://victorian.fortunecity.com/vangogh/555/Spell/writing-sys1.htm

Mesha Stela

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Ben-Hadad Stela

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Yehimilk's Temple Inscription

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Siloam Pool Inscription

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Sennacherib's Campaign against Judah

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Selection from Lachish Ostraca

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Funerary Inscription of Tabnit of Sidon

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Child Sacrifice, Philo of Byblos

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Snake Worship introduced by Thoth, Philo of Byblos

Selected Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Link: https://bible-history.com/texts/anet.html

Encarta Online information about Hammurabi

information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]

Link: http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761574778/hammurabi.html

Encarta Online information on Hammurabi's Code

Collection of the laws and edicts of the Babylonian king Hammurabi, and the earliest legal code known in its entirety. A copy of the code was unearthed by a team of French archaeologists during the winter of 1901 to 1902 at Susa, in a part of Iran that was once ancient Elam. [People in History] [Searches and Tools]

Link: http://encarta.msn.com/Code_of_Hammurabi.html

Encarta on Hammurabi's Code

Info on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]

Link: http://encarta.msn.com/Code_of_Hammurabi.html

Yale Law School with text of Hammurabi's Code

information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]

Link: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/medieval/hammenu.htm

Yale Law School with Babylonian background

information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]

Link: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/medieval/hammenu.htm

Yale Law School with still more about Hammurabi

information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]

Link: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/medieval/hammenu.htm

Myths and Legends

information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]

Link: http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/myth.html

Ancient Mesopotamia Teacher's Resource Guide

information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [Oriental Institute] [People in History] [Searches and Tools]

Link: http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/MESO/mesohome.html

Ancient Mesopotamia Timeline and Links

information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]

Link: http://www.timelineindex.com/content/view/40

Hammurabi's Code, View a Stela

information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi [People in History] [Searches and Tools]

Link: http://www.gregpetersoninspections.com/hammurabi.jpg

Hammurabi

Hammurabi made Babylon one of the great cities of the ancient world. Archaeologists have discovered that in his city the streets were laid out in straight lines that intersect approximately at right angles, an innovation that bears witness to city planning and strong central government. [information on Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Hammurabi] [People in History] [Searches and Tools]

Link: http://lexicorient.com/e.o/hammurabi.htm

Babylonian Clay Tablets, with cuneiform inscriptions

Samples of Babylonian Clay Tablets, with cuneiform inscriptions, dating from 2350 B.C. These tablets are original temple receipts. [Florida State Univ.]

Link: http://www.fsu.edu/~speccoll/other.htm

Cuneiform Inscription on a smal Babylonian clay tablet

An expert working at the British Museum has confirmed the existence of an important Biblical figure after deciphering a cuneiform inscription on a small Babylonian clay tablet. Austrian Assyriologist Dr Michael Jursa made the breakthrough discovery confirming the existence of a Babylonian official mentioned in the Old Testament and connected to the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar. The clay document is dated to the 10th year of Nebuchadnezzar II (595 BC) and names the official, Nebo-Sarsekim. According to chapter 39 of the Book of Jeremiah, he was present at the siege of Jerusalem in 587 BC with Nebuchadnezzar himself.

Link: http://www.24hourmuseum.org.uk/nwh_gfx_en/ART48827.html

Darius the Great: NaqÅ¡-i Rustam inscription

Darius I (Old Persian DÃ-rayavauÅ¡): king of ancient Persia, whose reign lasted from 522 to 486. He seized power after killing king GaumÃ-ta, fought a civil war (described in the Behistun inscription), and was finally able to refound the Achaemenid empire, which had been very loosely organized until then. Darius fought several foreign wars, which brought him to India and Thrace. When he died, the Persian empire had reached its largest extent. He was succeeded by his son Xerxes. Darius was buried at NaqÅ¡-i Rustam. The double inscription on his tomb (see picture) reads as follows:

Link: http://www.livius.org/da-dd/darius/darius_i_t01.html

Cuneiform Tablets

In the late fourth and third milleniums B.C. a people called the Sumerians began to develop a writing system called "cuneiform" ("wedge-shaped"), written on wet clay with a sharpened stick, or stylus. At first the Sumerians used a series of pictures ("pictograms") to record information having to do with business and administration, but went on to develop a system of symbols that stood for ideas and later sounds (usually syllables). In the later stages of Sumerian writing there were about 600 signs that were used on a regular basis.

Link: http://www.crystalinks.com/cuneiformtablets.html

Inscription of Nebuchadnezzar

The reign of Nebuchadnezzar extended from B.C. 604 to 561. In B.C. 598 he laid siege to Jerusalem (2 Kings xxiv.) and made Jehoiachin prisoner, and in 588 again captured the city, and carried Zedekiah, who had rebelled against him, captive to Babylon (2 Kings xxv.). Josephus gives an account of his expeditions against Tyre and Egypt, which are also mentioned with many details in Ezek. xxvii.-xxix. The name Nebuchadnezzar, or more accurately Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. xxi. 2, 7, etc.), is derived from the Jewish Scriptures. But in the inscriptions it reads Nebo-kudurri-ussur, i.e., "may Nebo protect the crown"; a name analogous to that of his father Nebo(Nabu)-habal-ussur. ("Nebo protect the son") and to that of Belshazzar, i.e., "Bel protect the prince." The phonetic writing of Nebuchadnezzar is "An-pa-sa-du-sis," each of which syllables has been identified through the syllabaries. The word "kudurri" is probably the (Hebrew - KeTeR) of (Page 251) Esther vi. 8, and the (Greek - kidaris) of the Greeks. The inscriptions of which a translation follows was found at Babylon by Sir Harford Jones Bridges, and now forms part of the India House Collection. It is engraved on a short column of black basalt, and is divided into ten columns, containing 619 lines.

Link: http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Assyria/Inscrb00.html

Cuneiform Inscriptions of the University of Minnesota

The University of Minnesota owns nineteen artifacts inscribed in cuneiform, the script of ancient Mesopotamia. This collection, which is kept in Special Collections and Rare Books at the Elmer L. Andersen Library, comprises sixteen clay tablets, two clay cones, and one inscribed and sealed clay tag. These documents include sixteen administrative records from various cities of Sumer in the Ur III period (late 3rd millennium BCE), and three short royal inscriptions from the cities of Isin and Uruk in the early Old Babylonian period (early 2nd millennium BCE). Most of the texts were published four decades ago by Tom B. Jones, then professor of ancient history at the University of Minnesota, and John W. Snyder. They are now made available to the public in new editions, including transliterations, translations, and photographs, through digital media.

Link: http://special.lib.umn.edu/rare/cuneiform/

Persia

Deals with the Persian Empire [People in History] [Tools and Searches]

Link: http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/history/persians.htm

Sparta

Deals with the Persian War [People in History] [Tools and Searches]

Link: http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/greeks/government/spartans.htm

Athens

Deals with the Persian War. Ancient Athens Athenian Rule Important Army [People in History] [Tools and Searches]

Link: http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/greeks/government/athens.htm

The Battle of Issus or Battle of Alexander and the Persians

Details of mosaic from Naples, Italy. They depict a battle between Alexander the Great and Darius III, king of Persia. Photo gallery of 12 pictures for "Mosaic of the Battle of Issus" [Ancient Egypt] [Images]

Link: http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/1098_Mosaic_of_the_Battle_of_Issus.html

Alexander the Great Photo Gallery

Photos: Istanbul Archaeological Museums: Alexander the Great Photo Gallery by Andrys Basten at pbase.com [Ancient Near East] [Images]

Link: http://www.pbase.com/andrys/istanbul2

Xerxes

Born about 465 BC, to Darius Hystaspis and Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great. He was king of Persia from 486-465 BC. He tried to continue his father`s plans to conquer Greece from 483-480 BC, after which he returned to Persia. [Famous Battles] [Ancient Greece]

Link: http://plato-dialogues.org/tools/char/xerxes.htm

Xerxes` march route

Interactive game. Xerxes was born about 465 BC, to Darius Hystaspis and Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great. He was king of Persia from 486-465 BC. He tried to continue his father`s plans to conquer Greece from 483-480 BC, after which he returned to Persia. [Maps] [Ancient Near East]

Link: http://edsitement.neh.gov/Persian01_flash_page.asp

Xerxes` march route

Link: http://edsitement.neh.gov/Persian01_flash_page.asp

Map of the Hellespont

Description: A map showing the Hellespont, and the surrounding territory during the Peloponnesian War. Place Names: Greece, Ilium, Cressa, Abydus, Pactye, Parium, Lampascus, Aenus, Samothrace ISO Topic Categories: intelligenceMilitary, inlandWaters, oceans, location Keywords: Map of the Hellespont, physical, political, historical, peloponnesian war, physical features, local jurisdictions, other military, intelligenceMilitary, inlandWaters, oceans, location, Unknown, 405 B.C. Source: George Willis Botsford, Ph. D., A History of Greece (London, : The Macmillan Company, 1912) 236 Map Credit: The Private Collection of Roy Winkelman.[Maps] [Ancient Near East]

Link: http://etc.usf.edu/maps/pages/800/846/846.htm

Empires and Cities (Ancient Near East)

Until this section is finished being indexed into the main database you can click here to see a list of links including the Bible History Online general resources on this subject, although many of these links are outdated. [Ancient Near East]

Link: https://bible-history.com/resource/ah_ahist.htm

Poppa's Ancient World 3500-400 BC. (Timeline)

"From the start of recorded history, the Near East has played an integral part in shaping the world we know. From the first real civilisation, the Sumerians, through the struggle for power between the Egyptian and Hittite empires and the rise and fall of the Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian empires, this region provides a wealth of fascinating facts and stories. Here we will be taking a look at three main areas; Mesopotamia, Anatolia and Syria/Israel, which are all marked on the map below. Although the complete Egyptian history is not included in this section, Egypt did have a big influence and therefore have been included in the timelines." includes maps.

Link: http://victorian.fortunecity.com/kensington/207/mideast.html

Map of Ancient Near East

Map of Ancient Near East - Eastern Mediterranean Area- Eastern Mediterranean Area. Yale University.

Link: https://bible-history.com/acp/images/yale/yale-ima027.jpg

Royal Harp From Ur

Royal Harp: from the Tomb of Queen Puabi, Ur; c2685 BC The University Museum, Philadelphia. Wood with inlaid lapis lazuli and shell; 17" high [Image from Yale University]

Link: https://bible-history.com/acp/images/yale/yale-ima030.jpg

Head of an Akkadian Ruler

Nineveh, Iraq: Head of an Akkadian Ruler: c2300-2200 BC Iraq Museum, Baghdad; Bronze 14 3/8" high. [Image from Yale University]

Link: https://bible-history.com/acp/images/yale/yale-ima033.jpg

Gudea of Lagash (Yale Photo)

Gudea of Lagash: c2150 BC Metropolitan Museum of Art, Diorite. [Image from Yale University]

Link: https://bible-history.com/acp/images/yale/yale-ima034.jpg

Ziggurat at Ur (Yale Photo)

Ziggurat at Ur: (Ziggurat of King Urnammo) c2500-2100 BC [Image from Yale University]

Link: https://bible-history.com/acp/images/yale/yale-ima037.jpg

Restored Ishtar Gate (Yale Photo)

Restored Ishtar Gate: Babylon c575 BC; Pergamon Museum, Berlin, Glazed brick. [Image from Yale University]

Link: https://bible-history.com/acp/images/yale/yale-ima038.jpg

Ashurnasirpal II at War (Yale Photo)

Ashurnasirpal II at War: Palace of Nimrud. c875 BC British Museum, London. Limestone Approximately 23" high. [Image from Yale University]

Link: https://bible-history.com/acp/images/yale/yale-ima035.jpg

Stele with Law Code of Hammurabi

Babylon, Old (Babylon I): Stele with Law Code of Hammurabi: Medium Sculpture (carved basalt) Mesopotamia; Period: 2025-1594 BCE Object Date: c. 1780 BCE.

Link: http://www.allaboutarchaeology.org/hammurabi-code-of-law-faq.htm

Standard of Ur (War Side)

Sumerian Period: Standard of Ur (War Side): (Wood panel inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli and red limestone). Site: Royal Cemetery at Ur. Country: Mesopotamia. Period Date: c.2700-2300 BCE; Object Date c. 2700 BCE. [Image from Yale University]

Link: http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/tombs/explore/pg779_w.html

Bronze Statuettes

Syria: Tell Judaidah; Early Bronze Age;(Amuq Phase G), ca. 3100-2900 B.C. Bronze with silver-rich alloy. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1935-6. "Archaeologists found these three statuettes in a cache that contained three male and three female figurines. They are the earliest known metal castings of human figures in the round from Syria. The males wear broad belts and helmets covered with a silver alloy; they probably once held weapons in their upraised hands. The naked females' hair is held in place with a headband and bound in the back in an elaborate chignon. They cross their arms and grasp their breasts in their hands - a common ancient pose that probably connotes fertility. The statuettes were intended to be mounted in some fashion, for a tang projects below the feet of each one. The skill with which these unique pieces were modelled and the technical knowledge that was needed for their casting reveal surprisingly high standards of artistic and technical achievement in Syria at the beginning of the third millennium B.C.

Link: https://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/HIGH/OIM_A24198-9.html

Male and Female Figurines

Syria: Tell Fakhariyah; ca. 1300-1000 B.C. Gypsum, painted, inlaid with bitumen and stone. Loan to the Oriental Institute. "A naked female and a partially clothed male are represented by this unique pair of red-coated stone figurines. Hair or headdresses made of a separate material were probably once attached to the pegs atop their heads. The male, who stands with his hands at his sides, wears a loincloth tied at the back. The female grasps her breasts with her hands-a common ancient pose that probably connotes fertility. She appears to be naked except for some type of foot-gear applied to her stump-like feet."

Link: https://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/HIGH/OIM_LI_364.html

Male and Female Sphinx

Syria: Tell Ta'yinat, Building 1, floor 2; Iron Age (Amuq Phase O), ca. 800 B.C. Basalt inlaid with white and green stone. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1936. "Sphinxes-imaginary creatures composed of a lion's body and a human head-are a motif that originated in Egypt and became common in the art of Western Asia beginning in the latter part of the second millennium B.C. This recumbent sphinx of local Syrian manufacture has an unusually vivacious character due to the position of the head, which is turned sideways with the chin slightly raised, not at the stiff right angle often found in ancient Near Eastern sculpture."

Link: https://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/HIGH/OIM_A27853.html

Victorious Assyrian Soldiers

Syria: Tell Ta'yinat, Building VII; Iron Age (Amuq Phase O), ca. 750-725 B.C. Limestone. Excavated by the Oriental Institute, 1936. "After they had conquered Tell Ta'yinat, the Assyrians carved these reliefs and used them to decorate a palace or public structure. The scene shows victorious Assyrian soldiers carrying the cut-off heads of their defeated enemies to a location where the number of those slain would be counted. Beneath the soldiers' feet lie the decapitated bodies. Each soldier wears a helmet, carries a bow and quiver over his shoulder, and holds three arrows in his right hand."

Link: https://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/HIGH/OIM_A27854-6.html

Portrait Head of a Ruler

Iran (Elamite) Portrait Head of a Ruler: ca. 2100-2000 B.C. From AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.