Bible Books
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
Hebrew Name - Dani-El "God is my judge"
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Greek Name - Danil (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Main Theme - The final kingdom of the Messiah
Read More
Types and Shadows - In Daniel Jesus was the fourth man in the
fiery furnace
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Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
Read More
Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
Read More
The prophet Hosea had a real-life situation that God used to
illustrate his problem with the nation of Israel. Hosea's
adulterous wife had broken his heart, and this is exactly what
the children of Israel had done to God when they played the
harlot with other gods. Later when her adulterous affairs had
led her to be sold on the slave block, Hosea was willing to
buy her back for he could not give her up. This dramatically
illustrated Israel's situation for soon they would be
conquered by the Assyrians and then sold into slavery because
they had forgotten their God. The prophet Hosea spoke about a
future blessing in which God will restore Israel.
Read More
Quick Overview of Hosea. – – 1 – – Hosea's marriage to a
harlot illustrates Israel and their sin – – 2 – – Israel
suffers for their harlotry – – 3 – – Israel's future
restoration – – 4 – – Ephraim's idolatry – – 5-6 – – God's
chastisement and future mercy – – 7-13 – – the Lord's judgment
upon Israel – – 14 – – the restoration of Israel.
Read More
Story of Hosea and his unfaithful wife, Gomer. Represents
God's love and faithfulness and Israel's spiritual adultery.
Israel will be judged and restored.
Read More
Quick Overview of Joel. – – 1: 1-2:27 – – The plague of
locusts – – 2:38-3:21 – – the approaching day of the Lord.
Read More
The prophet Hosea was commanded by God to marry a wife of
harlotry because Israel hath committed great harlotry. He was
sent by God to prophesy about the northern King of Israel.
Hosea ministered to Israel for a great length of time (over 50
years), and they were his primary target although he does
mention four kings of Judah (Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah). The northern kingdom of Israel was enjoying
tremendous prosperity during the reign of Jeroboam II, yet
when he died various kings came to the throne for a brief
period of time and then many were assassinated. The problem
with the northern kingdom was that they were idolaters, and
every one of their kings were evil whether they prospered or
not. The people were making sacrifices on heathen altars,
adultery was prevalent, and ritualistic prostitution abounded.
Hosea attributed their wretchedness to a lack of knowledge,
not a lack of intellectual knowledge, but lacking a
relationship with the living God. Yet God loves his people
with an everlasting love in spite of their corruption.
Read More
In Hosea 1-3, the faithless actions of Israel toward God are
illustrated by the relationship between Hosea and his
adultress wife, Gomer. The names of his children indicate the
attitude of God toward Israel. The first is named "Jezreel"
after the city which was the scene of Jehu's brutality and
which signified that God would punish his people. Lo-Ruhamah
(Not pitied) and Lo-Ammi (Not my people) are the names given
to the two other children, signifying the estrangement which
was the inevitable result of the actions of Israel. God's love
is illustrated in Hosea's willingness to buy his wife back
from the practice of harlotry - though she could not continue
in her harlotry while he was with her.
The second division of the prophecy, found in Hosea 4-14,
presents a detailed picture of the depths of depravity to
which Israel had gone, with alternating passages of reproof,
threats of punishment, and assurances of restoration.
Read More
Main Theme - The apostasy of Israel. My people are bent on
backsliding from Me. Though they call to the Most High, none
at all exalt Him. "How can I give you up, Ephraim? How can I
hand you over, Israel? . . . My heart churns within Me; my
sympathy is stirred. . . "I will heal their backsliding, I
will love them freely, for My anger has turned away from him."
Hosea 11:7-8, 14:4
Read More
Greek Name - Osee (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Hosea (According to Jewish Tradition)
Read More
Types and Shadows - In Hosea Jesus is the faithful husband who
bought His wife back from the slave block.
Read More
The prophet Joel showed up in Israel during a time of the
most terrible plague of locusts in the nation's history.
Joel came and prophesied to the land of Judah before the
plague came. He warned the people of Judah that the
devastation was going to sweep across the land very soon. He
called for a season of fasting, mourning, and repentance.
He warned them of God's judgment in the imagery of the
impending invasion of locusts. He called the people of Judah
and Jerusalem to weep over the sins, and to fast and repent
because the day of the Lord is approaching. Soon the plague
came and devastated the whole land and its effects were
clearly seen and felt. The locusts came like a storm, they
darkened the skies and every green thing was left barren.
There was no hope of escape and they left utter decimation
in their path. Joel seized upon the imagery of the locusts
as a type of the greater judgement that would come on "the
Day of the Lord" in the last days: Alas for the day! For the
day of the LORD is at hand; it shall come as destruction
from the Almighty . . . The LORD gives voice before His
army, for His camp is very great; for strong is the One who
executes His word. For the day of the LORD is great and very
terrible; who can endure it? Joel 1:15, 2:11. Joel also gave
a message of hope and prophesied of great blessings that
would follow and the glories of the Messiah's kingdom.
Read More
The name "Joel" means "Jehovah is God." Other than his name
and the fact that he was the son of Pethuel, there is little
known about this man Joel, other than the fact that he wrote a
very powerful book. Although it is not certain it seems that
he prophesied around 800 BC during a time when Judah was
experiencing prosperity and security. God was kind enough to
give ample warning before such a devastating judgment.
When the plague of locusts came the land of Judah suffer
dramatically, and what followed after was a time of famine
drought. The plague was described by Joel in four stages, and
Joel pointed to the greater judgment that was to swarm upon
the nation if they did not turn from their ways and seek the
Lord with their whole heart. He called them to fast, and to
repent, and to weep over their sins (Joel 2:12). Joel also
gave a promise of hope and spoke of the great blessings that
would follow in the kingdom of the Messiah.
Read More
Joel described the coming day of the Lord. In the New
Testament after the resurrection of Jesus Christ and on the
day of Pentecost Peter rose to speak to the people of Israel
regarding the last days. Peter described what they were seeing
as that which was spoken by the prophet Joel (Acts 2:16). The
church age has always been seen by Christians as a time to be
alert and aware that the Lord is returning in judgment. Today
is the day of salvation, the door is open and the fields are
white unto harvest. (John 4:35) but one day Jesus will be
taking vengeance on them that know not God, and obey not the
Gospel of the Lord Jesus Christ (2 Thessalonians 1:8).
Read More
Hebrew Name - Yo-el "Yahweh is God"
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Greek Name - Joel (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Joel (According to the Bible and Jewish Tradition)
Read More
Date - 800 BC Approximately. Although it is not certain it
seems that he prophesied around 800 BC during a time when
Judah was experiencing prosperity and security. God was kind
enough to give ample warning before such a devastating
judgment.
Read More
Main Divisions include: Joel 1 - The terrible plague of
locusts
Joel 2:1-27 - The coming day of the Lord, repentance, and
restoration
Joel 2:28-3:21 - The outpouring of the Holy Spirit, judgment
upon the nations.
Read More
Main Theme - The Kingdom of Judah. Joel 2:1-3 - Blow ye the
trumpet in Zion, and sound an alarm in my holy mountain: let
all the inhabitants of the land tremble: for the day of the
LORD cometh, for [it is] nigh at hand; A day of darkness and
of gloominess, a day of clouds and of thick darkness, as the
morning spread upon the mountains: a great people and a
strong; there hath not been ever the like, neither shall be
any more after it, [even] to the years of many generations. A
fire devoureth before them; and behind them a flame burneth:
the land [is] as the garden of Eden before them, and behind
them a desolate wilderness; yea, and nothing shall escape
them.
Read More
Types and Shadows - In Joel the day of Jesus is at hand!
Read More
Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
God raised up certain "prophets" who were His mouthpieces.
They would speak out against their sin and idolatry and would
continually warn of God's judgment. Some of the prophets spoke
out in the North and some in the South, but God was faithfully
warning them of certain catastrophe if they would not turn to
him.
Read More
Main Theme - The destruction of Judah
Read More
Types and Shadows - In Jeremiah Jesus is the Lord our
righteousness
Read More
Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
Read More
Quick Overview of Lamentations. – –1 – – a destroyed Jerusalem
cries out for mercy – – 2 – –the Lord's chastisement and the
effects – – 3 – – a cry from the heart of a chastened people –
– 4 – – the horrors surrounding the siege and the fall of the
city of Jerusalem – – 5 – – a lament and prayer for the
restoration of Jerusalem.
Read More
The book contains five poems that depict the condition of the
forsaken city of Jerusalem which had been burnt to the ground
and utterly demolished by the Babylonians on the ninth of Av
in the Jewish calendar in 586 BC, in contrast to the
magnificent splendor that it once possessed. The reason for
God's chastisement on the people of Judah and on the city of
Jerusalem are spelled out in the form of an appeal made to God
to remember the great suffering of his people and to take
vengeance upon the conquerors of His city and the people of
Judah.
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The five lament poems are outlined here:
Lamentations 1 - Jerusalem's desolation is lamented
Lamentations 2 - God's wrath against the city of Jerusalem
Lamentations 3 - God's faithfulness is acknowledged
Lamentations 4 - God's faithfulness is viewed as chastisement
Lamentations 5 - God's faithfulness is worthy of trust
Read More
Author - Jeremiah (According to the Bible and Jewish
Tradition). The first four poems are arranged in an acrostic
form with each containing 22 verses which correspond with the
22 consonants of the Hebrew alphabet. In chapter 3 each letter
of the Hebrew alphabet is allotted 3 of the 66 verses which
comprise the poem. Some conclude that the reason for this was
because Israel had sinned from beginning to end (A-Z, or in
the Hebrew aleph-tav).
Jeremiah, who wrote the lamentations was an eyewitness of the
events, and this brought him great sorrow for he knew the
people, he knew the city, he knew the children, and he knew
the festivities that existed among the people of Judah.
Interesting note: The Jewish translators of the Septuagint
(LXX) attribute Jeremiah as the author of the Lamentations,
and so do other ancient translations: The Aramaic Targum, the
Latin Vulgate, and the Syriac Peshitta, and the Babylonian
Talmud.
Read More
In the Hebrew the word for the name of the book of
Lamentations is "Eikah" which means "How." How could this
happen?
Read More
Main Theme - 5 Poetic laments over the destruction of
Jerusalem
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Types and Shadows - In Lamentations Jesus is the weeping
prophet who wept over Jerusalem for her blindness.
Read More
Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
Read More
Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
Read More
Ezekiel prophesied to the the Jewish captives in Babylon.
The Babylonians had invaded Judah three times and each time
they took prisoners back to Babylon. The first invasion was
in 607 BC and Daniel was taken as a captive to Babylon. The
second invasion was in 597 BC and Ezekiel was taken as a
captive to Babylon, and in 586 BC Jerusalem was destroyed
and all the survivors were taken as captives to Babylon.
Ezekiel was married to a beautiful woman who was "the desire
of his eyes" and God told him but his beloved wife was going
to die on the very same day that Jerusalem was to be
destroyed. As a sign to the Jews is a cure was commanded not
to mourn his wife's death. He was to prepare himself as God
had prepared himself for the death of his beloved city
(Ezekiel 24:15-22). God spoke many prophecies through
Ezekiel using words, parables, visions, and similitudes
(strange things to point to something greater). Ezekiel also
prophesied about the false shepherds in Jerusalem and God
said that he will be the true Shepherd Messiah and there
will be a future outpouring of the Holy Spirit and a re-
gathering of Israel in the land. Ezekiel also predicted the
downfall of those nations that were hostile to Judah.
Ezekiel 16 is probably the most remarkable chapter
concerning the love of God for his people in spite of their
continuing idolatry.
Read More
Quick Overview of Ezekiel. – –1-3 – – the call of Ezekiel as a
prophet – –4-24 – – Ezekiel's prophecies against Jerusalem – –
25-32– –Ezekiel's prophecies against the nations– – 33-48 – –
Ezekiel's prophecies of the future restoration of Israel.
Read More
The prophet Ezekiel taken captive during the time when the
Babylonians began their captivity of Judah during the time of
the reign of king Jehoichin, which was about 11 years before
Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem. Ezekiel was one of the
Jewish captives who was brought to the land of Babylon and
settled on the banks of the river Chebar. While he was by this
river and the "land of the Chaldeans" he had a prophetic
vision and received his call to be a prophet to the people in
exile. This all happened in the fourth month of the "fifth
year of king Jehoiachin's captivity" (595 BC). There is one
interesting note that Ezekiel makes when he mentions that he
married a woman in the land of Babylon and had a house, and
that he lost his wife on the very day that the Babylonian
siege of Jerusalem took place. Something else that is
interesting is that the prophecies of Ezekiel address the Jews
in Jerusalem and the events taking place over there, as though
he was in Jerusalem, but he was actually in Babylon.
Read More
According to Jewish tradition Ezekiel was murdered in Babylon
by a Jewish prince whom Ezekiel accused of idolatry, Ezekiel
was supposedly buried on the banks of the Euphrates River.
Read More
The major divisions within the book of Ezekiel reveal the
purpose of this ministry. In the first half of the book of
Ezekiel (Ezekiel 1-33) Judah is accused of breaking all of
God's commandments, and they are warned by God that they will
be destroyed if they persist in their sins. After Ezekiel's
announcement of Jerusalem's destruction the book of Ezekiel
focuses on an entirely different subject, which is one of
comfort and encouragement to the heartbroken Jews.
Read More
The siege of Jerusalem is portrayed in four symbolical acts
(Ezekiel 4-7). In the first of these, Ezekiel evidently drew a
picture of a city under siege, indicating that this was soon
to be the condition of Jerusalem. After this, Ezekiel lay on
his side for a great number of days, announcing that the
nation was to be punished for its sins. By eating an inferior
type of food which had been cooked on animal dung, Ezekiel
predicted the famine which would accompany the siege. In the
final act, Ezekiel shaved his head, burning his hair, striking
it with a sword and scattering it to the winds, indicating the
fate of the inhabitants of Jerusalem. Ezekiel 6 and 7 contain
additional oracles concerning Israel's sin and imminent doom.
3) Visions of idolatry in Jerusalem and the resultant judgment
and destruction of that city (Ezekiel 8-11).
Read More
I. Israel's sin and impending judgment, uttered before the
final captivity (Ezekiel 1-24). II. Prophecies against the
nations of Am-mon, Moab, Edom, Philistia, Tyre, Sidon and
Egypt (Ezekiel 25-32). III. Prophecies concerning the
restoration of Israel, uttered after the destruction of
Jerusalem at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar.
Read More
Hebrew Name - Yehezqel "God is strength".
Read More
Greek Name - Iezekiel (Greek form of the Hebrew)
Read More
Author - Ezekiel (According to the Bible and Jewish Tradition)
Read More
Author - Ezekiel (According to the Bible and Jewish Tradition)
Read More
Main Theme - The final restoration of Israel
Read More
Types and Shadows - In Ezekiel Jesus is the son of man
Read More
The prophet Daniel was actually taken captive during the
Babylonian invasion on Jerusalem, the first attack in 607
BC. When Daniel came to Babylon he became a chief minister
at Nebuchadnezzar's royal court. He became known as a man
who could interpret dreams and visions. God did mighty
miracles through Daniel that impressed King Nebuchadnezzar
himself, so much so that he worshiped the Jewish God. Later
when the Medes and Persians conquered Babylon King Cyrus
ruled the Persian Empire. He also had visions that Daniel
had given interpretation to. some of the great miracles
mentioned in the Bible happened in the book of Daniel: the
fiery furnace, the handwriting on the wall, and Daniel in
the lion's den. Daniel can be seen in the Bible as the
Empire predicting prophet, because he accurately predicted
the world governing empires before they came on the scene,
first Babylon, second Persia, third Greece, fourth Rome, and
in the last days would be another Roman empire where the
antichrist would arise. At this time the Messiah will return
and set up his everlasting kingdom. Daniel also predicted
the exact day and year the Messiah would die. There is also
a prophecy Daniel refers to as the 70th week, which speaks
of a seven-year period in the future that will mark the
second coming of the Messiah (Son of Man) coming with the
clouds of heaven.
Read More
Quick Overview of Daniel. – –1-6 – – the prophetic ministry of
Daniel from King Nebuchadnezzar and Babylon to King Cyrus and
Persia– – 7-12– – the visions of Daniel during the reigns of
Belshazzar of Babylon, Darius and Cyrus of Persia.
Read More
Daniel was among the Jewish captives who were brought to
Babylon from Jerusalem after Nebuchadnezzar conquered the
city. Daniel was still a youth but apparently of high status
(Daniel 1:3). He was of such a high status that he was
considered one of the wise men of the court of Babylon .He
was quickly recognized in Babylon for his devotion to the
one God Yahweh, and he refused to eat of the "dainties"
which were brought to him by the king's servants. He also
became recognized as the interpreter of dreams (Daniel 1:8-
16), because when King Nebuchadnezzar being disturbed by a
dream asked his own wise men to interpret they could not.
Daniel offered to give the king the interpretation and the
King was very appreciative to Daniel, he was so impressed
that he allowed Daniel to rise to a place of great
prominence in Babylon. Later when Babylon fell to the
Persians the Jews had new masters over them, and Daniel was
quickly recognized as a very special man and he had favor
with the king of Persia. This caused many of those in
authority to scrutinize Daniel and to look for flaws in his
character and they could not find any. They developed a plot
which forced the King to have Daniel thrown in the lion's
den. The King recognizing their treachery and hoped for
Daniel's deliverance, and when the Lord saved Daniel from
the mouth of the lions Darius ordered his own leaders to be
thrown into the lion's den and they were torn in pieces
immediately.
Read More
Daniel is clearly seen in the Bible as the Empire predicting
prophet. He was an interpreter of dreams, and God revealed
through his interpretations his plans for the kingdoms that
would rise to power in world history. At that time Babylon was
in power, and in fact a world governing Empire in the ancient
world. But Daniel said that Babylon would be defeated by the
Medes and the Persians who would become a world governing
empire. Then Greece would come and dominate the world, and
after Greece the Romans would become a world governing empire.
Then Daniel predicted that way in the future a final world
governing empire would rise that would be like Rome, but
different in that it would consist of 10 kings, and then
finally 1 king who would rise to power. This 1 king would be a
man referred to in the Bible as the antichrist. This would all
take place in the final seven-year period known as the 70th
week of Daniel. At its consummation the Lord will return, he
will crush the enemy, and he will set up a kingdom, an
everlasting kingdom, which will never be destroyed.
Read More
The 70 weeks in Daniel are mentioned in Daniel 9, and they
refer to a prophecy of Daniel where he claims that the king of
Persia will release the Jews to rebuild their Temple in
Jerusalem. When he makes this decree the Jews are to begin
counting, and after 70 weeks (7 year periods or 490 years) the
kingdom of the Messiah will be established on earth. But
something interesting would happen, at the end of the 69th
week (483 years) the Messiah will be "cut off" which indicates
His death. The final seven year period is suddenly thrown into
the future, to the time of the end of the world. This final
seven year period is described in the book of Revelation as a
time of the Messiah taking back the earth. It is divided into
two 3 1/2 year periods and directly in the middle is when the
antichrist sets up his throne in Jerusalem and reveals himself
as God. Certain portions of this final seven years are
mentioned in other prophetic books of the Bible like
Zechariah.
Read More
Daniel was the author of this book according to Jewish
tradition, and this was confirmed by Jesus himself, but there
has been considerable criticism about the book of Daniel
because of the accuracy of the prophecies. Many claim that
these had to been written after the fact, and that Daniel
could not possibly have known so much detail about the future.
The first major critic of the genuineness of the book of
Daniel was Porphyry of Tyre, a Greek philosopher of the third
century AD who claimed that the book of Daniel had been
written by a person living in the second century BC during the
reign of Antiochus Epiphanes. His main reason for rejecting
the book of Daniel was centered around the person of Antiochus
Epiphanes, whom Daniel claimed was a prototype of the
Antichrist. Daniel's prophecies written a few hundred years
prior but were very very accurate in their detail. Many other
critics have tried to discredit the book of Daniel, but the
Bible and history have confirmed that Daniel was the author of
this book, and therefore was written at the time of the
Persian Empire (sixth century BC).
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The book of Daniel assures God's people that their situation
in exile would not be permanent, that God would keep his
promise to Abraham, he would keep his promise through Jeremiah
the prophet that they would return after 70 years. And he
would also keep his promise that the Jews would still be the
channel through which all nations would be blessed. The book
of Daniel is a grand tribute to the providence of God and His
lordship of history and the universe.
Read More
Daniel is divided into two sections of six chapters each.
Daniel 1-6 are largely historical, explaining how Daniel came
to be in the court of Nebuchadnezzar and of his rise to power.
It tells of Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the image which Daniel
interpreted to refer to the current kingdom and three world
powers which would arise after it and of the kingdom of God "a
kingdom which shall never be destroyed" which would arise
during the era of the last of these great empires. This
section also includes the account of the deliverance of
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego from the fiery furnace and of
the handwriting on the wall which spelled out the defeat of
Belshazzar at the hands of the Medes and the Persians.
The second section, Daniel 8-12, describes visions which
Daniel received concerning the great world powers of the
future and the kingdom of God.
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Types and Shadows - In Ecclesiastes Jesus is true fulfillment
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Solomon had thoroughly experienced all avenues of pleasure,
all avenues of sensuality, all avenues of wealth, honor,
folly, and the pursuit of knowledge. He also sinned in giving
way to every excess of life which his position made possible
and comes to the realization of the uselessness of it all. He
concludes that the result of his efforts have been made him
empty and that there is nothing new under the sun, but all is
part of the endless, frustrating circularity. His attitude was
spoken in the recurring phrase, "vanity of vanities, all is
vanity, saith the preacher." In Ecclesiastes, the world is
convicted of its vanity by one who has drunk of every spring.
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The conclusion which Solomon "the preacher" reaches is that in
such an empty and unsatisfying world where disappointment,
trouble and death cannot be avoided, a quiet enjoyment of
God's gifts is the only real wisdom. The man who is truly wise
will "fear God and keep his commandments" (12:13-14), making
the best of things as he finds them and trusting in the
providence of God. This secret should be understood early in
life. An understanding of this will provide one with great
pleasure in life. The book of Ecclesiastes profoundly
illustrates the idea that a life apart from God is a life
without meaning.
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Quick Overview of Song of Solomon. – –1:1-2:7 – – the bride
and her beloved – – 2:8-3:5 – – the lovers seek out and find
one another – – 3:6-4:16 – – the bridegroom pursues his bride–
– 5:1-7:9 – – the bride waits earnestly for the bridegroom – –
7:10-8:14 – – the lovers reunite and their love is
consummated.
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It is clear that this poem is a wedding song and it reveals
the glories of love. It exalts physical love, erotic love, and
everything about love. The time is springtime and two lovers
are full of passion and delight. The words in the poem are
very descriptive and romantic. When their love is finally
consummated the bond is so durable that nothing can destroy
it. The poem is clearly describing God's love for his people,
he is the bridegroom and his people are his bride. He is
deeply in love with them and ultimately there will be a
wedding day, and how excited they both are for that day.
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Chapter 1:1-2:7 - The bride expresses her deep desire to be
with her lover and sings praises about him.
Chapter 2:8-3:5 - The affections between the bride and her
lover becomes more intimate, and she pours out more praise on
the one she loves was very elaborate and exquisite analogies
from nature.
Chapter 3:6-5:1 - King Solomon gives his praise, as does the
bride, and the engagement takes place.
Chapter 5:2-6:9 - The bridegroom goes away for a period of
time, and during his absence the bride longs for his return
and continues to give him praises.
Chapter 6:10-8:4 - This section contains some very descriptive
verses describing the beauty of the bride.
Chapter 8:5-14 - The conclusion deals with the durable eternal
bond of consummated love.
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Hebrew Name - Shiyr Hashirim "Song of songs"
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Greek Name - Asma Asmaton (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Solomon (According to Tradition). The first verse of
the Book of the Song of Solomon mentions King Solomon as its
author, and this is why it is often called the Song of
Solomon. It is also referred to as Canticles (Latin) or the
Song of Songs (Hebrew) because it is considered the finest of
all songs.
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Date - 1014 BC Approximately. There is no way to know the
exact historical circumstances behind this event. We know it
was Solomon because it mentions him by name, but it is
uncertain whether he married a Shulamite woman of Israel, or
Pharaoh's daughter. Others have included a third person, a
shepherd who the girl of Shulam is in love with despite the
kings desire for her. This book was included in the Septuagint
(Greek translation of the Hebrew Canon) and was known in the
time of Jesus as part of the Hebrew Scriptures though some
critics doubt it should be in the Bible.
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The Song of Solomon was so important to the Jews that one of
the most famous rabbi's in history, Rabbi Aqiba (90-135 AD)
said that "the entire world, from the beginning until now,
does not outweigh the day in which Shiyr Hashirim (Song of
Songs) was given to Israel."
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Types and Shadows - In the Song of Solomon Jesus is the
husband who loves His beautiful bride and will return to
consummate the marriage.
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Study Bible information, images, and notes on many important
subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological notes,
geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
Read More
Isaiah prophesied during one of the worst times in the
history of Israel. The Israelites had become so corrupt God
was going to remove them out of His sight. He raised up the
Assyrian army to be an unmerciful, barbaric, ruthless, an
unstoppable war machine. Their military tactics are still
applauded today by those who understand the art of war. God
called them from their distant land to come and destroy the
Jews living in the north, and take them away from their
homeland. Isaiah was living in Judah, in the city of
Jerusalem during a time when King Uzziah had died. Isaiah
prophesied during the reign of King Uzziah, King Jotham,
King Ahaz, King Hezekiah, and probably King Manasseh of
Judah. His prophetic ministry lasted from about 760 BC until
about 720 BC. Isaiah chapter 6 records a powerful vision
that Isaiah received of God the King on his throne, and the
king called Isaiah to prophesy to His people. This was
Isaiah's call to ministry as a prophet of God and it is
interesting that it was at a time when king Uzziah had just
died. King Uzziah was faithful servant of the Lord and
people felt secure under his leadership, but when he died
there was almost a panic. This is when the Lord showed
Isaiah who was really on the throne. Isaiah was terrified at
the sight of God's holiness (Isaiah 6) and when the Lord
called him and asked him who will go with this message and
Isaiah said "here am I, send me." Isaiah warned Jerusalem
about her idolatry, and her foreign alliances, but they
scorned him. They did not listen to his warnings and quickly
destroy their instruments of idolatry. He prophesied about
the Assyrians who would destroy the northern kingdom, they
were also good to come to Jerusalem but God would deliver
them. But he also told them that eventually the city will be
destroyed and captured by the Babylonians, and that a
Persian ruler named Cyrus would release the Jews from
captivity. Isaiah prophesied more about the Messiah than any
other book in the Old Testament. He also described in great
detail the blessings of the future kingdom of the Messiah.
His coming would be as a lion bringing the day of God's
wrath, but he would also first come as a savior who would
die for the sins of the people. This was Isaiah's message,
the humility and beauty of the Savior.
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Quick Overview of Isaiah. – –1-12 – – Isaiah's prophecies
regarding Judah and Jerusalem– – 13-23 – –Isaiah's prophecies
against the enemies of Judah– – 24-27– – Isaiah's prophecies
concerning establishing the kingdom – – 28-35 – – Isaiah's
prophecies regarding Judah and Assyria– – 36-39 – – historical
appendix – – 40 – – Isaiah's prophecies concerning God's
redemption – – 41 – – Isaiah's prophecies concerning God's
vindication– – 42 – –Isaiah's prophecies concerning the
servant of the Lord – – 43-45– – Isaiah's prophecies
concerning the restoration of Judah – –46-48 – – Isaiah's
prophecies concerning idolatry – – 49-57 – – Isaiah's
prophecies the Messiah – – 58-66 – – Isaiah's prophecies about
the future glory of Israel.
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Hebrew Name - Yeshayahu "Yah is salvation".
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Was There a Deutero-Isaiah or Second Isaiah? There have been
many critics who challenged the historicity of the
Scriptures, and implied that the Bible is not the word of
God. This is also true with the book of Isaiah, critics have
identified problems in the books unity and authorship. A
large number of critics make a case that Isaiah 1-39 and
Isaiah 40-66 are two separate books written by two entirely
different men. They refer to the second book as "Deutero-
Isaiah" or "Second Isaiah" and they speculate that it was
written during the Babylonian captivity, and the people that
the author is addressing our different than in the first
book. They also maintain that Isaiah is never mentioned as
the author in the second book. but there are too many
reasons for believing that Isaiah was the author of the
whole book from Isaiah 1 through Isaiah 66. Jewish history
and Jewish tradition never recognized anything other than
one book, and one author. The discovery of the Dead Sea
Scrolls identify Isaiah as one scroll, and thus one book.
Judaism and Christianity also recognize Isaiah as one book
and one author. The writing style of Isaiah is seen
throughout both sections, and the people who are being
addressed would apply more to Judah went to those captive in
Babylon. There is also mention of Temple services in
existence, which were not in existence what they were
captive in Babylon. For these reasons and others, and for
the fact that Jesus never recognized more than one Isaiah we
must conclude that Isaiah was the author of his one book.
It is important to understand this about the book of Isaiah
because critics are always looking for something in which
they might attack the Bible, especially the book of Isaiah
because there are so many prophecies pointing to the life
and ministry and even the death of the Lord Jesus Christ.
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Author - Isaiah (According to the Bible, Jesus, and Jewish
Tradition). There was only one Isaiah according to the Hebrew
Scriptures. There is little information about the personal
life of the Prophet Isaiah. He was married to a woman called
the prophetess (Isaiah 8:3), she bore him two sons (Isaiah 7:3
and Isaiah 8:3). According to Jewish tradition Isaiah was
martyred by the wicked King Manasseh who placed him in the
hollow trunk of a carob tree and was sawn in two. many believe
also that it was Isaiah who was referred to in the book of
Hebrews in the New Testament regarding a hero of faith "sawn
asunder" (Hebrews 11:37).
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SECTION 1: Isaiah 1-39
1 ) Prophecies centered around Judah and Jerusalem (Isaiah
1:1-12:6). Included in this section are a description of the
glories of the Messianic Age (Isaiah 2-4 ) and the account
of the call of Isaiah (Isaiah 6 ). In Isaiah 7-12, although
Isaiah is dealing primarily with various invasions which
threaten Judah, reference is made to the wonderful child
"Immanuel" and to the glorious age when a king of the
Davidic line would institute a benevolent rule over a world
without discord and wars.
2 ) Prophecies of judgment on the foreign and hostile
nations of Babylon, Philistia, Moab, Damascus, Ethiopia,
Egypt, Dumah, Arabia and Tyre (Isaiah 3-23 ).
3 ) The Apocalypse of Isaiah: the judgment of God against
the world's sin and the ultimate destruction of the earth
(Isaiah 24-27). Despite the dreadful nature of the
punishment which was to come, this section is marked by a
note of triumph and trust (see Isaiah 26).
4) Prophecies concerning the relations of Judah and
Jerusalem to Egypt and Assyria (Isaiah 28-33). In this
section is contained a series of six messages of woe,
directed first against one and then another of the
weaknesses of Judah's national life (Isaiah 28:1-29; 29:1-
14; 29:15-24; 30:1-17; 31:1- 32 : 20; 33 : 1-24). The
character of the Messianic Age is also further described
(Isaiah 32:1-18).
5 ) The doom of Edom and the redemption of Israel (Isaiah
34-35). Isaiah 35 is a beautiful picture of the ultimate
triumph of the spiritual Zion.
6 ) The reign of Hezekiah (Isaiah 36-39 ). This section is
in the nature of an historical appendix recording the
overthrow of the Assyrian army (Isaiah 36- 37), Hezekiah's
sickness and recovery (Isaiah 38), and containing a prophecy
of the Babylonian captivity (Isaiah 39 ).
SECTION II: Isaiah 40-66
7 ) God's sovereign and providential control over history,
which will be manifest in his ultimate overthrow of Babylon
at the hands of Cyrus (Isaiah 40:18). Two passages of
especial interest in this section are the first "suffering
servant" passage, apparently alluding to the office of the
Messiah (Isaiah 42:1-9), and Isaiah's sarcastic appraisal of
the folly of idol worship (Isaiah 44:6-23).
8 ) The redemption which is possible through suffering and
sacrifice (Isaiah 49-55).. This division centers mainly
around the three "suffering servant" passages which it
contains The first is concerned with the difficulty of his
task and his rejection by those to whom he is sent (Isaiah
44:1-13). The second (Isaiah 50:4-9) speaks of the obedience
and trust of the "servant" and the blessings which are to
follow his work. The third is the classic passage from
Isaiah 52:13-53:12, which describes the life, suffering and
ultimate triumph of the servant.
9 ) The triumph of the kingdom of God and God's universal
reign (Isaiah 56-66). The sins which are prevalent in
Isaiah's day are discussed in chs. 56-59. A glorious song of
the Messianic Age fills Isaiah 60-62. The book closes, with
a prayer for mercy and pardon (Isaiah 63-64) and God's
answer to this prayer in the form of the promise of a new
heaven and a new earth (Isaiah 65-66).
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Greek Name - Esaias (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Date - 760 - 720 BC Approximately. Isaiah prophesied during
the reign of King Uzziah, King Jotham, King Ahaz, King
Hezekiah, and probably King Manasseh of Judah. His prophetic
ministry lasted from about 760 BC until about 720 BC.
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Main Theme - The kingdom of the Messiah
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Types and Shadows - In Isaiah Jesus is the Lord on the throne
in Isaiah 6 and the suffering servant of Isaiah 53
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"The Isaiah scrolls were the first Biblical texts found, and
the first to receive serious study. There is no hint in either
of these scrolls of a deutero or trito-Isaiah, to use the
language of modern scholarship. The advocate of two or three
Isaiah's may suggest that the book was put in its present form
prior to the writing of the Qumran manuscripts, but the fact
remains that our oldest pre-Christian manuscripts bear witness
to the text substantially as we have it in our printed Hebrew
Bibles." - Charles Pfeiffer
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Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
Read More
Quick Overview of Jeremiah. – –1 – – the call of Jeremiah– –
1-20– –Jeremiah's prophecies against Judah under the reigns of
Josiah and Jehoiachim– – 21-39 – –Jeremiah's prophecies
against Judah until the fall of Jerusalem– – 40-45 – –
Jeremiah's prophecies after the fall of Jerusalem – – 46-51 –
– Jeremiah's prophecies against the surrounding nations – – 52
– – the historical appendix.
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The prophet Jeremiah prophesied to the Jews in Jerusalem and
Judah about 50 years before Jerusalem would fall and be
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. Jeremiah continually
preached against the folly of idolatry and pleaded with the
people the Word of God, "what injustice have you found in
me?" he cried, why have you gone far from me and followed
idols, and have become idolaters?, I brought you into a
beautiful country to eat of its fruit and its goodness, but
you have defiled my land and made my heritage and
abomination. Jeremiah warned that Jerusalem would be
destroyed and the Jews would be taken away as captives to
the land of Babylon. The words of Jeremiah were violently
rejected and he was continually persecuted, but God warned
them at the beginning of his ministry not to be afraid of
their faces. While Jeremiah was in prison grieving over the
sins of his people the Lord came to him and said "behold,
the days are coming, says the Lord, when I will make a new
covenant" (Jeremiah 31). Soon afterwards Jerusalem was
indeed destroyed in 586 BC as Jeremiah prophesied. But he
claimed that their captivity would only last 70 years and
then they would return to their land. Jeremiah also
prophesied against the pagan nations around Israel. Later he
was forced to go and live in the land of Egypt and there is
no record of what happened to him.
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1) The impending destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon;
2) the possibility of averting this destruction by repentance;
3) the submitting to Babylonian rule after it becomes apparent
that domination is inevitable;
4) Babylon herself will be destroyed, never to rise again; and
5) Judah will return from captivity and eventually achieve an
unsurpassed glory.
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The prophet Jeremiah began his ministry during the reign of
King Josiah, and he prophesied the Word of the Lord until
the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC when Nebuchadnezzar
of Babylon came and destroyed the city and her Temple
(Jeremiah 1), and he continued to prophesy even after this
event. Jeremiah began ministering in 627 BC during the reign
of King Josiah, he was the "son of Hilkiah, of the priests
that were in Anathoth" which was a city near Jerusalem. When
the Lord called him he was very young (Jeremiah 1:6), and
the Lord revealed to him that his word would be rejected and
yet he was not to be afraid of their faces. They also
learned that an enemy from the North would come and bring
about the destruction of Jerusalem (Jeremiah 1:11-16), and
this time it would not be the Assyrians as with the northern
kingdom of Israel, but it would be the Babylonians. All the
kings who reigned during the time of Jeremiah were: Josiah,
Jehoa-haz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah and Jerusalem
was destroyed in the 11th year of the reign of king Zedekiah
in 586 BC. The event of the burning of the city of Jerusalem
and of the Temple of Solomon is found in 2 Kings 25:8,9 and
Jeremiah 52:12-13.
Jeremiah was quick to obey God and to reveal to the children
of Israel in Judah their sins, and as God had warned him he
was hated with much hostility both in his hometown of
Anathoth and in Jerusalem (Jeremiah 11:18-23). It even
indicates that his own family "dealt treacherously" with him
(Jeremiah 12:6), but this was a calm before the storm for
Jeremiah who was known as the weeping prophet. Because of
his fearless prophesying during the reigns of the next four
kings of Judah, and the fact that he predicted the
destruction of Jerusalem because of the people's sins he was
hated all the more. He went into hiding because of the wrath
of Jehoiakim who had cut up his book of prophecies and
burned them. Judah finally went into a first wave of
captivity by the Babylonians under Jehoiachin, and they
placed Zedekiah in his stead as a puppet king. Eventually
Zedekiah rebelled against the king of Babylon but was warned
by Jeremiah not to do so (Jeremiah 27:12). Finally the
inevitable happened, on the terrifying day of Av 9 in the
Jewish calendar Nebuchadnezzar's forces destroyedthe Temple
of Solomon and the city of Jerusalem making true all of
Jeremiah's prophecies about the Babylonian invasion.
Jeremiah stayed in Jerusalem but finally was forced to go to
Egypt and his companion and secretary, Baruch came with him.
They are in Egypt, in the city of Tahpanhes we have the last
mention of Jeremiah's life, and after this there is no
information and nothing is certain. His book was completed
and he lived a very long life. According to Christian
tradition the Jews at Tahpanhes, hating him for his
prophecies stoned him to death. There is also a Jewish
tradition that when Nebuchadnezzar had conquered Egypt,
Jeremiah and Baruch had escaped to the land of Judea where
they were allowed to die in peace.
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Hebrew Name - Yirmiyahu "Yah is my appointer"
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Greek Name - Ieremias (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Jeremiah (According to the Bible and Jewish
Tradition). The book of Jeremiah is recognized as his own
writings and a complete book just like the book of Isaiah. In
Jeremiah 36:1-2, 4, 8, 32 it is written that Jeremiah
collected his own writings and prophecies, some speculate that
he put the book together with Baruch in the land of Egypt but
there is no way to know for certain.
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Date - 629 BC Approximately. The prophet Jeremiah began his
ministry during the reign of King Josiah, and he prophesied
the Word of the Lord until the destruction of Jerusalem in 586
BC when Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon came and destroyed the city
and her Temple (Jeremiah 1), and he continued to prophesy even
after this event.
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The big question in the book of Job is why do the righteous
suffer? But this is not actually the main question in the
book, the big question is seen in Job 1:9-11..."Why does Job
remain faithful to God?"
The book goes on with the story about God and Satan arguing
over Jobs reasons for obeying God and Job has various
catastrophes which causes him to lose everything in order to
test him of his faithfulness as to whether or not Job is
serving God because of His wealth and God"s blessings of
prosperity. There are also jobs friends who make a case
against Job siding with what Satan was accusing Job of,
their point of view was the Job was only serving God because
of his wealth and prosperity. Job continually refutes them.
Joe desired to know the reason for his suffering and God
remains silent concerning this. Instead the Lord asks Job
questions that are too difficult for Job to answer, and
God's point is that there are many things that Job will
experience and mankind experiences in life that do not have
a clear explanation, and it is more wise to not question
God's wisdom. Gervis situation was no different than what is
common to man.
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The principal events in Job are:
The beginning prologue Job 1:1-2:13.
Dialogs and debates 3:1-27:23.
Job's complaint 3:1-26
The first debate: 1-14:22
The second debate 15:1-21:34
The third debate 22:1-27:23
What is wisdom 28:1-28
The speeches 29:1-42:6
Job's speech 29:1-31:40
Elihu's speech 32:1-37:24
Yahweh's speech 38:1-42:6
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Hebrew Name - Iyov "object of enmity" (meaning uncertain)
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Greek Name - Iob (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Job (According to Tradition). It is uncertain
exactly when the book was written and who wrote it but Jewish
tradition says Job was its author.
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Date - 2180 BC Approximately. It is uncertain exactly when the
book was written and who wrote it but Jewish tradition says
Job was its author. It is interesting that the name of Yahweh
appears over and over in the book of Job, and his name was
unknown prior to the time of Moses (Exodus 6:2-3). The name of
the Egypt is used in poetic form a couple times (Job 9:12-13,
Job 26:12-13) and when it is used this way there is
implications that the author of the book new about the exodus
from Egypt.
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Main Theme - Trusting the Lord in the midst of evil and
suffering
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Types and Shadows - In Job Jesus is the ever-living redeemer
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Quick Overview of Psalms. – –(Psalms 1-41– Book 1) – – (Psalms
42-72 – Book 2) – – (Psalms 73-89 – Book 3) – – (Psalms 90-106
– – Book 4) – – (Psalms 107-150 – – Book 5).
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Psalms is divided into five books : Psalms 1-41, which witness
to David's life and faith; Psalms 42-72, a group of historical
writings; Psalms 73-99, ritual psalms; Psalms 90-106,
reflecting pre-captivity sentiment and history; and Psalms
107-150, dealing with the captivity and return to Jerusalem.
These five books are often regarded as the devotional
counterpart to the five books of Moses (Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy).
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Greek Name - Psalmoi (Greek form of the Hebrew mizmor, meaning
instrument songs)
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Author - David (According to Tradition). David went to many
experiences in his life that he wrote about, especially when
he was hunted down by King Saul from place to place like a
Partridge in the wilderness. David was a young shepherd, he
knew what it was like to tend his flock and to guard them from
predators, this gave him a beautiful imagery for the Lord the
great Shepherd. David was also a musician, a man of war, a
king, a father, a husband, a friend, and many more. He
repented over his sin in Psalm 51, acknowledging himself to be
a sinner before God and God alone. God called David a man
after my own heart and these experiences allowed him to share
with the reader, a man who knew the heart of God. David was a
master at finding different ways to praise God in life
experiences and the book of Psalms is a wonder book for those
who want to know how to please God. He was filled with the
Holy Spirit (1 Samuel 16:13). There is no doubt the David
wrote most of the Psalms, and the ones that he did not write
are in his style as well.
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Date - 1056 BC Approximately. It is impossible to determine
exactly how the Psalms were compiled and collected, and dating
them is also difficult for most of the Psalms. Some of the
Psalms are commemorating victories, while others are
historical, remembering the Lord and God's people in past
events. Other Psalms are prophetic and look to the future and
the coming of the Messiah, as well as the heavenly kingdom.
There are Psalms of affliction, lamentation and remorse over
sin, as well as songs of Thanksgiving and trusting the Lord.
Some of the songs were chosen to be good for reciting on
certain Jewish holy days, like the Sabbath, or Passover, the
feast of Tabernacles, etc. There are titles on about 100 of
the Psalms, the titles are so old that they cannot be
understood even in the second century BC. Some of the titles
point to the source of the Psalm, while others point to a
certain purpose, or a certain melody, or something related to
music.
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Main Theme - Give praise to the Lord
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Types and Shadows - In Psalms Jesus is the One worthy of all
praise
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The book of Psalms is the longest book in the Bible. The 119th
Psalm is a longest chapter in the whole Bible. The 117th Psalm
is the shortest chapter in the Bible and located in the
middle. When the Old Testament is quoted in the New Testament
by someone, over one third of all the quotes are from the
Psalms.
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Bible Study information on the book of psalms with images, and
notes on many important subjects from the ancient world.
Archaeological notes, geographical notes, ancient documents
and manuscripts, cultural notes, theological notes, articles
from scholars, information about ancient history, ancient
customs, ancient temples, ancient monuments, and a close look
at people, places, and events from the ancient world that are
explained in an easy to understand format.
Read More
Quick Overview of Proverbs. – –1:1-6 – – the introduction and
purpose of the book – – 1:7-9:18 – – wisdom and folly are
examined – – 10:1-22:16 – – wisdom does good – – 22:17-24:34 –
– the words of the wise – – 25:1-29:27 – – the Proverbs of
Solomon are collected by Hezekiah's servants – – 30:1-33 – –
the messages of Agur – – 31:1-31 – – the sayings of King
Lemuel.
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Proverbs 1:1 indicates that the whole collection was called
"the Proverbs of Solomon the son of David, king of Israel."
Technically a proverb is a profound maxim or epigrammatic
saying that, if pondered on for a length of time there is deep
meaning associated with it. Proverbs was not uncommon in the
ancient world, but the concept of fearing a single God who is
the only God and the giver of life, was completely foreign in
a world filled with polytheism.
Solomon was the son of David who was chosen to build the
Temple. His name comes from the Hebrew word for peace
(shalom), and he is recognized in the Bible as the ultimate
peacemaker King in the history of the kingdom of Israel.
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Solomon's Wisdom. David had chosen Solomon to sit upon the
throne of Israel and serve the Lord. After Solomon had
removed his enemies, he allied with the Pharaoh of Egypt,
and took Pharaoh's daughter to be his wife. Solomon had
thought intensely about his task to build a house for the
Lord, the Temple in Jerusalem. He went to offer sacrifices
to the Lord at Gibeon and that night the Lord appeared to
him in a dream saying "ask what you will and I will give it
to you" and Solomon said "you have shown great mercy to your
servant David, my father, even as he walked before you in
truth and justice and with an upright heart. You have
continued your great mercy toward him and given him a son to
sit on his throne, as it is today. And now, O Lord God, you
have made your servant King succeeding David, my father. I
am but a child, and know not how to act. You have chosen me
to be king over so many that they cannot be counted. Give
me, therefore, an understanding heart, to judge your people
and to discern between good and evil." The Lord was pleased
with Solomon's request and said, "because you have not asked
for long life or riches, nor for the death of your enemies,
but have asked wisdom for yourself to discern what is right,
I have done for you as you asked, and have given you a wise
and understanding heart, so much so that you are unlike
anyone before you, nor shall there be anyone like you after.
Yes, and the things also which you did not ask, I have given
you: that is, riches and glory, so that you are incomparable
with all previous kings. And if you will walk in my ways,
and keep my precepts and my commandments, as your father, I
will lengthen your life." (see 1 Kings 3 and 2 Chronicles
1).
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The book of Proverbs not only names Solomon as the author in
the very first verse, but there are other verses that indicate
that Solomon was the person responsible for the Proverbs
(Proverbs 10:1; Proverbs 25:1).
The book of Kings indicates that Solomon was blessed with
wisdom from God (1 Kings 4:29), he was a man of humility (1
Kings 3:7), and a great diplomat (1 Kings 3:16-28; 1 Kings
5:12) to such an extent that people came from all over the
world to hear his wisdom (1 Kings 4:30; 1 Kings 10:1-13). The
book of Kings also indicates that Solomon wrote over 3000
proverbs (1 Kings 4:32), and this is many more than the book
of Proverbs contains.
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Proverbs 1-9, Solomon addresses the young. His words are
arranged in a series of discourses in praise of wisdom. A
personification of Wisdom speaks as an instructor, warning
against all manner of folly. The proverbs in this section
are arranged with more continuity than is seen in succeeding
chapters.
Proverbs 10-22:16 are the "proverbs of Solomon," and this
section is usually thought to be the original nucleus around
which the remainder of the book was constructed.
Proverbs 22:17-24 :22 contains advice for those in
responsible positions, calling it "the words of the wise."
Proverbs 24:23-29 are designated as "the proverbs of Solomon
which the wise men of Hezekiah copied out." These are in the
form of detached statements, although there are occasional
signs of continuity. There are also sayings on related
subjects such as rulers, sluggards and fools.
Proverbs 30, the sayings of Agur, and Proverbs 31, the great
chapter on womanhood which purports to come from the mother
of King Lemuel which was constructed in acrostic form, the
verses beginning with the successive letters of the Hebrew
alphabet. This last chapter completes this book of Hebrew
wisdom.
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Main Theme - It is wise to obey God
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Types and Shadows - In Proverbs Jesus is true wisdom
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Study Bible with information about Ecclesiastes, images, and
notes on many important subjects from the ancient world.
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and manuscripts, cultural notes, theological notes, articles
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customs, ancient temples, ancient monuments, and a close look
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Quick Overview of Ecclesiastes. – –1:1-2:26 – – the preachers
first sermon: the futility of human wisdom– – 3:1-5:20 – –the
preachers second sermon: life's unfulfilling disappointments –
– 6:1-8:17 – – the preachers third sermon: the futility of
wealth and fame – – 9:1-12:8 – – the preachers fourth sermon:
God is in control of the futility's in life – – 12:9-14 – –
the preachers conclusion: true fulfillment in life comes from
fearing God and obeying His Word.
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The word Ecclesiastes is the Greek equivalent for the Hebrew
word Koheleth, or the preacher. Solomon was the wisest man
in the world, people came from all over the world to hear
his wisdom. He built the Temple in Jerusalem, he was the son
of King David, and he was chosen to impart his wisdom to us
in the book of Ecclesiastes.
Solomon had thoroughly experienced all avenues of pleasure,
all avenues of sensuality, all avenues of wealth, honor,
folly, and the pursuit of knowledge. He also sinned in
giving way to every excess of life which his position made
possible and comes to the realization of the uselessness of
it all. He concludes that the result of his efforts have
been made him empty and that there is nothing new under the
sun, but all is part of the endless, frustrating
circularity. His attitude was spoken in the recurring
phrase, vanity of vanities, all is vanity, saith the
preacher. In Ecclesiastes, the world is convicted of its
vanity by one who has drunk of every spring.
The conclusion which Solomon "the preacher" reaches is that
in such an empty and unsatisfying world where
disappointment, trouble and death cannot be avoided, a quiet
enjoyment of God's gifts is the only real wisdom. The man
who is truly wise will "fear God and keep his commandments"
(12:13-14), making the best of things as he finds them and
trusting in the providence of God. This secret should be
understood early in life. An understanding of this will
provide one with great pleasure in life. The book of
Ecclesiastes profoundly illustrates the idea that a life
apart from God is a life without meaning.
Read More
Sermon 1: The vanity of human wisdom, Sermon 2: Appreciate the
divine laws governing life, Sermon 3: There is no fulfillment
in any earthly pleasures or wealth, Sermon 4: God will deal
with the worlds injustices, Conclusion: fear the Lord and to
obey his word.
Read More
Author - Solomon (According to the Bible, Jesus, and
Tradition). The book of Ecclesiastes was written by Solomon
who was the wisest man in the world, and in fact he was the
embodiment of pure wisdom.
Read More
Hebrew Name - Qoheleth "the preacher"
Read More
Greek Name - Ekklesiastes (Greek form of the Hebrew)
Read More
Theme - All pursuits in life are empty except fearing God and
obeying His Word
Read More
Types and Shadows - In Chronicles Jesus is the builder of the
house of God
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Types and Shadows - In Chronicles Jesus is the builder of the
house of God
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temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
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Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
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Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
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Quick Overview of Ezra. – –1-6 – –The return of the Jews to
the land of Israel under the leadership of Zerubbabel, to the
rebuilding of the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. – –7-10 – –
The arrival of Ezra in Jerusalem, Ezra reforms religion and
government, (note the prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah
correspond with this time period).
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The Book of Ezra covers events in later Jewish Biblical
history, for example the return of the Jews from exile under
Zerubbabel, and the rebuilding of Solomon's Temple in
Jerusalem. It also covers the arrival of Ezra in Jerusalem,
Ezra reforms religion and government, (note the prophecies of
Haggai and Zechariah correspond with this time period). The
main events include: 1) The return of the exiles to Jerusalem
at the decree of Cyrus, 546 BC (Ezra 1-2 ).
2 ) The work of rebuilding the temple begun, brought to a
standstill through the efforts of heathen neighbors, and
finally completed at the urging of Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra
3-6).
3 ) Ezra's return to Jerusalem for the purpose of restoring
the temple service (Ezra 7-8).
4 ) The problem of mixed marriages, which threatened to plunge
the Jews into the same course of idolatry which had brought
about their original downfall (Ezra 9-10).
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Greek Name - Esdras (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Ezra (According to Tradition).
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The Hebrew traditions treated the books of Ezra and Nehemiah
is one book, although they were probably separated in the
Bible. The book of Ezra bears the name of an individual who
was a descendent of the priest Hilkiah who had helped
initiate reforms in the time of Josiah (2 Kings 22:8). Ezra
returned from the Babylonian captivity in 457 BC which was
80 years after the first group of Jews had returned to
Israel under the leadership of Zerubbabel (13 years before
Nehemiah). Ezra was both a priest and a scribe and he had a
single purpose, to purify the worship of the Lord among the
Hebrews based on the law of Moses. The Jews have regarded
Ezra as the second greatest hero in the history of Israel,
after Moses. The most important observation about the book
of Ezra is to see how God fulfills his Word, and the
prophets spoke continually about the restoration of the
people of Israel to the land of their inheritance, after
the captivity. God did miracles in the hearts of foreign
monarchs like Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, and Cyrus, Darius,
and Xerxes. He fulfilled his purposes through great leaders
like Joshua, Zerubbabel, Haggai, Zechariah, Ezra, and
Nehemiah to bring about the rebuilding of the wall in
Jerusalem, and the Temple of Solomon, and the
reestablishment of the law of Moses. The book of Ezra along
with Nehemiah provide for us all the history among the Jews
between 536 BC and 430 BC. The accomplishments of Ezra
focuses on the period from 536 two 456 BC, and Nehemiah
begins his mission in 445 BC with a detailed description of
12 years of events.
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Date - From 536-456 BC Approximately
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Main Theme of Ezra - The return from the captivity
Read More
Types and Shadows - In Ezra Jesus is the one who led the
captives out
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Quick Overview of Nehemiah. – –1-2 – –Nehemiah is commissioned
to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem and departs Shushan. – – 3-
7:4 – –The rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem in the midst
of opposition – – 7:5-12 – – Nehemiah's ordinances bring about
the first reformation – – 13 – –the second reformation of the
people under Nehemiah
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Nehemiah made his journey to Jerusalem in about 445 BC, and
he was not a priest or a scribe like Ezra was but he was a
governor with authority given to him by the Persian king
Artaxerxes to rebuild the walls and the city of Jerusalem
for the Jewish people. He was originally cupbearer for the
king of Persia (Nehemiah 2:1). Nehemiah completed the task
in 52 days despite all the opposition from the foreigners
who it settled in the land of Judah during the captivity.
The book of Nehemiah shows how God fulfilled his words
written by the prophets concerning the return of the people
of Israel from 70 years of captivity, and returned again to
the land of their inheritance. In order to accomplish his
divine will he change the hearts of the great kings of the
ancient world, Cyrus Darius and Artaxerxes of Persia. He
also worked through leaders like Joshua Zerubbabel Haggai
Zechariah Ezra and Nehemiah in order to rebuild the wall of
the city of Jerusalem and reestablish the law of Moses. The
books of Ezra and Nehemiah reveal to us the history of the
Jews between 536 BC and 430 BC. The book of Nehemiah covers
the period from 445 BC for the next 12 years.
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Hebrew Name - Nechemiyah "Nehemiah"
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Greek Name - Neemias (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Nehemiah (Ezra and Nehemiah were treated as one book
in Jewish Tradition).
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Date - From 455-420 BC Approximately. The books of Ezra and
Nehemiah reveal to us the history of the Jews between 536 BC
and 430 BC. The book of Nehemiah covers the period from 445 BC
for the next 12 years.
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Main Theme of Nehemiah - The rebuilding of Jerusalem
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Types and Shadows - In Nehemiah Jesus is the one who led the
captives out
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Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
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The main events covered in the Book of Nehemiah are: 1 )
Nehemiah's journey to Jerusalem, made possible by Artaxerxes,
for the purpose of re-building the wall (Nehemiah 1-2).
2 ) A list of the builders and the repairing of the gate
(Nehemiah 3).
3 ) The rebuilding of the wall in spite of op-position led by
Sanballat, Tobiah and Geshem (Nehemiah 4:1-7:4).
4 ) The register of those who returned with Zerubbabel
(Nehemiah 7).
5 ) The public reading and exposition of the book of the Law
(Nehemiah 8).
6 ) The national repentance and the covenant of obedience
(Nehemiah 9:1-10 :39).
7 ) Lists of inhabitants (Nehemiah 11:1-12:26).
8 ) Dedication of the wall and organization of the temple
services (Nehemiah 12:27-47).
9 ) Nehemiah's reforms of abuses connected with tithes, the
sabbath and mixed marriages (Nehemiah 13).
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Quick Overview of Esther. – –1-2 – –The exaltation of a female
Jewish captive named Esther to the throne of Persia, Esther's
uncle Mordecai overhears a plot against the king's life – – 3
– – Haman is promoted to Prime Minister in Persia, Haman's
hatred of Mordecai, Haman's plan to destroy the Jews. – – 4-10
– – Haman's plans are foiled, Mordecai is exalted, the
institution of the feast of Purim to commemorate God's great
deliverance of the Jews from annihilation.
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The book of Esther was written during a time when the
Persian Empire ruled the world and Ahasuerus (probably
Xerxes I) was the king of Persia. The events in the book of
Esther probably took place around 521-495 BC. This was
during a time just before the wall of Jerusalem was rebuilt.
The book of Esther clearly demonstrates God's love for his
people even when they are in a foreign land far away from
the land of their inheritance. One interesting point is that
the name of God is never mentioned in the book of Esther,
nor is there any mention of any kind of worship. The reason
for this is uncertain but most likely it would have been
forbidden to mention the name of the God of Israel. For
whatever reason this is, there are clear intimations of God
especially when you hear the words of Mordecai "who knows
whether you have not come to the kingdom for such a time as
this" (Esther 4:14). In the book of Esther we discover the
origin of the Jewish feast of Purim, as well as some very
important historical information concerning the Jews while
they were in captivity, as well as their deliverance from
total annihilation while in the land of Persia. The
Septuagint version of the Hebrew text contains 107 extra
verses that nearly all scholars agree were written later
than the Hebrew canon based on internal and external
evidence.
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Greek Name - Aster (after the Persian word for star)
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Author - Mordecai (According to Jewish tradition)
Read More
Date - From 521-495 BC Approximately. The book of Esther was
written during a time when the Persian Empire ruled the world
and Ahasuerus (probably Xerxes I) was the king of Persia. The
events in the book of Esther probably took place around 521-
495 BC. This was during a time just before the wall of
Jerusalem was rebuilt.
Read More
Main Theme of Esther - The Jews in Captivity were saved from
annihilation by a Jewish queen
Read More
Types and Shadows - In Esther Jesus is the Mordecai and savior
of his people
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Study Bible featuring Job with information, images, and notes
on many important subjects from the ancient world.
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Quick Overview of Job. – –1-2– –The historical background of
Job – – 3-31 – – Job's dialogue with his three friends – – 32-
37 – – the speeches of Elihu – – 38-41 – – God intervenes and
gives His speech– – 42 – – the conclusion of this matter
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Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
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Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
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Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
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Study Bible with information, images, and notes on many
important subjects from the ancient world. Archaeological
notes, geographical notes, ancient documents and manuscripts,
cultural notes, theological notes, articles from scholars,
information about ancient history, ancient customs, ancient
temples, ancient monuments, and a close look at people,
places, and events from the ancient world that are explained
in an easy to understand format.
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The time period extends from the anointing of King Solomon
(1015 BC) throughout the history of Israel and Judah all the
way to the death of Jehoiachin after he was freed from
Babylonian imprisonment (561 BC). The book of 1 Kings begins
with Solomon, and not David or Saul because the books of
Samuel cover their lives. Under King Solomon the dominion of
Israel extended from the Euphrates River all the way to the
Mediterranean Sea and down to the Egyptian border (1 Kings
4:21). At the end of each the kingdoms of Israel and Judah
the remaining kings were not seeking God and became a sad
remnant who were puppets of either Egypt or Assyria or
Babylon until they were finally uprooted and taken away. The
beginning of all of their problems happened after the death
of Solomon when his sons Rehoboam and Jeroboam divided the
kingdom, 10 of the tribes went with Jeroboam to the north
(Israel), and 2 of the tribes remained with Rehoboam in the
south (Judah). All 19 of Israel's Kings followed the heathen
nations and were idol worshipers and evil, leading Israel
into sin bringing upon themselves the wrath of God. They
were destroyed and taken captive to Assyria in 722 BC. In
the southern kingdom of Judah 8 out of their 20 Kings sought
the Lord and the rest forsook him also bring the wrath of
God when the Babylonian captivity took place under King
Nebuchadnezzar in 586 BC.
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The time period extends from the anointing of King Solomon
(1015 BC) throughout the history of Israel and Judah all the
way to the death of Jehoiachin after he was freed from
Babylonian imprisonment (561 BC). The book of 1 Kings begins
with Solomon, and not David or Saul because the books of
Samuel cover their lives. Under King Solomon the dominion of
Israel extended from the Euphrates River all the way to the
Mediterranean Sea and down to the Egyptian border (1 Kings
4:21). At the end of each the kingdoms of Israel and Judah
the remaining kings were not seeking God and became a sad
remnant who were puppets of either Egypt or Assyria or
Babylon until they were finally uprooted and taken away. The
beginning of all of their problems happened after the death
of Solomon when his sons Rehoboam and Jeroboam divided the
kingdom, 10 of the tribes went with Jeroboam to the north
(Israel), and 2 of the tribes remained with Rehoboam in the
south (Judah). All 19 of Israel's Kings followed the heathen
nations and were idol worshipers and evil, leading Israel
into sin bringing upon themselves the wrath of God. They
were destroyed and taken captive to Assyria in 722 BC. In
the southern kingdom of Judah 8 out of their 20 Kings sought
the Lord and the rest forsook him also bring the wrath of
God when the Babylonian captivity took place under King
Nebuchadnezzar in 586 BC.
Read More
Quick Overview of 1 Kings. – –1-11 – –The peaceful and
prosperous reign of King Solomon, the idolatry of King
Solomon, the death of King Solomon.– – 12-22 – – The division
of the people of Israel into two kingdoms, The Kingdom of
Judah and the Kingdom of Israel.
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Quick Overview of 1 Kings. – –1-11 – –The peaceful and
prosperous reign of King Solomon, the idolatry of King
Solomon, the death of King Solomon.– – 12-22 – – The division
of the people of Israel into two kingdoms, The Kingdom of
Judah and the Kingdom of Israel.
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Quick Overview of 2 Kings. – –1-17 – –The history of the
Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah until the
deportation of Israel by the Assyrians in 722 BC.– – 18-25 – –
The history of the kingdom of Judah until the destruction of
Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 BC and the deportation of
the people of Judah.
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Greek Name - basilia (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Greek Name - basilia (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Jeremiah (According to Tradition). According to
Hebrew tradition Jeremiah was the author, and wrote shortly
after the events have taken place.
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Author - Jeremiah (According to Tradition). According to
Hebrew tradition Jeremiah was the author, and wrote shortly
after the events have taken place.
Read More
Date - From 1015-562 BC Approximately. It is difficult to give
a precise chronology of the books of Kings. According to
Hebrew tradition Jeremiah was the author, and wrote shortly
after the events have taken place. The Books of Chronicles
record the events of the same time period from a different
perspective.
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Date - From 1015-562 BC Approximately. It is difficult to give
a precise chronology of the books of Kings. According to
Hebrew tradition Jeremiah was the author, and wrote shortly
after the events have taken place. The Books of Chronicles
record the events of the same time period from a different
perspective.
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Theme of 1 Kings - The division of the kingdom
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Main Theme of 2 Kings - The history of Israel and Judah
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Types and Shadows - In Kings Jesus is the peaceful King
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Types and Shadows - In Kings Jesus is the peaceful King
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Quick Overview of 1 Chronicles. – –1-9 – –Genealogical tables
from Adam to the time of Ezra. – – 10-29– –the dual history of
King Saul and King David (in connection with the book of
Samuel).
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Quick Overview of 2 Chronicles. – – 2 Chronicles 1-9 – – the
reign of King Solomon (in connection with the book of Kings).
– – 10-36 – – the history of various kings in the kingdom of
Judah from the division of the kingdom to the Babylonian
captivity (in connection with the second book of Kings).
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The Book of First Chronicles covers a series of genealogies
and then the history of the last days of King Saul and the
early years of King David. Some of the main events include: 2)
The return of the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chronicles 13-16).
Included in this section is the account of the misfortune of
Uzzah, who was killed when he reached forth to save the ark
from falling (1 Chronicles 13).
3) David purposes to build the temple but is forbidden because
of the great amount of bloodshed to which he has been a party
(1 Chronicles 17).
4) The account of David's conquests (1 Chronicles 18-20).
5) The census and the plague (1 Chronicles 21).
6) David's preparations for building the temple (1 Chronicles
22). Although David was himself forbidden to build a temple
for God, he set about to collect the necessary materials for
such a temple, that the task of his son Solomon might be
easier.
7) Designation of the duties of the Levites (1 Chronicles 23).
8) Organization of the government (1 Chronicles 24).
9) David's last words and his death (1 Chronicles 28-29).
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The Book of Second Chronicles covers the reign of King
Solomon and the history of various kings in the kingdom of
Judah from the division of the kingdom to the Babylonian
captivity. Some the main events include: 1) The revolt of
the ten tribes and the reign of Rehoboam (2 Chronicles 10-
12).
2) The reign of Abijah (2 Chronicles 13).
3) The reign of Asa (2 Chronicles 14-16). This was a period
of prosperity in Judah as Asa instituted a number of moral
and religious reforms, establishing himself as a servant of
the Lord.
4) The reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chronicles 17-20). This king
was also diligent in his efforts to serve God. He made
considerable efforts to acquaint his people with the Law.
5) The reigns of Jehoram and Ahaziah (2 Chronicles 21:1-
22:9).
6) The reign of Athaliah, the only queen of Judah (2
Chronicles 22:10-23:21).
7) The reign of Joash (2 Chronicles 24). Ascending to the
throne at the age of seven, Joash, advised by the high
priest Jehoida, brought about the restoration of true
worship. After Jehoida's death, however, Joash himself
slipped into the worship of idols.
8) Amaziah, Uzziah, Jotham and Ahaz (2 Chronicles 25-28).
9) The reign of Hezekiah (2 Chronicles 29-32). After
beginning his rule with a great religious restoration,
Hezekiah helped his nation to regain a measure of power and
glory.
10) Manasseh and Amon (2 Chronicles 33).
11) The reign of Josiah (2 Chronicles 34-35). In the
eighteenth year of a reign that began when he was only eight
years old, Josiah began the most sweeping religious reforms
which Judah had ever known. During the renovation of the
temple, the "book of the Law" was found, encouraging the
people greatly in this time of revival.
12) The last days of Judah (2 Chronicles 36). After a brief
reign by Jehoahaz, the throne was taken by Jehoiakim, who
reigned for eleven years. During this period he was a vassal
alternatively to Egypt and Babylon. In an effort to revolt
against the Babylonian rule, he lost his life. He was
succeeded by Jehoiachin, who reigned only three months,
after which he was carried to Babylon, where he lived a
number of years. The last of the Judean kings was Zedekiah.
Nebuchadnezzar had already plundered Jerusalem of much of
its treasures and a considerable number of its most
promising men. This took place in two raids, in 606 and 597
BC. In 586 BC, during the reign of Zedekiah, the Babylonians
struck once again, this time leaving none but the poorest
class of people to remain in Jerusalem. Five years later,
the Babylonians came to collect about 750 more captives,
even after a number, including Jeremiah, had fled to Egypt
(Jeremiah 43).
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Hebrew Name - Divrei Hayamim "Words of the Days". The books of
Chronicles were originally one book, as in the case of Samuel
and Kings. The Hebrew title is translated the "words of the
days", yet the word Chronicles is mainly adopted by a
theologian named Jerome who thought that they ought to bear
the title from the Greek word for time which is "Chronos".
This title created a distraction from the true meaning and
purpose of this wonderful book.
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Hebrew Name - Divrei Hayamim "Words of the Days". The books of
Chronicles were originally one book, as in the case of Samuel
and Kings. The Hebrew title is translated the "words of the
days", yet the word Chronicles is mainly adopted by a
theologian named Jerome who thought that they ought to bear
the title from the Greek word for time which is "Chronos".
This title created a distraction from the true meaning and
purpose of this wonderful book.
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Greek Name - Paralipomenon (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Greek Name - Paralipomenon (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Ezra (According to Tradition). Hebrew tradition
credits Ezra has the author of the books of Chronicles, in the
beginning of the books trace the genealogical records all the
way back to Adam which took place in approximately 4004 BC.
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Author - Ezra (According to Tradition). Hebrew tradition
credits Ezra has the author of the books of Chronicles, in the
beginning of the books trace the genealogical records all the
way back to Adam which took place in approximately 4004 BC.
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Date - From 4004-536 BC Approximately.
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Date - From 4004-536 BC Approximately.
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Main Theme of 1 Chronicles - The reign of King David
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Theme of 2 Chronicles - The history of the Southern Kingdom of
Judah
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The author of the Book of Joshua was Joshua according to the
Bible and tradition.
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Date - From 1451 to 1425 BC Approximately
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Main Theme - The Conquest of Canaan
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Types and Shadows - In Joshua Jesus is the captain of the
LORD's host
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Quick Overview of Judges. – –1-2 – –How the Israelites reacted
after the death of Joshua. – – 3-16 – – The sin of the
Israelites and the oppression by their enemies, thirteen
Hebrew judges and the deliverance they brought. – –17-21 – –a
description of how idolatry entered into Israel and how
corruption followed during the early history of this time
period.
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Hebrew Name - Shophtim "Judges or Deliverers"
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Greek Name - Krites (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Samuel (According to Tradition)
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Date - From 1425 to 1120 BC Approximately
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Main Theme - 7 cycles of idolatry, oppression, repentance, and
deliverance during the first 300 years in the land of Canaan
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Types and Shadows - In Judges Jesus is the great judge and
deliverer of His people
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Judges background, archaeology, maps, and images.
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Ruth background, archaeology, maps, and images.
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Greek Name - Oiktos (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Samuel (According to Tradition)
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Main Theme - The beginning of the lineage of Christ seen in
this faithful woman who was a Moabite
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Types and Shadows - In Ruth Jesus is the kinsman redeemer
(Heb. Goel)
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Samuel is the name of the books in the ancient Hebrew text,
because he was the author and the main character in the early
portions in the first book, and because of his role as a
prophet of God known from Dan to Beersheba, who had anointed
and had the biggest influence on the lives of King Saul and
King David. The Lord raised up the prophet Samuel at a time in
the history of Israel when they were disunited as a people and
very determined to have a king reign over them. God made
Samuel a great man, he was a Judge (1 Samuel 7:6, 15-17), and
a Prophet (1 Samuel 3:20) and became God's chosen link
between the periods of the Judges and the United Kingdom.
According to Jewish tradition the books were written by Samuel
himself. They deal with the period in Jewish history from the
time of Othniel the Judge through the reign of King David in
the 11th and 10th centuries BC. This is of course one of the
most important and significant times in the history of Israel,
because their government changed from a system of tribes and
judges to a kingdom by which the king would rule according to
God's laws.
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Samuel is the name of the books in the ancient Hebrew text,
because he was the author and the main character in the early
portions in the first book, and because of his role as a
prophet of God known from Dan to Beersheba, who had anointed
and had the biggest influence on the lives of King Saul and
King David. The Lord raised up the prophet Samuel at a time in
the history of Israel when they were disunited as a people and
very determined to have a king reign over them. God made
Samuel a great man, he was a Judge (1 Samuel 7:6, 15-17), and
a Prophet (1 Samuel 3:20) and became God's chosen link
between the periods of the Judges and the United Kingdom.
According to Jewish tradition the books were written by Samuel
himself. They deal with the period in Jewish history from the
time of Othniel the Judge through the reign of King David in
the 11th and 10th centuries BC. This is of course one of the
most important and significant times in the history of Israel,
because their government changed from a system of tribes and
judges to a kingdom by which the king would rule according to
God's laws.
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Quick Overview of 1 Samuel. – –1-4 – –The problems and the
high priesthood of Eli, The birth of Samuel, Samuels calling
as a prophet, the corruption of Eli's sons, The death of Eli.
– – 5-12 – – the history of Samuel – – 13-31 – – the history
of Saul.
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Quick Overview of 2 Samuel. – –1-10 – –The prosperity and
victories of King David, – – 11-19 – – David's grievous sins,
the consequences of David's actions, the rebellion of Absalom
and his death. – – 20-34 – – David's restoration upon the
throne, the sin of David in numbering the people, David's
punishment, David's intercession and sacrifice.
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Hebrew Name - Shemuel "asked of God". The original ancient
Hebrew manuscripts recorded the books of Samuel as only one
book. The first time these books were divided was in the
Septuagint, the Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures, and
they were referred to as the First and Second Books of
Kingdoms. 1 and 2 Kings were referred to as the Third and
Fourth Books of Kingdoms. When looking closely at the King
James version of the Bible the titles are still arranged in
this way.
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Hebrew Name - Shemuel "asked of God". The original ancient
Hebrew manuscripts recorded the books of Samuel as only one
book. The first time these books were divided was in the
Septuagint, the Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures, and
they were referred to as the First and Second Books of
Kingdoms. 1 and 2 Kings were referred to as the Third and
Fourth Books of Kingdoms. When looking closely at the King
James version of the Bible the titles are still arranged in
this way.
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Greek Name - Samoeul (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Greek Name - Samoeul (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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Author - Samuel (According to Tradition)
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Author - Samuel (According to Tradition)
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Author - Samuel (According to Tradition). The original ancient
Hebrew manuscripts recorded the books of Samuel as only one
book. The first time these books were divided was in the
Septuagint, the Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures, and
they were referred to as the First and Second Books of
Kingdoms. 1 and 2 Kings were referred to as the Third and
Fourth Books of Kingdoms. When looking closely at the King
James version of the Bible the titles are still arranged in
this way.
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Date - From 1171-1015 BC Approximately
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Date - From 1171-1015 BC Approximately
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Main Theme of 1 Samuel - The beginning of the kingdom
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Main Theme of 2 Samuel - David, God's chosen king
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Types and Shadows - In Samuel Jesus is God's anointed King
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Types and Shadows - In Samuel Jesus is God's anointed King
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The Author of the Book of Genesis was Moses
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The Date of the Book of Genesis was the period from 4004 to
1635 BC Approximately
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The theme of the Book of Genesis is The Founding of the Hebrew
Nation
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Types and Shadows - In Genesis Jesus is the seed of the woman
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Quick Overview of Numbers. – –1-4 – –The numbering of the
Israelites, the organizing of the Israelites into tribes and
companies, the offices of the Levites while serving in the
Tabernacle. – – 5-10 – – The establishing of various civil and
ceremonial laws. – – 11-21 – – The murmuring of the Israelites
in the wilderness on their way to Mount Sinai. – – 22-36 – –
The encampment of the Israelites on the plains of Moab.
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The Hebrew Name for the Book of Exodus is "V'elleh Shemoth"
which means "these are the names"
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Types and Shadows - In Exodus Jesus is the Lamb of God
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The main theme of the Book of Exodus is God's Covenant with
the Hebrew Nation
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Quick Overview of Leviticus. – –1-7 – –God's laws concerning
sacrifices. – – 8-10 – – God's ceremonial laws regarding the
priesthood. – – 11-22 – – God's ceremonial laws concerning
purification. – – 23-27 – – God's laws regarding the sacred
feasts and festivals, tithes, offerings, sabbatical and
jubilee years, vows, and more.
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Hebrew Name - Vayyiqra "and He called"
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Theme - God's Laws for the Hebrew Nation
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Types and Shadows - In Leviticus Jesus is the High Priest
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Information, images, and notes on many important subjects from
the ancient world. Archaeological notes, geographical notes,
ancient documents and manuscripts, cultural notes, theological
notes, articles from scholars, information about ancient
history, ancient customs, ancient temples, ancient monuments,
and a close look at people, places, and events from the
ancient world that are explained in an easy to understand
format.
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Hebrew Name - Bemidhbar "in the wilderness"
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The author was Moses according to the Bible. Jesus also
confirmed Moses as the author of the first 5 books of the
Bible.
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Date - From 1490-1451 BC Approximately
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Theme - The Journey to the Promised Land
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Types and Shadows - In Numbers Jesus is the Pillar of Cloud by
Day and the Pillar of Fire by Night.
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Numbers background, archaeology, maps, and images.
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Deuteronomy background, archaeology, maps, and images.
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Quick Overview of Deuteronomy. – –1-4 – –Moses repeats the
history of the children of Israel, – – 5-26 – – Moses repeats
the moral law (10 Commandments), the ceremonial law
(sacrifices and offerings) and the civil law (judicial laws,
dietary codes, punishments, etc.). – – 27-34 – – history of
the the life of Moses and briefly about his death.
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Hebrew Name - elleh haddebharim "these are the words"
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Greek Name - Deuteronomion "The Second Law"
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The authorship of Deuteronomy belongs to Moses according to
the Bible. Jesus also confirmed Mosaic authorship.
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Main Theme - Reminders of God's Covenant
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Types and Shadows - In Deuteronomy Jesus is the prophet like
unto Moses
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Joshua background, archaeology, maps, and images.
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Quick Overview of Joshua. – –1-11 – –The conquest of the land
of Canaan. – – 12-22 – – the dividing of the promised land
among the tribes of Israel, the appointment of the cities of
refuge. – – 23-24 – – the assembling of the nation of Israel,
Joshua's last appeal and exhortation, Joshua's death and
burial.
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Hebrew Name of Joshua - Yehoshua "Yahweh is salvation"
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Greek Name - Iesous (Greek form of the Hebrew)
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In the book of Judges we can see the first 300 years of the
history of Israel, from the time of the death of Joshua to
the time of Samuel the last of the Judges. All of the events
mentioned in the book of Judges are not meant to be given in
a strict chronological order and it is impossible to
determine exact dates. Everything that took place happened
really on a local level in the land of Israel and not
necessarily on a national level. The first two chapters deal
with the death of Joshua and after his death and the
generation surrounding him, "there arose another generation
after them, who did not know the Lord or the work which he
had done for Israel" (Judges 2:10). This generation of
Israelites, and every generation after that during this time
period fell into idolatry, they forgot the commands of God
and there is a severe decline morally and spiritually. As
each generation unfolded idolatry would prevail, a foreign
invasion would take place and oppress the people of Israel
in that local area, they would cry out to God for help, and
God would send a deliverer. This cycle happened seven times
in the book of Judges and speak clearly about the cycle of
sin and its consequences, as well as God's love and
willingness to send help when his people cry out to him.
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Quick Overview of Judges. – –1-2 – –How the Israelites reacted
after the death of Joshua. – – 3-16 – – The sin of the
Israelites and the oppression by their enemies, thirteen
Hebrew judges and the deliverance they brought. – –17-21 – –a
description of how idolatry entered into Israel and how
corruption followed during the early history of this time
period.
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This beautiful book is like a calmness in the middle of a
turbulent storm, when reminiscing on all the violence and
enemy invasions recorded in the books of Joshua and Judges.
The book of Ruth deals more with real life in ancient Israel
and not necessarily the warfare in the previous book, although
the events actually took place during the period of the Judges
(Ruth 1:1). The date that the book was written is not given,
and there is no mention as to who the author is, but it is
most likely Samuel, who is the traditionally accepted author.
The book of Ruth traces the messianic line of King David back
to Ruth, who was a Moabitess, and the book gives us a
beautiful understanding of how God rewards faithfulness and
devotion.
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Quick Overview of Ruth. – –1 – –The sorrows brought on the
family of Elimelech because of the famine. – – 2 – – the
return of Naomi to the land of Israel, Naomi's daughter-in-
law. – – 3-4 – – the marriage of Ruth and Boaz, the messianic
genealogy from Judah to David.
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Archaeology, pictures, notes and maps
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Archaeology, pictures, notes and maps
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Hebrew Name - Bereshith "in the beginning"
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(Genesis 4)
Abel’s offering was an expression of his faith in God’s
Word. "And Abel, he also brought of
the firstlings of his flock and of the fat thereof" (Genesis
4:4). "By faith Abel offered unto
God a more excellent sacrifice than Cain" (Hebrews 11:4).
Abel’s faith must have been based
upon a divine instruction given to Adam and Eve and their
family; namely, for sinful man to
approach a holy God, he must do so by offering an animal
sacrifice. A sinner today must
approach God by faith in the offering of Jesus on Calvary’s
cross as atonement for sin.
Abel’s offering was acceptable unto God. "The Lord had
respect unto Abel and to his
offering" (Genesis 4:4). The Lord regarded with favor Abel’s
approach to Him through an
offering because he came in the divinely appointed way. He
came bringing the divinely
acceptable offering for sinners. Any sinner coming to God in
penitence, and pleading only the
merits of Christ and His sacrifice on Calvary, will be
accepted by God.
The offering of Abel was not like that of Cain. "And in
process of time it came to pass, that
Cain brought of the fruit of the ground an offering unto the
Lord" (Genesis 4:3). Cain was
self-righteous, not thinking it was necessary to approach
God as a sinner needing a sacrifice, but
rather offered God the fruit of the ground, the result of
his own labors. His actions are typical of
many modern men who think God will accept them on the ground
of their good works, instead of
coming to God as lost sinners needing a Saviour.
"For by grace are ye saved through faith; and that not of
yourselves: it is the gift of God:
not of works, lest any man should boast" (Ephesians 2:8, 9).
The offering of Abel was a blood sacrifice, and thus
prefigured Calvary. "And to the blood of
sprinkling, that speaketh better things than that of Abel"
(Hebrews 12:24). "That [blood of
Abel" here means the blood of his sacrifice, which was a
type of the better blood of Jesus shed
on the cross. It was this blood that was lacking in the
offering of Cain. "Without shedding of
blood is no remission [i.e.], of sin]" (Hebrews 9:22).
In my hand no price I bring;
Simply to Thy cross I cling.
[Old Testament Types - FHW]
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(Genesis 6-8)
The ark was a refuge from the Flood, even as God’s salvation
is a refuge from God’s wrath
against sin. The Flood was God’s visitation of righteous
judgment against the awful sinning of
mankind.
"And God saw that the wickedness of man was great in the
earth, and that every
imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil
continually" (Genesis 6:5). But the
family of Noah was provided for within the ark. "Which
sometime were disobedient, when
once the long suffering of God waited in the days of Noah,
while the ark was a preparing,
wherein few, that is, eight souls were saved by [through
water" (I Peter 3:20). God’s ark of
salvation, provided by Jesus through His death on the cross,
is a most remarkable refuge today
for sinners who look to Christ for salvation. "Kiss the Son,
lest he be angry, and ye perish
from the way, when his wrath is kindled but a little.
Blessed are all they that put their trust
in him" (Psalm 2:12).
Even as Noah’s family found a place of safety inside the
ark, so believers today find security "in
Christ." Once the family of Noah was inside the ark, they
were safe from the flood waters. "And
the Lord shut him in" (Genesis 7:16). The Lord shut the door
against the storm waters. And
now all those who take refuge in Christ and abide in Him
find in Him a place of security and
shelter from life’s storms. "Your life is hid with Christ in
God" (Colossians 3:3).
The ark took the full force of the floods of rain, even as
God’s punishment for sinners fell upon
Jesus on the cross. "And the waters prevailed, and were
increased greatly upon the earth;
and the ark went upon the face of the waters" (Genesis
7:18). The ark rode upon the storm
waters, and they beat upon it with awful fury, but all
within were sheltered. And this is a type of
what Christ had to endure on our behalf on Calvary’s cross.
"For the transgression of my
people was he stricken" (Isaiah 53:8). Instead of the stroke
falling upon the sinners who
deserved it, it fell upon Jesus, the sinless One. All who
seek refuge in Him find shelter from
God’s righteous wrath against iniquity.
God invited Noah and his family into the ark, even as the
Lord invites sinners to enter His ark of
salvation today. "And the Lord said unto Noah, Come thou and
all thy house into the ark"
(Genesis 7:1). Noah’s family in going into the ark accepted
God’s gracious invitation. And the
Lord invites men today to enter His ark of salvation.
Revelation 22:17 is the last invitation in the
Bible: "And the Spirit and the bride say, Come. And let him
that heareth say, Come. And
let him that is athirst come. And whosoever will, let him
take the water of life freely." [Old Testament Types - FHW]
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(Genesis 5:21-24)
Enoch’s life pleased God because he walked with God in
faith. "And Enoch walked with God:
and he was not; for God took him" (Genesis 5:24). "By faith
Enoch was translated that he
should not see death; and was not found, because God had
translated him: for before his
translation he had this testimony, that he pleased God"
(Hebrews 11:5). Enoch, the greatgrandfather
of Noah, walked with God by faith so that the Lord was
pleased.
Enoch was translated before the judgment of the Flood came
upon the world. The Hebrews’
account has the significant words: "And was not found." Men
of Enoch’s day searched for him
but found him not. The reason they could not find him was
because God had translated him
without his having to go through the experience of death. It
was not long until the great Flood
was to devastate the world, but Enoch was gone to Heaven
before this great event took place.
What happened to Enoch was a type of the translation of
believers at Christ’s coming. "For the
Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout, with
the voice of the archangel, and
with the trump of God: and the dead in Christ shall rise
first: then we which are alive and
remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds,
to meet the Lord in the air:
and so shall we ever be with the Lord" (I Thessalonians
4:16, 17). "Then shall two be in the
field; the one shall be taken, and the other left. Two women
shall be grinding at the mill;
the one shall be taken, and the other left" (Matthew 24:40,
41). Believers living when Christ
comes will be translated without their seeing death, like
Enoch was. Men shall look for them as
they did for Enoch but shall not find them. When believers
are caught up, then shall the
judgments of the Book of Revelation begin to be poured out
upon the earth. Thus true believers
shall escape these judgments. "Watch ye therefore, and pray
always, that ye may be
accounted worthy to escape all these things that shall come
to pass, and to stand before the
Son of man" (Luke 21:36). [Old Testament Types - FHW]
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(Genesis 14:18-20)
Who was Melchizedek? When Abraham returned from his
victorious battle with the five kings,
having rescued Lot, we find Melchizedek going out to meet
him.
"And Melchizedek king of Salem brought forth bread and wine:
and he was the priest of
the most high God. And he blessed him, and said, Blessed be
Abram of the most high God,
possessor of heaven and earth" (Genesis 14:18, 19). This
strange character was called king of
Salem, meaning King of Peace. Doubtless he was king of the
city of Jerusalem of that day. He
also had the title of Priest of the Most High God.
Melchizedek was a type of Christ as King. The meaning of his
name is king of righteousness, and
he was called king of Salem which probably refers to the old
city of Jerusalem. At his second
coming, Christ will be a righteous king. "But with
righteousness shall he judge the poor, and
reprove with equity for the meek of the earth: and he shall
smite the earth with the rod of
his mouth, and with the breath of his lips shall he slay the
wicked" (Isaiah 11:4).
Melchizedek’s being King of Peace typifies Christ’s reign of
peace on earth at His return. Isaiah
9:6 calls Him "Prince of Peace." Wars shall cease when He
becomes earth’s King of kings.
Melchizedek was a type of Christ as Priest. "Without father,
without mother, without descent
[i.e.], pedigree as a priest], having neither beginning of
days, nor end of life; but made like
unto the Son of God; abideth a priest continually" (Hebrews
7:3). Melchizedek can typify
Christ as Priest because as a priest he had no recorded
genealogy; he had no record of the
beginning of his life or of the end of his life. Thus he
fittingly pictures Christ our Priest, who had
no human father, and who was and still is eternal. "But this
man, because he continueth ever,
hath an unchangeable priesthood. Wherefore he is able also
to save them to the uttermost
that come unto God by him, seeing he ever liveth to make
intercession for them" (Hebrews
7:24, 25). Let us go to Christ as our ever-living Priest,
and trust Him to save us completely and
forever. [Old Testament Types - FHW]
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(Genesis 21, 22, 24).
His birth was supernatural and so is a type of Christ’s
birth. "And the Lord visited Sarah as he
had said, and the Lord did unto Sarah as he had spoken. For
Sarah conceived, and bare
Abraham a son in his old age, at the set time of which God
had spoken to him" (Genesis
21:1, 2). Sarah was ninety, and Abraham about one hundred.
Thus the birth of Isaac was indeed
supernatural. God performed a miracle to fulfill His promise
to Abraham and Sarah that they
should have a son. In this respect the birth of Isaac was a
type of the birth of Jesus. "And the
angel answered and said unto her. The Holy Ghost shall come
upon thee, and the power of
the Highest shall overshadow thee: therefore also that holy
thing which shall be born of
thee shall be called the Son of God" (Luke 1:35). Actually,
Jesus was the Son of God and not
the son of Joseph. Jesus was virgin-born, thus His birth was
supernatural. Of course, we must be
careful to note that the birth of Isaac and that of Jesus
were not alike in every respect, but both
were supernatural births. The one was a type of the other in
this respect only.
Isaac’s being offered up by his father is a type of Christ’s
death on Calvary. He was considered
to be the only son of Abraham. "And said, By myself have I
sworn, saith the Lord, for
because thou hast done this thing, and hast not withheld thy
son, thine only son" (Genesis
22:16). These were the words of the Lord Himself. Isaac gave
himself willingly. There is no
record of his refusing to be tied on the altar as a
sacrifice. In the same way Jesus gave Himself
willingly to die. "Therefore doth my Father love me, because
I lay down my life, that I may
take it again. No man taketh it from me, but I lay it down
of myself. I have power to lay it
down, and I have power to take it again" (John 10:17, 18).
His being received back as it were from the dead is a type
of the resurrection of Christ. "By faith
Abraham, when he was tried, offered up Isaac: and he that
had received the promises
offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, That
in Isaac shall thy seed be called:
accounting that God was able to raise him up, even from the
dead; from whence also he
received him in a figure" (Hebrews 11:17-19). In God’s sight
Abraham offered up his son
Isaac, and then received him back as it were from the dead.
And this was a type of Christ rising
from the tomb triumphant over death.
The seeking of a wife for Isaac is a type of the divine
seeking for those who will be united to
Christ. Abraham’s servant who sought a wife for Isaac is a
type of the Holy Spirit who seeks
those who are to become the Church, Christ’s Bride. "And
Abraham said unto his eldest
servant of his house, that ruled over all that he had, Put,
I pray thee, thy hand under my
thigh: and I will make thee swear by the Lord the God of
heaven and the God of the earth,
that thou shalt not take a wife unto my son of the daughters
of the Canaanites, among
whom I dwell: but thou shalt go unto my country, and my
kindred, and take a wife unto
my son Isaac" (Genesis 24:2-4).
The servant used the testimony concerning Isaac to win
Rebekah for his master, Isaac. "And he
said, I am Abraham’s servant. And the Lord hath blessed my
master greatly; and he is
become great: and he hath given him flocks, and herds, and
silver, and gold, and
menservants, and maidservants, and camels, and asses. And
Sarah my master’s wife bare a
son to my master when she was old: and unto him hath he
given all that he hath" (Genesis
24:34-36). In order to win Rebekah, the servant talked about
how rich Isaac’s father was. And all
that wealth was to be inherited by Isaac, and this would be
shared by her if she married him.
Similarly, the Holy Spirit uses testimony concerning Christ
to win those who become a part of
the Bride of Christ. "Howbeit when he, the Spirit of truth,
is come, he will guide you into all
truth: for he will not speak of himself; but whatsoever he
shall hear, that shall he speak:
and he will show you things to come. He shall glorify me;
for he shall receive of mine, and
shall show it unto you. All things that the Father hath are
mine" (John 16:13-15). Christ’s
Father in Heaven is rich, and all that wealth is His, and
will be shared by those who make up the
Church, His Bride. Thus the Spirit paints a picture of
Christ to the one who is ready to receive
Christ as his Saviour.
From the time Rebekah consented to marry Isaac until the
wedding took place is a type of the life
of believers until the marriage supper of the Lamb is
celebrated in Heaven. The servant took the
things of Isaac and showed them unto Rebekah. "And the
servant brought forth jewels of
silver, and jewels of gold, and raiment, and gave them to
Rebekah" (Genesis 24:53). Thus
does the Holy Spirit take the things of Christ and show them
unto believers. "Therefore said I,
that he [i.e.], the Holy Spirit shall take of mine, and
shall show it unto you" (John 16:15). The
things of Christ are to be found in His Word.
Rebekah did not see Isaac until their marriage, but loved
him because of the testimony of the
servant. Thus we have not seen Jesus with our physical
sight, but we love Him because of the
testimony of the Holy Spirit. "Whom having not seen, ye
love; in whom, though now ye see
him not, yet believing, ye rejoice with joy unspeakable and
full of glory" (I Peter 1:8).
As Isaac came out to meet Rebekah, so Christ will come down
from Heaven at the rapture to
meet His Bride in the air and escort her to Heaven. "And
Isaac went out to meditate in the
field at the eventide: and he lifted up his eyes, and saw,
and, behold, the camels were
coming" (Genesis 24:63). Thus Isaac met the caravan, and
escorted his bride to her new home.
And Christ will do this for His Church, the Bride, for whom
He is coming down from Heaven.
"For the Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a
shout, with the voice of the
archangel, and with the trump of God: and the dead in Christ
shall rise first: then we
which are alive and remain shall be caught up together with
them in the clouds, to meet the
Lord in the air: and so shall we ever be with the Lord" (I
Thessalonians 4:16, 17). We shall
ride on the clouds of Heaven with Christ to our home in
Heaven.
The marriage of Isaac and Rebekah is a type of the future
marriage of Christ and His Bride, the
Church, at Christ’s return. "And Isaac brought her into his
mother Sarah’s tent, and took
Rebekah, and she became his wife; and he loved her" (Genesis
24:67).
And this is a type of that happy event in the happy future
of true believers in Christ which John
describes for us in Revelation 19:7, 9: "Let us be glad and
rejoice, and give honor to him: for
the marriage of the Lamb is come, and his wife hath made
herself ready. And to her was
granted that she should be arrayed in fine linen, clean and
white: for the fine linen is the
righteousness of saints. And he saith unto me, Write,
Blessed are they which are called unto
the marriage supper of the Lamb." [Old Testament Types -
FHW]
Read More
(Genesis 28:10-22)
Jesus claimed to be Jacob’s ladder. "And he dreamed, and
behold a ladder set up on the
earth, and the top of it reached to heaven: and behold the
angels of God ascending and
descending on it" (Genesis 28:12). Jesus made His claim in
relation to this incident in John
1:51: "And he saith unto him [i.e., Nathanael], Verily,
verily, I say unto you, Hereafter ye
shall see heaven open, and the angels of God ascending and
descending upon the Son of
man." Jesus was saying: "I am Jacob’s ladder; I am the link
between heaven and earth."
On another occasion He said: "I am the way, the truth, and
the life: no man cometh unto the
Father, but by me" (John 14:6).
Jacob’s ladder was a ladder of grace, and thus is an
appropriate type of Christ and His
salvation. Jacob’s ladder reached all the way to Heaven from
where an unworthy man was lying
asleep. He was fleeing from his brother Esau after having
received the blessing from Isaac by
deception. Jacob might well have said: "I do not deserve
such a vision."
In a similar way every truly saved person feels like saying:
"I deserve to go to Hell, but I am
going to Heaven because Jesus died for me. I am only a
sinner saved by grace." "Being justified
freely by his grace through the redemption that is in Christ
Jesus" (Romans 3:24).
Jacob’s ladder reached down to a needy person, even as
Christ today has opened the way of help
for needy souls. The angels ascending the ladder represent
the taking up to Heaven requests for
things needed. The angels descending the ladder represent
the bringing down of Heaven’s help in
time of need to the one praying. Jesus is the ladder upon
which the angels ascend and descend.
All true prayer is in Jesus’ name. "Let us therefore come
boldly unto the throne of grace, that
we may obtain mercy, and find grace to help in time of need"
(Hebrews 4:16).
Jacob’s ladder was like Christ because it brought down to
earth the promise of Heavens
blessings. A fitting climax to the vision was God’s voice
speaking to Jacob from the top of the
ladder, promising many blessings. This message ended thus:
"Behold, I am with thee, and will
keep thee in all places whither thou goest, and will bring
thee again into this land; for I will
not leave thee, until I have done that which I have spoken
to thee of" (Genesis 28:15). God’s
promise included just what Jacob needed. And that is like
God’s promise to Christians in
Philippians 4:19: "My God shall supply all your need
according to his riches in glory by
Christ Jesus." [Old Testament Types - FHW]
Read More
(Genesis 37-45)
Joseph was beloved of his father; and Jesus is God’s beloved
Son. "Now Israel loved Joseph
more than all his children, because he was the son of his
old age: and he made him a coat of
many colors" (Genesis 37:3). Joseph was his father’s
favorite son. God has many sons, because
every believer is a son of God. But Jesus is Son of God in a
unique sense, and therefore He is
God’s well-beloved Son. God spoke at the baptism of Jesus:
"And lo a voice from heaven,
saying, This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased"
(Matthew 3:17).
Joseph was hated by his brothers; and Jesus was hated by the
Jewish leaders of His day. "And
when his brethren saw that their father loved him more than
all his brethren, they hated
him, and could not speak peaceably unto him" (Genesis 37:4).
It was jealousy that caused this
spirit of hate in Joseph’s brothers. In John 15:24, 25 Jesus
tells us the attitude of the Jewish
leaders toward Him: "If I had not done among them the works
which none other man did,
they had not had sin: but now have they both seen and hated
both me and my Father. But
this cometh to pass, that the word might be fulfilled that
is written in their law, They hated
me without a cause." These men were jealous of Jesus, even
as Joseph’s brothers were jealous
of him. And jealousy led to hate.
God promised Joseph a place of rulership; even as the Lord
promised Jesus as Messiah a place
of kingship. This promise to Joseph, of course, came to him
in the dreams which he had. "And
his brethren said to him, Shalt thou indeed reign over us?
or shalt thou indeed have
dominion over us? And they hated him yet the more for his
dreams, and for his words"
(Genesis 37:8). The great Messianic promise in Isaiah 9:6
contains these tremendous predictions:
"For unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given: and
the government shall be upon his
shoulder: and his name shall be called Wonderful,
Counsellor, The mighty God, The Everlasting
Father, The Prince of Peace."
The statement, "The government shall be upon his shoulder,"
and the title, "Prince of Peace,"
both speak of rulership or kingship. At His first coming
Jesus was a spiritual King; and at His
second coming He will be a material Ruler over the nations.
Joseph was cast into a pit, but he was delivered out of it;
and Jesus descended into the pit of
Hades, the abode of the dead, but came forth triumphant over
death. "And I they took him, and
cast him into a pit: and the pit was empty, there was no
water in it" (Genesis 37:24). This pit
was probably a cistern where all the water had been used up.
Then in verse 28 we read: "And
they drew and lifted up Joseph out of the pit." Joseph spent
a time in this pit, but was not left
there indefinitely. This stay in the pit pictures Christ’s
visit to Hades. "Wherefore he saith,
When he ascended up on high, he led captivity captive, and
gave I gifts unto men. (Now
that he ascended, what is it but that he also descended
first into the lower parts of the
earth? He that descended is the same also that ascended up
far above all heavens, that he
might fill all things)" (Ephesians 4:8-10). When Jesus died,
His body lay in the tomb, but His
spirit went to Hades. After He left Hades, He took the
spirits of the righteous dead from Sheol or
Hades up to Heaven. Now Hades is the abode of the
unrighteous dead only.
Joseph was sold for twenty pieces of silver; and Jesus was
sold by Judas for thirty pieces of
silver. "Then there passed by Midianites merchantmen; and
they drew and lifted up Joseph
out of the pit, and sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites for
twenty pieces of silver: and they
brought Joseph into Egypt" (Genesis 37:28). How similar this
was to what happened to Jesus!
"And said unto them, What will you give me, and I will
deliver him unto you? And they
covenanted with him for thirty pieces of silver" (Matthew
26:15).
Joseph was falsely accused and imprisoned; and similarly
Jesus was arrested and condemned by
false testimony. "And it came to pass, when his master heard
the words of his wife, which
she spake unto him, saying, After this manner did thy
servant to me; that his wrath was
kindled. And Joseph’s master took him, and put him into the
prison, a place where the
king’s prisoners were bound: and he was there in the prison"
(Genesis 39:19, 20). Joseph
was condemned on a false charge and had to suffer
imprisonment. The arrest and condemnation
of Jesus was on the same basis. "For many bare false witness
against him, but their witness
agreed not together" (Mark 14:56). False witnesses played a
large part in the trial of Jesus.
In prison Joseph was placed between two prisoners; he
foretold the release of the one and the
destruction of the other; and this is a type of Jesus dying
on the cross between two thieves,
promising the one entrance into paradise, while the other
one perished in his sins. Two of
Pharaoh’s officers were in prison with Joseph. Joseph
interpreted the dream which each one of
these men had. He foretold as a result of the dreams that
the chief butler would be restored to his
position with the king, and that the chief baker would be
executed. The story of what happened is
told in Genesis 40, and is a picture of a similar experience
of Jesus, although the two events were
not exactly alike.
John 19:18 says: "Where they crucified him, and two other
with him, on either side one, and
Jesus in the midst."
In Luke 23:39-43 is the account of these two thieves on
either side of the cross of Jesus. One of
them railed on Jesus, while the other one acknowledged his
own sin and the righteousness of
Jesus. Verse 42 tells us what he said to Jesus and Jesus’
answer: "And he said unto Jesus,
Lord, remember me when thou comest into thy kingdom. And
Jesus said unto him, Verily I
say unto thee, Today shalt thou be with me in paradise."
Jesus announced the salvation of one
of these thieves, and the other perished without Christ.
Joseph dealt with his brethren in such a way as to bring
them to repentance for their sin against
him; and Christ will allow the Jews to go through great
trials in order that them may be brought
to repentance for their sin against Him. "And Joseph saw his
brethren and he knew them, but
made himself strange unto them, and spake roughly unto them;
and he said unto them,
Whence come ye? And they said From the land of Canaan to buy
food" (Genesis 42:7).
Since their rejection of Christ, the Jews have been
scattered oven all the world. But when they
confess their sins and the sin of rejecting Messiah, then
the Lord will bring them back to
Palestine in blessing. "If they shall confess their
iniquity, and the iniquity of their fathers,
with their trespass which they trespassed against me, and
that also they have walked
contrary unto me . . . Then will I remember my covenant with
Jacob, and also my covenant
with Isaac, and also my covenant with Abraham will I
remember; and I will remember the
land" (Leviticus 26:40, 42).
It was during the years of famine that Joseph revealed
himself to his brethren; and it will be
during the time of Jacob’s trouble that Christ will reveal
Himself to the Jewish remnant of that
day. His brothers came to Egypt for food in the time of
famine, and it was then that Joseph made
known his identity unto them. During the Great Tribulation
period preceding the millennial rule
of Christ, the Jews will in time of great persecution and
deep distress seek the Lord and find
Him, and Christ will be revealed unto them as their Messiah
and Saviour. "I will go and return
to my place, till they acknowledge their offense, and seek
my face: in their affliction they
will seek me early" (Hosea 5:15). [Old Testament Types -
FHW]
Read More
(Exodus 12-13) The Passover was to the Jews their day of
independence, even
as the cross of Christ means to the
Christian his freedom from the bondage of sin. "And the Lord
spake unto Moses and Aaron in
the land of Egypt, saying, This month shall be unto you the
beginning of months: it shall be
the first month of the year to you" (Exodus 12:1, 2).
Passover was like New Year’s Day or like
the American July Fourth or Independence Day. On this day
they celebrated deliverance from
Egyptian bondage. And because of the cross, the Christian
has deliverance from bondage to sin.
"Whosoever committeth sin is the servant [slave] of sin"
(John 8:34). "If the Son therefore
shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed" (John 8:36).
"But God forbid that I should
glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, by whom
the world is crucified unto me,
and I unto the world" (Galatians 6:14). Because Jesus died
upon it, the cross has been
transformed from a thing of shame to a thing of glory.
The Passover provided salvation for the Jewish household,
even as Christ provides salvation for
the family of the believer. "Speak ye unto all the
congregation of Israel, saying, In the tenth
day of this month they shall take to them every man a lamb,
according to the house of their
fathers, a lamb for an house" (Exodus 12:3). "Then Moses
called for all the elders of Israel,
and said unto them, Draw out and take you a lamb according
to your families, and kill the
passover" (Exodus 12:21). Killing the Passover lamb was a
family matter, providing protection
for the family against the loss of its firstborn. Even so,
the salvation of Jesus makes salvation
possible for all the household of the one who believes in
Jesus. "And they said, Believe on the
Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved, and thy house"
(Acts 16:31). Is your home
covered by the blood of Jesus?
Beneath the blood-stained lintel I with my children stand;
A messenger of judgment is passing through the land;
There is no other refuge from the destroyer’s face -
Beneath the blood-stained lintel shall be our hiding-place.
the tenth to the fourteenth day before it was slain; and
Jesus was the fulfillment of all this. "Your
lamb shall be without blemish, a male of the first year: ye
shall take it out from the sheep,
or from the goats: and ye shall keep it up to the fourteenth
day of the same month" (Exodus
12:5, 6).
As the Passover lamb was to be a male of the first year, so
Jesus died at the age of thirty-three in
the prime of His manhood. Like the lamb, Jesus was without
blemish, morally. The lamb was
kept until the fourteenth day under scrutiny looking for
possible faults. Even so, Jesus was under
scrutiny the last few days before His crucifixion, yet
Pilate said of Him, "I find no fault in him"
(Luke 23:4).
The Passover lamb was killed the same time of day as Jesus
was put to death by crucifixion.
"And the whole assembly of the congregation of Israel shall
kill it in the evening" (Exodus
12:6). "In the evening," means literally in the Hebrew,
"between the two evenings." The first
Jewish evening began at noon, and the second at sunset. The
lamb was slain midway between
noon and sunset or about three o’clock in the afternoon.
Jesus hung on the cross from the third
hour to the ninth hour, or six hours. He was in three hours
of light from nine o’clock till noon,
and in three hours of darkness from noon till three o’clock.
He died at three o’clock.
The sprinkling of the blood of the Passover lamb is a type
of the application of the blood of Jesus
to the heart of the believer. "And they shall take of the
blood, and strike it on the two side
posts and on the upper door post of the houses, wherein they
shall eat it" (Exodus 12:7).
"And ye shall take a bunch of hyssop, and dip it in the
blood that is in the basin, and strike
the lintel and the two side posts with the blood that is in
the basin; and none of you shall
go out at the door of his house until the morning" (Exodus
12:22).
The Israelites showed their faith in God’s provision for
them by sprinkling the blood as
instructed. This is a type of the Christian’s appropriation
of Christ’s blood for his salvation. "Let
us draw near with a true heart in full assurance of faith,
having our hearts sprinkled from
an evil conscience" (Hebrews 10:22). Let us see to it that
our heart’s door is sprinkled with
Christ’s blood. Only then will we be safe from judgment for
sin in the day of reckoning.
The eating of the Passover meal is a symbol of the Lord’s
Supper. "And they shall eat the flesh
in that night, roast with fire, and unleavened bread; and
with bitter herbs they shall eat it"
(Exodus 12:8). "Eat the flesh" means appropriation and
fellowship. "Roast with fire" means
judgment. "Unleavened bread" means without sin. And when the
"bitter herbs" were eaten, the
Israelites were remembering their former bondage and
thanking God for deliverance from it.
"Purge out therefore the old leaven, that ye may be a new
lump, as ye are unleavened. For
even Christ our passover is sacrificed for us: therefore let
us keep the feast, not with old
leaven, neither with the leaven of malice and wickedness;
but with the unleavened bread of
sincerity and truth" (I Corinthians 5:7, 8). And Paul also
wrote in his instructions regarding the
Lord’s Supper: "But let a man examine himself, and so let
him eat of that bread, and drink
of that cup."
The "passing over" of the judgment angel is a type of
deliverance from judgment through Christ.
"For I will pass through the land of Egypt this night, and
will smite all the firstborn in the
land of Egypt, both man and beast; and against all the gods
of Egypt I will execute
judgment: I am the Lord. And the blood shall be to you for a
token upon the houses where
ye are: and when I see the blood, I will pass over you, and
the plague shall not be upon you
to destroy you, when I smite the land of Egypt" (Exodus
12:12, 13). "For the Lord will pass
through to smite the Egyptians; and when he seeth the blood
upon the lintel, and on the
two side posts, the Lord will pass over the door, and will
not suffer the destroyer to come in
unto your houses to smite you" (Exodus 12:23).
Judgment fell upon the Passover lamb, and the firstborn
escaped judgment. "Even Jesus, which
delivered us from the wrath to come" (I Thessalonians 1:10).
Jesus on the cross received
God’s wrath in our place. "Verily, verily, I say unto you,
He that heareth my word, and
believeth on him that sent me, hath everlasting life, and
shall not come into condemnation;
but is passed from death unto life" (John 5:24). The
believer in Jesus escapes the judgment of
God for sin’s penalty.
Jewish parents were to answer their children’s questions
about the meaning of the Passover; and
Christian parents should answer their children’s questions
regarding the meaning of the Lord’s
Supper. "And it shall come to pass, when ye come to the land
which the Lord will give you,
according as he has promised, that ye shall keep this
service. And it shall come to pass,
when your children shall say unto you, What mean ye by this
service? That ye shall say, It
is the sacrifice of the Lord’s passover, who passed over the
houses of the children of Israel
in Egypt, when he smote the Egyptians, and delivered our
houses" (Exodus 12:25-27). The
questions of the children gave opportunity to the parents to
explain the reason for the Passover
celebration. And when our children ask questions about the
ordinance of the Lord’s Supper, let
us take time to explain the reason for it, because it gives
us a glorious opportunity to teach an
important truth. "And ye fathers, provoke not your children
to wrath: but bring them up in
the nurture and admonition of the Lord" (Ephesians 6:4).
[Old Testament Types - FHW]
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(Exodus 14-15) Egypt, a type of the world. "By faith Moses,
when he was come to years, refused to be called
the son of Pharaoh’s daughter; choosing rather to suffer
affliction with the people of God,
than to enjoy the pleasures of sin for a season" (Hebrews
11:24, 25). Israel in Egypt is a type
of the sinner living in the world before he is converted to
God.
The bondage of Egypt, a type of the bondage of sin. "And
they made their lives bitter with
hard bondage, in mortar, and in brick, and in all manner of
service in the field: all their
service, wherein they made them serve, was with rigor"
(Exodus 1:14). One day the Jews said
to Jesus: "We be Abraham’s seed, and were never in bondage
to any man" (John 8:33). In
verse 34 Jesus answered them: "Whosoever committeth sin is
the servant [slave] of sin." In
other words, sin is a terrible taskmaster. Israel’s
deliverance from Egypt, a type of the believer’s deliverance
from the world of sin.
Israel’s deliverance under God came through the
instrumentality of a deliverer-Moses. "This
Moses . . . the same did God send to be . . . a deliverer"
(Acts 7:35). Moses is thus a type of
Christ our Deliverer. The deliverance is wrought by God’s
power. "And brought thee out in his
sight with his mighty power out of Egypt" (Deuteronomy
4:37).
Paul tells about our deliverance from the World: "Who hath
delivered us from the power of
darkness, and hath translated us into the kingdom of his
dear Son" (Colossians 1:13). As
Moses under God’s power delivered Israel from Egypt, so
Christ is our Deliverer from the sins
of the world.
The Red Sea crossing, a type of Christian baptism.
"Moreover, brethren, I would not that ye
should be ignorant, how that all our fathers were under the
cloud, and all passed through
the sea; and were all baptized unto Moses in the cloud and
in the sea" (I Corinthians 10:1, 2).
When Israel crossed through the Red Sea, they were saying
goodbye to Egypt, they were dying
to the bondage of Egypt. This is a symbol of baptism.
"Therefore we are buried with him by
baptism into death; that like as Christ was raised up from
the dead by the glory of the
Father, even so we also should walk in newness of life"
(Romans 6:4). The convert of Christ is
saying when he is baptized, "Goodbye, old world, and your
sinful pleasures." He is dying to the
old life of sin, and is rising to live a new life in Christ.
[Old Testament Types - FHW]
Read More
(Exodus 16) The children of Israel needed the manna in the
wilderness as Gods children need the Bible every
day. "I will rain bread from heaven for you; and the people
shall go out and gather a
certain rate every day" (Exodus 16:4). In the wilderness
this great people needed a supply of
bread from Heaven, and they needed it every single day. "And
Moses said, Let no man leave of
it till the morning. Notwithstanding they hearkened not unto
Moses; but some of them left
of it until the morning and it bred worms, and stank: and
Moses was wroth with them"
(Exodus 16:19, 20). We need a fresh study of God Word every
day. Yesterday’s experience
becomes stale today The prophet learned to feast on the
Word: "Thy words were found, and I
did eat them; and thy word was unto me the joy and rejoicing
of mine heart" (Jeremiah
15:16).
Israel gathered manna in the early morning; and the best
time for Bible reading is early in the
day. "And they gathered it every morning, every man
according to his eating: and when the
sun waxed hot, it melted" (Exodus 16:21). If Israel did not
gather the manna early in the
morning, by the time the sun became hot, it melted.
Similarly, if the Word is not read early in the
morning, other things crowding in will be apt to melt away
the opportunity. "The Lord God
hath given me the tongue of the learned [taught ones] that I
should know how to speak a
word in season to him that is weary: he wakeneth morning by
morning, he wakeneth mine
ear to hear as the learned [taught ones]" (Isaiah 50:4). We
are taught from the Word in order
that we may help others who are in need of help. Israel used
the manna during their entire wilderness experience; and we
must depend upon the
Word during all of life’s pilgrimage. "And the children of
Israel did eat manna forty years,
until they came to a land inhabited; they did eat manna,
until they came unto the borders
of the land of Canaan" (Exodus 16:35). Even so Christians
need the Bible through all of the
experiences of life up to Heaven’s portals. "Teach me, O
Lord, the way of thy statutes; and I
shall keep it unto the end" (Psalm 119:33).
The Lord Jesus Christ is the antitype of the manna that came
down from Heaven. "Then said the
Lord unto Moses, Behold, I will rain bread from heaven for
you" (Exodus 16:4). Jesus Christ
Himself claimed to be the fulfillment of the manna which
came down from Heaven. "Then
Jesus said unto them, Verily, verily, I say unto you, Moses
gave you not that bread from
heaven; but my Father giveth you the true bread from heaven.
For the bread of God is he
which cometh down from heaven, and giveth life unto the
world" (John 6:32, 33).
The manna satisfied the hunger of the Israelites; and Christ
satisfies the hungry hearts of men
who trust Him. Exodus 16:3 tells of Israel’s hunger: "For ye
have brought us forth into this
wilderness, to kill this whole assembly with hunger." Verse
4 tells how the hunger was
satisfied: "I will rain bread from heaven for you." And
Jesus claimed to do the same thing for
the hearts of men, "And Jesus said unto them, I am the bread
of life: he that cometh to me
shall never hunger; and he that believeth on me shall never
thirst" (John 6:35).
The manna was mysterious in character; and so is the
salvation of Jesus in some respects. "And
when the children of Israel saw it, they said one to
another, It is manna [i.e., "What is it?"],
for they wist not what it was. And Moses said unto them,
This is the bread which the Lord
hath given you to eat" (Exodus 16:15). And even as the manna
was mysterious in its character
and origin, so the Lord Jesus indicated that His salvation
was likewise mysterious. "The wind
bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound
thereof, but canst not tell whence it
cometh, and whither it goeth: so is every one that is born
of the Spirit" (John 3:8). In some
respects the wind is mysterious, and so the work of the
Spirit of God in the New Birth is unseen
and mysterious, but nonetheless real.
The manna came down to where the people were; and the
salvation of Jesus is available to all
who will take it. "And when the dew that lay was gone up,
behold, upon the face of the
wilderness there lay a small round thing, as small as the
hoar frost on the ground" (Exodus
16:14). The manna lay where it was easy to reach and gather.
And so the Gospel of our salvation
is easy of access. "But the righteousness which is of faith
speaketh on this wise, Say not in
thine heart, Who shall ascend into heaven? (that is, to
bring Christ down from above:) or,
Who shall descend into the deep? (that is, to bring up
Christ again from the dead.) But
what saith it? The word is nigh thee, even in thy mouth, and
in thy heart: that is, the word
of faith, which we preach" (Romans 10:6-8).
The manna had to be gathered by individuals, and so
salvation today must be appropriated by
each individual person for himself. "This is the thing which
the Lord hath commanded,
Gather of it every man according to his eating, an omer for
every man" (Exodus 16:16). Individual faith in Christ is
required: "He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting
life: and
he that believeth not the Son shall not see life" (John
3:36).
The manna was despised by some of the Israelites, as the
salvation of Jesus is despised by some
men today. "And the mixed multitude that was among them fell
a lusting: and the children
of Israel also wept again, and said, Who shall give us flesh
to eat? We remember the fish,
which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the
melons, and the leeks, and the
onions, and the garlic: but now our soul is dried away:
there is nothing at all, besides this
manna, before our eyes" (Numbers 11:4-6). They were making
light of that upon which their
sustenance depended. How like many in modern times who are
doing nothing about the salvation
of their immortal souls! "How shall we escape, if we neglect
so great salvation" (Hebrews 2:3)
[Old Testament Types - FHW]
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(Exodus 17) Even as Israel was in desperate need of water to
quench thirst; so do men need the water of life
to satisfy their thirsty souls. "And there was no water for
the people to drink" (Exodus 17:1).
And water was a necessity. And thirsty souls can go to God
and receive satisfaction through faith
in Christ resulting in the New Birth. "Ho, every one that
thirsteth, come ye to the waters"
(Isaiah 55:1). Regeneration by the Holy Spirit is the only
work that can satisfy men’s hearts.
Instead of blaming God for their predicament, the Israelites
should have looked to God for
water, as men should today. "Wherefore is this that thou
hast brought us up out of Egypt, to
kill us and our children and our cattle with thirst?"
(Exodus 17:3). Theirs would indeed have
been a terrible situation if Moses had not gone to God on
their behalf and secured water for
them. Many times these days we find men putting the blame
for their troubles upon their Creator,
instead of going to Him for the solution to their problems.
"And the Spirit and the bride say,
Come. And let him that heareth say, Come. And let him that
is athirst, come. And
whosoever will, let him take the water of life freely"
(Revelation 22:17). With such a gracious
invitation as this, there is no need for men to die of
thirst.
Water was supplied from the smitten rock. The death of
Christ makes possible a living well of
water through the indwelling Spirit. "Behold, I will stand
before thee there upon the rock in
Horeb; and thou shalt smite the rock, and there shall come
water out of it, that the people
may drink. And Moses did so in the sight of the elders of
Israel" (Exodus 17:6).
The smitten rock brought forth water for the people. Thus
the smitten Christ on the cross opened
up a well of water through the presence of the Holy Spirit
in the regenerated heart of man. "But
whosoever drinketh of the water that I shall give him shall
never thirst; but the water that I
shall give him shall be in him a well of water springing up
into everlasting life" (John 4:14).
The rock from which their water came followed the Israelites
in the wilderness; and so Christ
goes with believers to satisfy their needs. "And did all
drink the same spiritual drink: for they
drank of that spiritual Rock that followed them: and that
Rock was Christ" (I Corinthians
10:4). Even so, Christ goes with those who trust Him as
Saviour. He never forsakes them but is with
them to help them. "For he hath said, I will never leave
thee, nor forsake thee. So that we
may boldly say, The Lord is my helper" (Hebrews 13:5, 6).
Water from the rock was more than a well, it was a river;
and the believer who is filled with the
Spirit becomes a river of water. "He clave the rocks in the
wilderness, and gave them drink
as out of the great depths. He brought streams also out of
the rock, and caused waters to
run down like rivers" (Psalm 78:15, 16). A river of water
came forth from that rock in the
wilderness to supply the needs of everyone. And Jesus gave
us a promise that abundantly
matches that in the spiritual realm.
"Jesus stood and cried, saying, If any man thirst, let him
come unto me, and drink. He that
believeth on me, as the scripture hath said, out of his
belly shall flow rivers of living water.
(But this spake he of the Spirit, which they that believe on
him should receive" (John 7:37-
39).
More than a well, the Spirit-filled Christian becomes an
overflowing fountain, which becomes a
river of living water. Some Christians do not have enough of
the water of life to supply their own
need, while others have enough for their own need, but not
enough for others. The Spirit-filled
Christian has enough for himself and for others.
[Old Testament Types - FHW]
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(Exodus 13:20-22; 14:19, 20) The pillar of cloud and of fire
was an indication of God’s presence with Israel in the
wilderness;
even as the Holy Spirit’s activity in believers is proof of
God’s presence with them. "And the
Lord went before them by day in a pillar of a cloud, to lead
them the way; and by night in a
pillar of fire" (Exodus 13:21).
By day everyone could know that God was present with His
people because of the pillar of
cloud, and by night this became the pillar of fire. And it
is the work of the Holy Spirit in a
believer that lets the world around know that God is with
him. "But ye are not in the flesh, but
in the Spirit, if so be that the Spirit of God dwell in you.
Now if any man have not the Spirit
of Christ, he is none of his" (Romans 8:9).
The pillar of cloud and of fire was given Israel after
redemption from Egypt by blood; as the
Holy Spirit is given to those who have been saved by
Christ’s blood. Redemption by the blood of
the Passover lamb is found in Exodus 12. The pillar of cloud
and fire is described in Exodus
13:21f. The order here is important.
The order is similar in the first chapter of Ephesians: "In
whom we have redemption through
his blood, the forgiveness of sins . . . In whom also after
that ye believed, ye were sealed
with that Holy Spirit of promise" (Ephesians 1:7, 13). We
are first redeemed by Christ’s blood,
and then sealed by His Spirit. The pillar of cloud and of
fire served Israel as a protection from her enemies; like
the Holy Spirit
gives believers victory over their foes. "And the angel of
God which went before the camp of
Israel, removed and went behind them; and the pillar of die
cloud went from before their
face, and stood behind them: and it came between the camp of
the Egyptians and the camp
of Israel; and it was a cloud and darkness to them, but it
gave light by night to these: so
that the one came not near the other all the night" (Exodus
14:19, 20).
The pillar of cloud and fire stood between the Israelites
and the pursuing army of the Egyptians
as a wonderful protection. And the Holy Spirit does just
that for the believer who trusts in His
keeping power from the enemy. "This I say then, Walk in the
Spirit, and ye shall not fulfill
the lust of the flesh. For the flesh lusteth against the
Spirit, and the Spirit against the flesh:
and these are contrary the one to the other: so that ye
cannot do the things that ye would.
But if ye be led of the Spirit, ye are not under the law"
(Galatians 5:16-18). In our warfare
against the world, the flesh, and the Devil, the blessed
Holy Spirit will, if we trust Him to do so,
protect us from these enemies, and give us victory over
them.
The pillar of cloud and of fire was given Israel for the
purpose of guidance; as the Holy Spirit is
given the Christian to guide him. "And when the cloud was
taken up from the tabernacle,
then after that the children of Israel journeyed: and in the
place where the cloud abode,
there the children of Israel pitched their tents" (Numbers
9:17). Israel journeyed or camped
according to the movement or abiding of the pillar of cloud
and of fire. Today the Holy Spirit
guides the believer. "For as many as are led by the Spirit
of God, they are the sons of God"
(Romans 8:14). The Spirit guides through inward impressions,
through Scripture passages, and
through providential circumstances. In various ways He makes
it clear to the child of God the
way he should travel, the decision he should render, the
choice he should make.
The pillar of cloud was given Israel to serve as a covering
from the heat by day; even as the Holy
Spirit is the believers covering in the stress and strain of
excessive trials. "He spread a cloud
for a covering" (Psalm 105:39). This is no doubt a reference
to the pillar of cloud which
protected the Israelites from the hot burning sun of the
desert. It was a canopy from the desert
heat. And when the early church had excessive persecution,
the Spirit served them as a covering.
"Then had the churches rest throughout all Judea and Galilee
and Samaria, and were
edified; and walking in the fear of the Lord, and in the
comfort of the Holy Ghost, were
multiplied" (Acts 9:31). The Holy Spirit became a comfort to
them following a time of great
persecution.
The pillar of fire served Israel as a light by night; and so
the Spirit illuminates the Christian’s
way. "Thou leddest them in the day by a cloudy pillar; and
in the night by a pillar of fire, to
give them light in the way wherein they should go" (Nehemiah
9:12). It was like a great
searchlight, making the way that lay ahead clear to see.
And concerning the work of the Holy Spirit Jesus said:
"Howbeit when he, the Spirit of truth,
is come, he will guide you into all truth" (John 16:13). The
Holy Spirit illuminates the Word as
we study its teachings, and He also illuminates our pathway.
He makes everything clear. Holy Ghost with light divine,
Shine upon this heart of mine;
Chase the shades of night away,
Turn my darkness into day.
God spoke to Israel from the cloud, as the Spirit speaks to
the churches today. "He spake unto
them in the cloudy pillar" (Psalm 99:7). The divine messages
came to Israel direct from this
overhead cloud. And if we have ears to hear, the Spirit of
God will often speak to our hearts in
these modern days of crisis. "He that hath an ear, let him
hear what the Spirit saith unto the
churches" (Revelation 2:29). May God give to us listening
ears to hear what He has to say to us!
The pillar of cloud and of fire was not taken away from
Israel during her wilderness days; and
the Holy Spirit will abide with believers forever. "Yet thou
in thy manifold mercies forsookest
them not in the wilderness: the pillar of the cloud departed
not from them by day, to lead
them in the way; neither the pillar of fire by night, to
show them light, and the way wherein
they should go" (Nehemiah 9:19). All through the forty years
of wilderness experiences God
took not away from Israel the pillar of cloud by day and the
pillar of fire by night. Concerning
the Holy Spirit, Jesus said: "And I will pray the Father,
and he shall give you another
Comforter, that he may abide with you forever" (John 14:16).
As our Comforter or Helper,
the Holy Spirit abides with us to protect us and to guide us
in the way.
[Old Testament Types - FHW]
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(Exodus 25-40) God had a detailed plan for making the
Tabernacle; and He has a plan for the life of every
member of His Church. "And look that thou make them after
their pattern, which was
showed thee in the mount" (Exodus 25:40). The plans for the
construction of the Tabernacle
were given to Moses on Mount Sinai, and Moses saw to it that
they were carried out in the
building and making of it. Concerning God’s plan for our
lives, Paul has this to say: "For we are
his workmanship, created in Christ Jesus unto good works,
which God hath before
ordained [or planned] that we should walk in them"
(Ephesians 2:10). Since God has a plan
for our lives, how important that we find out what His plan
is, and then proceed to carry it out!
The Tabernacle was a type of God’s presence with His people
of Israel and with Christians
today. "And let them make me a sanctuary; that I may dwell
among them" (Exodus 25:8).
The Tabernacle was always placed in the center of Israel’s
camp, and there in the heart of His
people’s dwelling-place, God was present, in His sanctuary.
The Church is God’s sanctuary now.
"In whom ye also are builded together for an habitation of
God through the Spirit"
(Ephesians 2:22). God dwells in the heart of His Church
through His Spirit.
The tabernacle was a picture of Jesus Christ and His
salvation. "And the Word was made
flesh, and dwelt among us" (John 1:14). The word dwelt is
rendered "tabernacled" in the
margin. When He was here on earth, Jesus was tabernacling
among us. He was fulfilling many of
the types which we find so interesting in the Tabernacle in
the wilderness. Thus we see Him and
His salvation pictured plainly in many of the details of
that Tabernacle. The Israelites gave material for the
Tabernacle in the spirit Christians should give to God’s
work in these modern times. "And they came, every one whose
heart stirred him up, and
everyone whom his spirit made willing, and they brought the
Lord’s offering to the work of
the tabernacle of the congregation, and for all his service,
and for the holy garments"
(Exodus 35:21).
"The children of Israel brought a willing offering unto the
Lord, every man and woman,
whose heart made them willing to bring for all manner of
work, which the Lord had
commanded to be made by the hand of Moses" (Exodus 35:29).
"And they spake unto Moses, saying, The people bring much
more than enough for the
service of the work, which the Lord commanded to make"
(Exodus 36:5).
[Old Testament Types - FHW]
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There was no compulsion from without to get the Israelites
to give. Their own hearts stirred them
up to give. Their own spirits made them willing to give.
They brought much more than was
needed for the task. It is this kind of giving that is very
much needed in all phases of the work of
the Lord in these days.
Spirit-filled workmen built the Tabernacle; and Spirit-
filled Christians should carry on every
phase of activity in the church. "And Moses said unto the
children of Israel, See, the Lord
hath called by name Bezaleel the son of Uri, the son of Hur,
of the tribe of Judah; and he
hath filled him with the Spirit of God, in wisdom, in
understanding, and in knowledge, and
in all manner of workmanship; and to devise curious works,
to work in gold, and in silver,
and in brass, and in the cutting of stones, to set them, and
in carving of wood, to make any
manner of cunning work. And he hath put in his heart that he
may teach, both he, and
Aholiab, the son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan. Them
hath he filled with wisdom of
heart, to work all manner of work, of the engraver, and of
the cunning workman, and of
the embroiderer, in blue, and in purple, in scarlet, and in
fine linen, and of the weaver,
even of them that do any work, and of those that devise
cunning work" (Exodus 35:30-35).
God gave to these men who made the Tabernacle and its
furnishings wisdom and skill by His
Holy Spirit. And in the early church Spirit-filled men were
sought out to perform all the tasks of
the Lord. "Then the twelve called the multitude of the
disciples unto them, and said, It is not
reason that we should leave the word of God, and serve
tables. Wherefore brethren, look ye
out among you seven men of honest report, full of the Holy
Spirit and wisdom, whom we
may appoint over this business" (Acts 6:2, 3).
The height of the fence that enclosed the Tabernacle
courtyard was five cubits (seven and onehalf
feet); and was thus like that of a sheepfold where only a
robber would attempt to climb over.
"And the height in the breadth was five cubits, answerable
to the hangings of the court"
(Exodus 38:18).
This fence was seven and a half feet high, and sufficient to
keep out intruders. It reminds us of
the sheepfold Christ spoke about: Verily, verily, I say unto
you, He that entereth not by the door into the sheepfold,
but
climbeth up some other way, the same is a thief and a
robber. But he that entereth in by the
door is the shepherd of the sheep" (John 10:1, 2). Only by
the God-appointed way through the
courtyard gate, bringing an offering, could anyone enter
into where God’s presence was, in the
days of the Tabernacle.
The white linen hangings of the courtyard fence pictured the
holiness of God, which bars the
sinner except he come in through Christ the door. "There
shall be hangings for the court of
fine twined linen" (Exodus 27:9). God is a holy God and
cannot countenance sin in His
presence. "Thou art of purer eyes than to behold evil, and
canst not look on iniquity"
(Habakkuk 1:13). The sinner must be barred from God’s
presence except he come in through
Christ the Door of his salvation. "I am the door: by me if
any man enter in, he shall be saved,
and shall go in and out, and find pasture" (John 10:9).
The brass sockets that held the pillars of the courtyard
fence were a symbol of judgment on sin,
and the silver chapiters, fillets, and hooks, were a type of
redemption. "And the sockets for the
pillars were of brass; and the hooks of the pillars and
their fillets of silver; and the
overlaying of their chapiters of silver; and all the pillars
of the court were filleted with
silver" (Exodus 38:17). The pillars were the posts, the
chapiter was the top of the post. The fillet
was the rod upon which the curtain was hung, and the hooks
were used to hang the curtains. The
sockets were the foundation of the posts and were of brass.
Brass was a symbol of judgment: "And his feet like unto fine
brass, as if they burned in a
furnace; and his voice as the sound of many waters"
(Revelation 1:15).
This pictures Christ coming in judgment at His return to
earth. Silver is a type of redemption: "If
there be yet many years behind, according unto them he shall
give again the price of his
redemption out of the money that he was bought for"
(Leviticus 25:51). This speaks of the
silver redemption money. In I Peter 1:18, 19 we are told
that we are "not redeemed with . . .
silver and gold . . . but with the precious blood of
Christ."
An Israelite, after looking at the brass sockets (type of
judgment upon sin), could follow the
silver fillets (type of redemption) around the corner of the
courtyard and thus be led to the
gateway where an entrance could be made if an offering for
sin was brought.
The gateway into the courtyard was wide and beautiful, and
those entering had to bring a
sacrifice; and all this is typical of Christ as our Door.
"And for the gate of the court shall be an
hanging of twenty cubits" (Exodus 27:16). The gate was
twenty cubits, or thirty feet, wide by
seven and one-half feet high. It was wide enough to
accommodate all who wished to enter.
Today salvation is for "whosoever believeth" (John 3:16).
The beautiful hangings of the gate
way are described in verse 16: "And for the gate of the
court shall be an hanging of twenty
cubits, of blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined
linen, wrought with needle work."
The blue pictures the deity of Christ; the purple, His
royalty; the scarlet, His humanity and His
sacrifice; and the white linen, His holiness. [Old Testament
Types - FHW]
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Those entering this door must bring a sacrifice. "If his
offering be a burnt sacrifice of the
herd, let him offer a male without blemish: he shall offer
it of his own voluntary will at the
door of the tabernacle of the congregation before the Lord"
(Leviticus 1:3). Let us look at the
New Testament application of this, "But now in Christ Jesus
ye who sometimes were far off
are made nigh by the blood of Christ" (Ephesians 2:13). "For
by one offering he hath
perfected forever them that are sanctified" (Hebrews 10:14).
Our access to the presence of
God is through Christ as our Door, and through the offering
He made on our behalf, whose blood
gives us nearness to God.
The gateway was the only entrance into the courtyard of the
tabernacle; even as Christ is the only
way of salvation. "I am the door: by me if any man enter in,
he shall be saved, and shall go
in and out and find pasture" (John 10:9). "Neither is there
salvation in any other: for there
is none other name under heaven given among men, whereby we
must be saved" (Acts
4:12). There was only one way to gain the presence of the
holy God of Israel in Old Testament
times, and there is only one way to God’s presence today,
and that way is through Christ and His
sacrifice for us.
The brazen altar was a type of Calvary’s cross. This altar
was the first article to be seen after
entering the courtyard. "And thou shalt make an altar of
shittim [acacia] wood, five cubits
long, and five cubits broad; the altar shall be foursquare:
and the height thereof shall be
three cubits. And thou shalt make the horns of it upon the
four corners thereof: his horns
shall be of the same: and thou shalt overlay it with brass .
. . And thou shalt make for it a
grate of network of brass" (Exodus 27:1, 2, 4). Brass
overlaid the wood, and the grate network
was also of brass. Brass is a type of judgment upon sin, as
we have already seen. In the offering
for sin, God’s judgment falls upon the one sacrificed. "For
he hath made him to be sin for us,
who knew no sin; that we might be made the righteousness of
God in him" (II Corinthians
5:21).
The shape of the altar was foursquare. The four sides,
pointing north, east, south, and west, and
thus symbolizing a perfect sacrifice for all people, most
certainly point to Christ’s sacrifice. The
horns of the altar were used to bind the sacrifices (see
Psalm 118:27), to sprinkle blood upon
them (see Exodus 29:12), and to provide a place of refuge
(see I Kings 1:50). In Old Testament
times if a man was really guilty, then taking hold of the
horns of the altar did not spare him. But
in Christ sinners have a real place of refuge if they come
in faith and penitence. "That by two
immutable things, in which it was impossible for God to lie,
we might have a strong
consolation, who have fled for refuge to lay hold upon the
hope set before us" (Hebrews
6:18).
The offerings made at the brazen altar are a type of the
offering of Christ on Calvary’s cross.
There were five different offerings (see Leviticus 1-7; also
Chapter III "Types in Leviticus"). The
principle of identification was important in connection with
these offerings. "And he shall lay
his hand upon the head of the goat, and kill it in the place
where they kill the burnt offering
before the Lord: it is a sin offering" (Leviticus 4:24). The
one who has sinned thus accepts the
animal as his substitute by laying his hands upon its head.
[Old Testament Types - FHW]
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Here is what was done with the offerings, with some
variation in connection with certain
offerings.
- First, the blood was shed and atonement made.
- Then, the blood was sprinkled and the atonement
appropriated. The victim was burned, the fire
picturing judgment upon sin.
- Then part of the meat was eaten by the priests symbolizing
fellowship based on forgiveness.
"But if we walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have
fellowship one with another, and
the blood of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth us from all sin"
(I John 1:7).
The laver used by the priests for washing is a type of
cleansing for the Christian worker. The
laver was located midway between the brazen altar and the
main part of the Tabernacle itself.
"Thou shalt also make a laver of brass, and his foot also of
brass, to wash withal: and thou
shalt put it between the tabernacle of the congregation and
the altar, and thou shalt put
water therein. For Aaron and his sons shall wash their hands
and their feet thereat: when
they go into the tabernacle of the congregation, they shall
wash with water, that they die
not; or when they come near to the altar to minister, to
burn offering made by fire unto the
Lord" (Exodus 30:18-20). The priests were required to wash
themselves before going into the
Tabernacle, or before ministering at the altar.
The material the laver was made from was the brass looking
glasses which had been offered by
the women. "And he made the laver of brass, and the foot of
it of brass, of the looking
glasses of the women assembling, which assembled at the door
of the tabernacle of the
congregation" (Exodus 38:8). This reminds us of James’
statement that the law or the Word is
like a mirror. "But whoso looketh into the perfect law of
liberty, and continueth therein, he
being not a forgetful hearer, but a doer of the work, this
man shall be blessed in his deed"
(James 1:25). The New Testament constitutes all believers as
priests. "And hath made us kings
and priests" (Revelation 1:6). But it is important that
priests be clean.
The psalmist asked the question how to be cleansed.
"Wherewithal shall a young man cleanse
his way? by taking heed thereto according to thy word"
(Psalm 119:9). First John 1:9
promises cleansing after confession: "If we confess our
sins, he is faithful and just to forgive
us our sins, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness."
After he is conscious of any sin,
every Christian worker should confess his sin immediately
and be forgiven and cleansed. Only
thus is he prepared to serve the Lord.
The Tabernacle itself did not rest upon the sand, but rather
upon a mass of silver sockets, with
each upright board resting on two sockets; so each one of us
must rest himself upon Christ for
salvation. "And forty sockets of silver he made under the
twenty boards; two sockets under
one board for his two tenons [pegs], and two sockets under
another board for his two
tenons" (Exodus 36:24). Each board was fastened securely to
the sockets by means of pegs. The
foundation of the Tabernacle was actually the combination of
all of these silver sockets,
picturing redemption through Christ as our foundation. "For
other foundation can no man lay
than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ" (I Corinthians
3:11). Every individual sinner who
hopes to be saved must rest upon Christ for his salvation.
The arrangement of the material in the walls of the
Tabernacle symbolizes the unity of believers.
"And he made boards for the tabernacle of shittim [acacia
wood, standing up . . . And he made
bars of shittim wood . . . And he made the middle bar to
shoot through the boards from the one
end to the other. And he overlaid the boards with gold, and
made their rings of gold to be places
for the bars, and overlaid the bars with gold" (Exodus
36:20, 31, 33, 34). The boards stood
upright. The bars were horizontal placed in rings. The
middle bar went through from end to end.
The purpose was to hold all together. This typifies the
unity of believers. "Endeavoring to keep
the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace" (Ephesians
4:3). This unity is based on the presence
and work of the Holy Spirit.
The outside covering of the Tabernacle of badgers’ skins is
a type of what Christ is to the
average unsaved person. "And a covering above of badgers’
skins [sealskins, margin: porpoise
skins]" (Exodus 26:14). This skin was no doubt a rough,
shaggy, and repulsive-looking skin.
This pictures Christ in relation to most unsaved people, to
whom Christ is not at all attractive.
This reminds us of the words of the prophet Isaiah in
predicting concerning the Messiah: "For he
shall grow up before him as a tender plant, and as a root
out of a dry ground: he hath no
form nor comeliness; and when we shall see him, there is no
beauty that we should desire
him. He is despised and rejected of men, a man of sorrows,
and acquainted with grief: and
we hid as it were our faces from him; he was despised, and
we esteemed him not" (Isaiah
53:2, 3).
The next to the outside covering of the Tabernacle of rams’
skins dyed red is a type of what
Christ is to God. "A covering for the tent of rams’ skins
dyed red" (Exodus 26:14). Rams
were used in the voluntary burnt offering. Thus this
covering represents Christ’s voluntary
consecration to do God’s will. "I delight to do thy will, O
my God: yea, thy law is within my
heart" (Psalm 40:8). This consecration led to the cross. It
indicates Christ was acceptable to God
in His life and ministry, and in His sacrificial death for
us.
The next to the inside covering of the Tabernacle of goats’
hair is a type of what Christ has done
for us. "Thou shalt make curtains of goats’ hair to be a
covering upon the tabernacle"
(Exodus 26:7).
In Palestine during Bible times the average goat was black,
not white. A goat was sacrificed as a
sin offering on the great Day of Atonement. Part of this
curtain would hang over in front of the
Tabernacle (v. 9). This would suggest to the Israelite
forgiveness because of the death of a
substitute (a goat). Thus it is a type of Christ’s death for
us. "Christ died for our sins" (I
Corinthians 15:3).
The beautiful inside covering of the Tabernacle is a type of
what Christ is to believers.
"Moreover thou shalt make the tabernacle with ten curtains
of fine twined linen, and blue,
and purple, and scarlet: with cherubim of cunning work shalt
thou make them" (Exodus
26:1). There were ten curtains fastened together to make one
covering. The white linen suggests
Christ’s holiness; the blue, His deity; the purple, His
royalty; the scarlet, His humanity and
sacrificial death; and the cherubim (see Genesis 3:24) who
were guards or watchers, picture the
keeping power of Christ. All this and more - Christ is to
the believer! [Old Testament Types - FHW]
Read More
We come now to the main part of the Tabernacle on the
inside. Here are two rooms, the first a
larger room into which only priests might enter for their
service, and the second a smaller room
where only the high priest could enter. God manifested His
presence in this latter room. The first
room was called the Holy Place, and the second room was
called the Holy of Holies.
The golden candlestick (lampstand) located on the left side
of the Holy Place, represents the
union between Christ and believers. "And thou shalt make a
candlestick of pure gold: of
beaten work shall the candlestick be made: his shaft, and
his branches, his bowls, his
knops, and his flowers, shall be of the same" (Exodus
25:31). The central shaft or stem
represents Christ, and the branches represent believers. The
branches were not stuck on, or
soldered on, or glued on. Rather they were one and the same
piece with the central shaft or stem.
Even so there is vital union between Christ and true
believers. This suggests the reference of
Christ to the Vine and the branches in John 15.
The first result of the union with Christ thus typified is
shining. "Ye are the light of the world.
A city that is set on an hill cannot be hid. Neither do men
light a candle [lamp], and put it
under a bushel, but on a candlestick [lampstand]; and it
giveth light unto all that are in the
house. Let your light so shine before men, that they may see
your good works, and glorify
your Father which is in heaven" (Matthew 5:1416).
His lamp am I, to shine where He shall say,
And lamps are not for sunny rooms,
Nor for the light of day;
But for dark places of the earth,
Where shame and crime and wrong have birth;
Or for the murky twilight gray
Where wandering sheep have gone astray;
Or where the light of faith grows dim,
And souls are groping after Him.
- Annie Johnson Flint
The second result of union with Christ as pictured by the
lampstand is fruit-bearing. The bowls,
knops, and flowers suggest different stages in the process
of growing fruit, i.e., almonds. And the
Lord expects fruit from us as His followers who are united
to Him. "Herein is my Father
glorified, that ye bear much fruit; so shall ye be my
disciples" (John 15:8). The fruits of the
Spirit as listed in Galatians 5:22, 23 should all be present
in our lives, and if they are, then there
will be converts to Christ. Such fruitfulness glorifies
Christ.
The fuel used by the candlestick (lampstand) is a type of
the Holy Spirit as the source of the
believers power for living and serving. "And thou shalt
command the children of Israel, that
they bring thee pure oil olive beaten for the light, to
cause the lamp to burn always"
(Exodus 27:20). Absolutely pure olive oil was used in this
lamp. And in the Bible oil is a type of
the Holy Spirit. "How God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with
the Holy Ghost and with power: who went
about doing good, and healing all that were oppressed of the
devil; for God was with him"
(Acts 10:38). If Jesus was anointed with the Holy Spirit,
how much more do we need to be
anointed with Him for effective service.
The table of shewbread, located on the right side of the
Holy Place, is a type of the Lord’s
Supper, or feeding on Christ. "Thou shalt also make a table
of shittim [acacia] wood: two
cubits shall be the length thereof, and a cubit the breadth
thereof, and a cubit and a half
the height thereof . . . And thou shalt set upon the table
shewbread before me alway"
(Exodus 25:23, 30).
"Every sabbath he shall set it in order before the Lord
continually, being taken from the
children of Israel by an everlasting covenant. And it shall
be Aaron’s and his sons’; and
they shall eat it in the holy place: for it is most holy
unto him of the offerings of the Lord
made by fire by a perpetual statute" (Leviticus 24:8, 9).
The word shewbread means "presence-bread." It was kept in
God’s presence. For wheat to
become fine flour it must go through the process of sifting,
rubbing, pounding, grinding,
crushing, bruising. All this is descriptive of what Christ
suffered on our behalf. "But he was
wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our
iniquities: the chastisement of our
peace was upon him; and with his stripes we are healed"
(Isaiah 53:5).
Unleavened bread was used for the table of shewbread,
suggesting that Christ was without sin.
The bread was baked with fire, symbolizing the sufferings of
Christ for us. The bread was
changed every sabbath day, and thus no stale bread was
allowed. So there is need for fresh, upto-
date Christian experience. The priests ate the bread that
was removed, thus picturing fellowship
with God because of sins forgiven. The Lord’s Supper means
feeding on Christ. "Except ye
eat the flesh of the Son of man, and drink his blood, ye
have no life in you" (John 6:53). This
means to appropriate the result of His death in our daily
experience.
The golden altar of incense, located directly in front of
them veil, is a type of Christian prayer to
God. "And thou shalt make an altar to burn incense upon: of
shittim wood shalt thou make
it . . . And Aaron shall burn thereon sweet incense every
morning: when he dresseth the
lamps, he shall burn incense upon it. And when Aaron
lighteth the lamps at even, he shall
burn incense upon it, a perpetual incense, before the Lord
throughout your generations"
(Exodus 30:1, 7, 8). The high priest was to burn incense on
this altar morning and evening.
Incense in the Bible represents the prayers of God’s people.
"Let my prayer be set forth before
thee as incense; and the lifting up of my hands as the
evening sacrifice" (Psalm 141:2)
"And when he had taken the book, the four beasts and four
and twenty elders fell down
before the Lamb, having every one of them harps, and golden
vials full of odours, which
are the prayers of saints" (Revelation 5:8).
"And the smoke of the incense, which came with the prayers
of the saints, ascended up
before God out of the angel’s hand" (Revelation 8:4). [Old
Testament Types - FHW]
Read More
The altar of incense was situated just in front of the veil
separating the Holy Place from the Holy of Holies. The Ark
and God’s presence were on the other side of the veil. The
veil of the Tabernacle is a type of Christ’s humanity. "And
thou shalt make a veil of blue, and purple, and scarlet,;
and fine twined linen of cunning work: with cherubim shall
it be made" (Exodus 26:31). The blue is a symbol of Christ’s
deity, the purple, His royalty; the scarlet, His death; the
white linen, His sinlessness; and the cherubim suggest His
heavenly origin. The purpose of the veil was to separate the
Holy of Holies from the Holy Place. The approach into God’s
presence was limited in those days. Christ by His
incarnation and death has made a way for us into the
presence of God. "By a new and living way, which he hath
consecrated for us, through the veil, that is to say, his
flesh" (Hebrews 10:20). Here we are told the veil is a
symbol of Christ’s flesh, i.e., His humanity. But His
humanity without His death could not have opened the way
into God’s presence. The rending of the veil in the Temple
when Christ died symbolizes the opening of the way into the
Holy of Holies for us. "Jesus, when he had cried again with
a loud voice, yielded up the ghost. And, behold, the veil of
the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom; and
the earth did quake, and the rocks rent" (Matthew 27:50,
51). The veil in Herod’s Temple was a strong fabric four
inches thick and sixty feet high. Hebrews 10:19 gives the
spiritual significance of this great event: "Having
therefore, brethren, boldness to enter into the holiest by
the blood of Jesus." Thus the death of Christ has opened the
way into God’s very presence for every believer in Jesus.
The Holy of Holies is a type of Heaven. Hebrews 9:24 teaches
us this: "For Christ is not entered into the holy places
made with hands, which are the figures of the true; but into
heaven itself, now to appear in the presence of God for us."
The Holy of Holies was a perfect cube, and therefore a type
of the New Jerusalem. This room was ten cubits or fifteen
feet each way. The Temple of Solomon was twice these
dimensions. And John sees the New Jerusalem as a cube. And
the city lieth foursquare, and the length is as large as the
breadth: and he measured the city with the reed, twelve
thousand furlongs [1500 miles]. "The length and the breadth
and the height of it are equal" (Revelation 21:16). The Holy
of Holies was a room where the color gold predominated, and
therefore, is a type of the New Jerusalem. Brass
predominated in the Tabernacle courtyard, but in the Holy of
Holies the side walls were of gold, the Ark of the Covenant
was gold, the cherubim gold. This is true of Heaven. "And
the building of the wall of it was of jasper: and the city
was pure gold, like unto clear glass" (Revelation 21:18).
The Holy of Holies had as its only source of light the
Shekinah glory of God’s presence, and is therefore a type of
the New Jerusalem. "And the city had no need of the sun,
neither of the moon, to shine in it: for the glory of God
did lighten it, and the Lamb is the light thereof"
(Revelation 21:23). God’s presence and Christ’s presence do
away with all need for any other system of lighting. The Ark
of the Covenant was the place in the Tabernacle where God’s
presence was manifested. "So the people sent to Shiloh, that
they might bring from thence the ark of the covenant of the
Lord of hosts, which dwelleth between the cherubim" (I Sam.
4:4). "Give ear, O Shepherd of Israel, thou that leadest
Joseph like a flock; thou that dwellest between the
cherubim, shine forth" (Psalm 80:1). It is clear from these
Scriptures that the presence of the Lord shone forth from
between the two cherubim of the Ark of the Covenant. Here
was the place where His presence was manifested. The mercy
seat, or the lid of the Ark, and the most sacred place in
the Tabernacle, was a type of God’s throne. "The Lord
reigneth; let the people tremble: he sitteth between the
cherubim; let the earth be moved" (Psalm 99:1) "And thou
shalt make a mercy seat of pure gold: two cubits and a half
shall be the length thereof, and a cubit and a half the
breadth thereof" (Exodus 25:17). The mercy seat was not of
wood covered over with gold like much of the Tabernacle
furniture was, but was rather a slab of pure gold as long
and as wide as the Ark. Thus the mercy seat was represented
to be God’s throne, and the rest of the Ark His footstool.
"And there I will meet with thee, and I will commune with
thee from above the mercy seat, from between the two
cherubim which are upon the ark" (Exodus 25:22). The mercy
seat is a type of Heavens "throne of grace" because blood
was sprinkled upon it as atonement for sin. "Then shall he
kill the goat of the sin offering, that is for the people,
and bring his blood within the veil, and do with that blood
as he did with the blood of the bullock, and sprinkle it
upon the mercy seat, and before the mercy seat" (Leviticus
16:15). Once a year, on the Day of Atonement the high priest
sprinkled blood on the mercy seat. The cherubim were
heavenly beings with outstretched wings, looking toward the
mercy seat where the blood was sprinkled. As guardians of
righteousness (cf. Genesis 3:24), they were satisfied since
judgment had fallen upon a substitute, and thus the sinner
was forgiven. The meaning of the term mercy seat is
"propitiatory," or "a place of propitiation," or "a place of
atonement" or "covering over of sins." Thus it was a place
where sin was atoned for or covered over. In Old Testament
times sin was covered over, but on the cross sin was done
away. "Being justified freely by his grace through the
redemption that is in Christ Jesus: whom God set forth to be
a propitiation through faith in his blood, to declare his
righteousness for the remission of sins that are past,
through the forbearance of God" (Romans 3:24, 25). Atonement
through Christ’s blood was made known by Christ in Heaven.
"For Christ is not entered into the holy places made with
hands, which are the figures of the true; but into heaven
itself, now to appear in the presence of God for us"
(Hebrews 9:24). Thus the mercy seat is a type of God’s
throne of grace. "Let us therefore come boldly unto the
throne of grace, that we may obtain mercy, and find grace to
help in time of need" (Hebrews 4:16). The tables of the law
inside the Ark are a type of God’s law written on the hearts
of believers. "And the ark of the covenant overlaid round
about with gold, wherein was . . . the tables of the
covenant" (Hebrews 9:4). The prophet Jeremiah foretold a day
when Israel would have these tables of the law, not just
kept inside the Ark, but rather written on the hearts of the
people. "But this shall be the covenant that I will make
with the house of Israel; After those days, saith the Lord,
I will put my law in their inward parts, and write it in
their hearts; and will be their God, and they shall be my
people" (Jeremiah 31:33). The New Testament application of
this truth is given in Hebrews 10:16: "This is the covenant
that I will make with them after those days, saith the Lord,
I will put my laws into their hearts, and in their minds
will I write them." Actually, the law was kept underneath
the blood-sprinkled mercy seat. When a person trusts Christ
and loves Him, he keeps God’s laws out of sheer love for
him. The pot of manna inside the Ark is a type of God’s
provision for the needs of Christians. "Wherein was the
golden pot that had manna" (Hebrews 9:4). This was a
reminder that God provided for the Israelites all during
their wilderness journeys, and is a type of God’s providing
for us today. "Give us this day our daily bread" (Matthew
6:11). "But my God shall supply all your need according to
his riches glory by Christ Jesus" (Philippians 4:19). A
special promise of "hidden manna" was promised to overcomers
in Revelation 2:17: "To him that overcometh will I give to
eat of the hidden manna." Aaron’s rod that budded, laid up
in the Ark, is a type fruitful service for God’s servants.
"And Aaron’s rod the budded" (Hebrews 9:4). This rod, which
overnight blossomed and bore almonds in order to vindicate
the priesthood of Aaron, pictures fruitful service for God
among Christian workers by the supernatural power of the
Holy Spirit. (See section on "Aaron’s Rod That Budded" in
"Types in Numbers.") "Herein is my Father glorified, that ye
bear mud fruit; so shall ye be my disciples" (John 15:8).
[Old Testament Types - FHW]
Read More
(Exodus 28, 39) Christ is declared to be our High Priest by
the New Testament. "Wherefore, holy brethren,
partakers of the heavenly calling, consider the Apostle and
High Priest of our profession,
Christ Jesus" (Hebrews 3:1). Here is New Testament warrant
for considering Christ as the
antitype and the Jewish high priest as the type.
The ephod, or outer garment, of the high priest is a type of
Christ’s qualifications for being our
Priest. "And he made the ephod of gold, blue, and purple,
and scarlet, and fine twined
linen. And they did beat the gold into thin plates, and cut
it into wires, to work it in the
blue, and in the purple, and in the scarlet, and in the fine
linen, with cunning work"
(Exodus 39:2, 3). The fine twined linen, picturing Christ’s
holiness, was the first essential of His
Priesthood. The gold pictures His divine glory; the blue,
His deity; the purple, His royalty; and
scarlet, His humanity and death.
The two shoulder pieces are described in Exodus 39:4, 6, 7:
"They made shoulder pieces for it,
to couple it together: by the two edges was it coupled
together . . . And they wrought onyx
stones inclosed in ouches of gold, graven, as signets are
graven, with the names of the
children of Israel. And he put them on the shoulders of the
ephod, that they should be
stones for a memorial to the children of Israel." The ephod
had two shoulder pieces or straps,
thus coupling the front and back parts together. There was
an onyx stone on each shoulder piece,
and on each stone was engraved the names of six of the
tribes of Israel. The names of the tribes
were thus carried on the shoulders of the high priest when
lie went into the presence of God in
the Holy of Holies. This is a type of believers today being
carried on the shoulders of Christ our
omnipotent Priest who is responsible for our salvation.
Shoulders symbolize power and
responsibility. (Cf. Isaiah 9:6; Deuteronomy 33:12; Luke
15:4, 5).
The girdle of the high priest is a type of the readiness of
Christ to be our Priest. "And the
curious girdle of the ephod, which is upon it, shall be of
the same, according to the work
thereof; even of gold, of blue, and purple, and scarlet, and
fine twined linen" (Exodus 28:8).
This girdle was made of the same material and of the same
piece as the ephod. To the Oriental,
the girdle symbolized readiness for service. "He riseth from
supper, and laid aside his
garments; and took a towel and girded himself. After that he
poureth water into a basin
and began to wash the disciples’ feet, and to wipe them with
the towel wherewith he was
girded" (John 13:4, 5). Thus when we see Christ girded as
our Priest, we know He is ready to
serve us.
The breastplate of the high priest is a type of Christ
representing us before God. The description
of the breastplate is given in Exodus 28:15f. It was made of
the same material. It was twice as
long as wide, and doubled to form a bag that would be
foursquare. It contained twelve precious
stones, four rows of three in a row. "And the stones shall
be with the names of the children of
Israel, twelve, according to their names" (v. 21). Thus the
high priest bore the names of the
tribes upon his heart when he went into God’s presence , to
intercede for them. This typifies
Christ as our High Priest bearing our names before the Lord.
"For Christ is not entered into the
holy places made with hands, which are the figures of the
true; but into heaven itself, now
to appear in the presence of God for us" (Hebrews 9:24).
The Urim and Thummim of the high priest are a type of the
guidance of Christ through His Holy
Spirit. "And thou shalt put in the breastplate of judgment
the Urim and them Thummim;
and they shall be upon Aaron’s heart when he goeth in before
the Lord: and Aaron shall
bear the judgment of the children of Israel upon his heart
before the Lord continually"
(Exodus 28:30). The word Urim means "light," and the word
Thummim means "perfection."
These were a part of the breastplate by which means the high
priest obtained judgments or
decisions for the people regarding God’s will.
The Bible does not make clear the exact method that was used
in securing answers from the
Lord. It has been suggested by some Bible students that the
diamond was used, and that it would
flash a light to indicate "Yes," and remain darkened to
indicate "No." Joshua sought guidance
from the Lord in this way. (Cf. Numbers 27:21.)
grants to His followers. "I am the light of the world, he
that followeth me shall not walk in
darkness, but shall have the light of life" (John 8:12).
This guidance comes through the action
of the Holy Spirit: "When he, the Spirit of truth is come,
he will guide you into all truth"
(John 16:13).
The robe of the ephod of the high priest is a type of Christ
interceding for us. "And thou shalt
make the robe of the ephod all of blue" (Exodus 28:31). It
was worn between the coat and
ephod. The material was of blue, with a hole at the top for
the head, like a jersey. Around the
lower hem were balls of blue, purple, scarlet-shaped like
pomegranates -and also there were
small golden bells. They alternated, a bell and a
pomegranate, etc. The pomegranates typified
fruit, and the bells typified testimony. For every bell
there was a pomegranate. The purpose of
the bells was to let the people know when the high priest
entered the Holy of Holies that he was
still alive and that his offering was accepted. Though
Christ our High Priest once died for us, we
know that He rose again and now represents us before the
Father. "He ever liveth to make
intercession for us" (Hebrews 7:25).
The embroidered coat or inner garment of the high priest is
a type of the inner life of Christ
which was pleasing unto God. "And thou shalt embroider the
coat of fine linen" (Exodus
28:39). This garment was of fine linen woven in checker
work, or honeycomb form. This was the
first garment to be put on and thus served as a body coat or
undershirt. The fine linen is, of
course, a type of the righteousness of Christ. The checker
work, which was well pleasing to the
eye, indicated that the inner as well as the outer life of
Christ was well pleasing in God’s sight.
Jesus once said: "I do always those things that please him"
(John 8:29).
The miter or turban of the high priest is a type of the
holiness of Christ as our Priest. "And thou
shalt make a plate of pure gold, and grave upon it, like the
engravings of a signet,
HOLINESS TO THE LORD. And thou shalt put it on a blue lace,
that it may be upon the
miter; upon the forefront of the miter it shall be. And it
shall be upon Aaron’s forehead,
that Aaron may bear the iniquity of the holy things, which
the children of Israel shall
hallow in all their holy gifts; and it shall be always upon
his forehead, that they may be
accepted before the Lord" (Exodus 28:36-38).
This was a headband wound around the head. Upon it was a
plate of pure gold upon which was
engraved the words: "HOLINESS TO THE LORD." This symbolized
the holiness of Jesus in
representing believers. His holiness becomes ours, "that
they may be accepted before the
Lord." Without it we would not have access to God’s
presence. "For such an high priest
became us, who is holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from
sinners, and made higher than
the heavens" (Hebrews 7:26).
[Old Testament Types - FHW]
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Leviticus (Greek: Λευιτικός, "relating to the Levites") or
Vayikra (Hebrew: ויקרא, literally "and He called") is the
third book of the Hebrew Bible, and the third of five books of
the Torah/Pentateuch.
Leviticus contains laws and priestly rituals, but in a wider
sense is about the working out of God's covenant with Israel
set out in Genesis and Exodus-what is seen in the Torah as the
consequences of entering into a special relationship with God
(specifically, Yahweh). These consequences are set out in
terms of community relationships and behaviour.
The first 16 chapters and the last chapter make up the
Priestly Code, with rules for ritual cleanliness, sin-
offerings, and the Day of Atonement, including Chapter 12,
which mandates male circumcision. Chapters 17–26 contain the
Holiness Code, including the injunction in chapter 19 to "love
one's neighbor as oneself" (the Great Commandment). The book
is largely concerned with "abominations", largely dietary and
sexual restrictions. The rules are generally addressed to the
Israelites, except for several prohibitions applied equally to
"the strangers that sojourn in Israel."...
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The Gospel According to Luke (Greek: Κατὰ Λουκᾶν εὐαγγέλιον,
kata Loukan euangelionτὸ εὐαγγέλιον κατὰ Λουκᾶν, to euangelion
kata Loukan), generally shortened to the Gospel of Luke, is
the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels. This
synoptic gospel is an account of the life and ministry of
Jesus of Nazareth. It details his story from the events of his
birth to his Ascension. The author is traditionally identified
as Luke the Evangelist.[1] Certain popular stories, such as
the Prodigal Son and the Good Samaritan, are found only in
this gospel. This gospel also has a special emphasis on
prayer, the activity of the Holy Spirit, and joyfulness.[2]
According to the preface[3] the purpose of Luke is to write a
historical account[4], while bringing out the theological
significance of the history.[5] The author portrays
Christianity as divine, respectable, law-abiding, and
international...
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Malachi (or Malachias, מַלְאָכִי, Malʾaḫi, Mál'akhî) is a book of
the Hebrew Bible, written by the prophet Malachi. Possibly
this is not the name of the author, since Malachi means 'my
messenger' or 'my angel' in Hebrew. The last of the twelve
minor prophets (canonically), the final book of the Hebrew
Bible in Christian, but not Jewish tradition is commonly
attributed to a prophet by the name of Malachi. Although the
appellation Malachi has frequently been understood as a proper
name, its Hebrew meaning is simply "My [i.e., God's]
messenger" (or 'His messenger' in the Septuagint). This
sobriquet occurs in the superscription at 1:1 and in 3:1,
although it is highly unlikely that the word refers to the
same character in both of these references. Thus, there is
substantial debate regarding the identity of the author of the
biblical book of Malachi. The Jewish Targum identifies Ezra
(or Esdras) as the author of Malachi. St. Jerome suggests this
may be because Ezra is seen as an intermediary between the
prophets and the 'great synagogue'. There is, however, no
historical evidence to support this claim...
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The Gospel According to Mark (Greek: κατὰ Μᾶρκον εὐαγγέλιον,
τὸ εὐαγγέλιον κατὰ Μᾶρκον, to euangelion kata Markon),
commonly shortened to the Gospel of Mark, is the second book
of the New Testament. This Canonical account of the life of
Jesus is one of the Synoptic Gospels. It was thought to be an
epitome, and accordingly, its place as the second gospel in
most Bibles. However, most contemporary scholars now regard it
as the earliest of the canonical gospels[1] (c 70).[2]
The Gospel of Mark narrates the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth
from his baptism by John the Baptist to the resurrection and
it concentrates particularly on the last week of his life
(chapters 11–16, the trip to Jerusalem). Its swift narrative
portrays Jesus as a heroic man of action,[2] an exorcist, a
healer and miracle worker. It calls him the Son of Man[3], the
Son of God[4], and the Messiah or Christ...
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The Gospel According to Matthew (Greek: κατὰ Ματθαῖον
εὐαγγέλιον, kata Matthaion euangelion, τὸ εὐαγγέλιον κατὰ
Ματθαῖον, to euangelion kata Matthaion), commonly shortened
to the Gospel of Matthew, is one of the four Canonical
gospels and is the first book of the New Testament. This
synoptic gospel is an account of the life, ministry, death,
and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. It details his story
from his genealogy to his Great Commission.[1][2]
The Gospel of Matthew is closely aligned with first-century
Judaism, and has been linked to the Jewish-Christian
Gospels. It stresses how Jesus fulfilled Jewish
prophecies.[3] Certain details of Jesus' life, of his
infancy in particular, are related only in Matthew. His is
also the only gospel to mention the Church or ecclesia.[3]
Matthew emphasizes obedience to and preservation of biblical
law.[4] Since this gospel has rhythmical and often poetical
prose,[5] it is well suited for public reading, making it a
popular liturgical choice.[6]
Most scholars believe the Gospel of Matthew was composed in
the latter part of the first century by a Jewish
Christian.[7] Christian tradition holds the author was the
apostle named Matthew. Early Christian writings state that
Matthew the Apostle also wrote the Hebrew Gospel...
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Micah of Moresheth (most likely the same city as Moresheth-
Gath, mentioned in Micah) prophesied during the days of King
Hezekiah of Judah. This paraphrase of Jeremiah 26:18 contains
practically everything we know of the Prophet himself.
Moresheth-Gath was most likely a small town in southwestern
Judah, though this has yet to be confirmed. Some scholars
argue over how much of the book of Micah can be attributed to
Micah himself. There is general consensus that the majority of
chapters 1–3 are in fact Micah’s own (excluding 2:12–13). The
remaining passages are seen by some as redactions. This will
be further argued in the section on controversy.
Some Old Testament scholars, for example Dr Bruce Waltke in
IVP`s 'New Bible Commentary', defend Micah's authorship of the
entire book. It is generally agreed that Micah composed
chapters 1 through 3; some scholars hold that chapter 6 and
sections of chapter 7 were also written by the historical
Micah. The primary reasons given are because chapters 3–5
foretell of events in the 6th century BCE and chapters 6–7
have elements of a universal religious outlook which was not
widely present in Judaism until much later...
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The book of Nahum is a book in the Hebrew Bible. It stands
seventh in order among what are known as the twelve Minor
Prophets. Nahum prophesied, according to some, in the
beginning of the reign of Ahaz (740s BC). Others, however,
think that his prophecies are to be referred to the latter
half of the reign of Hezekiah (700s BC). Probably the book was
written in Jerusalem, where he witnessed the invasion of
Sennacherib and the destruction of his host (2 Kings 19:35).
And still others support the idea that the "book of vision"
was written shortly before the fall of Nineveh (612 BCE). This
theory is evidenced by the fact that the oracles must be dated
after the Assyrian destruction of Thebes in 663 BCE as this
event is mentioned in Nah 3:8...
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The Book of Nehemiah, sometimes called the Second Book of
Ezra, is a book of the Hebrew Bible. It is historically
regarded as a continuation of the Book of Ezra,[1] and the
two are frequently taken together as Ezra-Nehemiah.
Traditionally, the author of this book is believed to be
Nehemiah himself. The date at which the book was written was
probably about 431 - 430 BC, when Nehemiah had returned the
second time to Jerusalem after his visit to Persia.
[show]
Part of a series
of articles on the
Hebrew Bible
The book consists of four parts:
An account of the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem, and
of the register Nehemiah had found of those who had returned
from Babylon. Details describe how Nehemiah became governor
of Judah[2]; various forms of opposition generated by
Sanballat and others; describes earlier return under
Zerubbabel[3] (ch. 1-7).
An account of the state of religion among the Jews during
this time (8-10).
Increase of the inhabitants of Jerusalem; the census of the
adult male population, and names of the chiefs, together
with lists of priests and Levites (11-12:1-26).
Dedication of the wall of Jerusalem, the arrangement of the
temple officers, and the reforms carried out by Nehemiah
(12:27-ch. 13)...
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The Book of Numbers (Greek: Αριθμοί arithmoi meaning
"numbers") or Bəmidbar (Hebrew: במדבר, literally "In the
desert [of]") is the fourth book of the Hebrew Bible, and
the fourth of five books of the Jewish Torah/Pentateuch.
This book may be divided into three parts:
The numbering of the people at Sinai, and preparations for
resuming their march (1–10:10).
An account of the journey from Sinai to Moab, the sending
out of the spies and the report they brought back, the
murmurings (eight times) of the people at the hardships by
the way, and the subsequent exile into the wilderness for 40
years (10:11–21:20).
The transactions in the plain of Moab before crossing the
Jordan River (21:21–36).
In Numbers, the priests are instructed to bless the nation
of Israel as follows: "May Yahweh bless you, and keep you.
May Yahweh let his face shine on you and be gracious to you.
May Yahweh show you his face and bring you peace."[1] This
priestly blessing is regularly performed during Jewish
services,[2] on Jewish holidays, and sometimes by parents
over their own children before the Friday Shabbat meal...
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The Book of Obadiah is found in the Hebrew Bible, where it
is the shortest book, only one chapter long. Its authorship
is generally attributed to a person named Obadiah, which
means "servant (or worshipper) of the Lord". Obadiah is
classified as a "minor prophet" in the Christian Bible due
to the brevity of the writing (only 21 verses) and the
content (prophetic material). An Old Testament prophet was
not only a person believed to have been given divine insight
into future events, but also believed to be a person whom
the Lord used to declare his word.
The first nine verses in the book foretell total destruction
in the land of Edom at the hand of the Lord. Obadiah writes
that this destruction will be so complete that it will be
even worse than a thief who comes at night, for not even a
thief would destroy everything. The Lord will allow all
allies of Edom to turn away and help chase Edom out of its
land. Verses ten through fourteen explain that when Israel
(the Lord’s chosen people) was attacked, Edom refused to
help them, thus acting like an enemy. What is even worse is
that Edom and Israel share a common blood line through their
founders who were brothers, Jacob and Esau. Because of this
gross neglect of a relative, Edom will be covered with shame
and destroyed forever. The final verses, fifteen through
twenty-one, depict the restoration of Israel and the wiping
out of the Edomites. Verse eighteen says that there will be
no survivors from the house of Esau once the destruction is
complete. Israel will become a holy place and its people
will return from exile and inhabit the land once inhabited
by the Edomites. The final verse of the prophecy places the
Lord as King who will rule over all the mountains of Edom...
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The Epistle of Paul to Philemon, usually referred to simply as
Philemon, is a prison letter to Philemon from Paul of Tarsus.
Philemon was a leader in the Colossian church. This letter,
which is one of the books of the New Testament, deals with
forgiveness.
It is now generally regarded as one of the undisputed works of
Paul. It is the shortest of Paul's extant letters, consisting
of only 335 words in the original Greek text and 25 verses in
modern English translations...
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The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians, usually referred to
simply as Philippians, is the eleventh book in the New
Testament. Biblical scholars agree that it was written by St.
Paul to the church of Philippi. This authentic Pauline letter
was written c 62.[1]Paul's composition of Philippians is
"universally accepted" (Beare, p. 1) by the academic
community, both ancient and modern. It is possible that the
kenosis passage in Philippians 2:5-11 may have been a
Christian hymn that Paul quoted.
Philippians 2:5-11:...
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The Book of Proverbs (in Hebrew: מִשְלֵי Mishlay) is a book of
the Hebrew Bible. The original Hebrew title of the book of
Proverbs is "Míshlê Shlomoh" ("Proverbs of Solomon"). When
translated into Greek and Latin, the title took on different
forms. In the Greek Septuagint (LXX) the title became
"paroimai paroimiae" ("Proverbs"). In the Latin Vulgate the
title was "proverbia", from which the English title of
Proverbs is derived...
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Psalms (Hebrew: Th'hilliym; Modern: Tehillim, תְהִלִּים, or
"praises") is a book of the Hebrew Bible. Taken together, its
150 sacred poems express virtually the full range of Israel's
faith. The word psalms is derived from the Greek ψαλμοί
(psalmoi), perhaps originally meaning "songs sung to a harp",
from psallein "play on a stringed instrument"....
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The Book of the Revelation of John is the last in the
collection of documents which constitute the New Testament
(the second of the two major divisions of the Christian
Bible). It is also known as Revelation, Revelations, the Book
of Revelation, the Apocalypse of John, and the Apocalypse.
These titles come from the Greek, apokalypsis, meaning
revelation, which is the first word of the book. The word
apocalypse is also used for other works of a similar nature,
and the style of literature (genre) is known as apocalyptic
literature. Such literature is "marked by distinctive literary
features, particularly prediction of future events and
accounts of visionary experiences or journeys to heaven, often
involving vivid symbolism."[1] The Book of Revelation is the
only apocalyptic document in the New Testament canon, though
there are short apocalyptic passages in various places in the
gospels and the epistles...
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The Epistle of Paul to the Romans, usually referred to simply
as Romans, is the sixth book in the New Testament. Biblical
scholars agree that it was written by the Apostle Paul to
explain that Salvation is offered through the Gospel of Jesus
Christ. It is by far the longest of the Pauline epistles, and
is considered his "most important theological legacy"...
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The Book of Ruth (Hebrew: מגילת רות; Sephardic, Israeli
Hebrew: [məɡiˈlat rut]; Ashkenazi Hebrew: [məˈɡɪləs rus]; "the
Scroll of Ruth") is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible. It
is a rather short book, in both Jewish and Christian
scripture, consisting of only four chapters...
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The Song of Songs (Hebrew, שיר השירים, Shir ha-Shirim), is a
book of the Hebrew Bible-one of the five megillot (scrolls)-
found in the last section of the Tanakh, known as the Ketuvim
(or "writings"). It is also known as the Song of Solomon,
Solomon's Song of Songs, or as Canticles, the latter from the
shortened and anglicized Vulgate title Canticum Canticorum
(Latin, "Song of Songs").[1] It is known as Āisma in the
Septuagint, which is short for Āisma āismatōn (Greek, ᾌσμα
ᾀσμάτων, "Song of Songs").[2]
The protagonists of the Song of Songs are a woman (identified
in one verse as "the Shulamite")[3] and a man, and the poem
suggests movement from courtship to consummation. For
instance, the man proclaims: "As the lily among thorns, so is
my love among the daughters." The woman answers: "As the apple
tree among the trees of the wood, so is my beloved among the
sons. I sat down under his shadow with great delight, and his
fruit was sweet to my taste."[4][5] Additionally, the Song
includes a chorus, the "daughters of Jerusalem."...
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The Epistle of Paul to Titus, usually referred to simply as
Titus, is one of the three Pastoral Epistles (with 1 Timothy
and 2 Timothy), traditionally attributed to Saint Paul, and is
part of the New Testament. It describes the requirements and
duties of elders and bishops...
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The Book of Zechariah is a book of the Hebrew Bible attributed
to the prophet Zechariah. Zechariah’s ministry took place
during the reign of Darius the Great (Zechariah 1:1 ), and was
contemporary with Haggai in a post-exilic world after the fall
of Jerusalem in 586/7 BC.[1] Ezekiel and Jeremiah wrote prior
to the fall of Jerusalem, while continuing to prophesy in the
earlier exile period. Scholars believe Ezekiel, with his
blending of ceremony and vision, heavily influenced the
visionary works of Zechariah 1-8.[2] Zechariah is specific
about dating his writing (520-518 BC)...
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The superscription of the Book of Zephaniah attributes its
authorship to "Zephaniah son of Cushi son of Gedaliah son of
Amariah son of Hezekiah, in the days of King Josiah son of
Amon of Judah" (1:1, NRSV). All that is known of Zephaniah
comes from the text. The superscription of the book is
lengthier than most and contains two features. The name Cushi,
Zephaniah’s father, means ‘Ethiopian’. In a society where
genealogy was considered extremely important because of God's
covenant with Abraham and his descendants, the author may have
felt compelled to establish his Hebrew lineage. In fact, this
lineage is traced back to Hezekiah, who was king of Judah. The
author of Zephaniah does not shrink from condemning the
Cushites or Ethiopians. Chapter 2:12 contains a succinct but
unequivocal message: "You also, O Ethiopians, / Shall be
killed by my sword." Zephaniah’s family connection with King
Hezekiah may have also legitimized his harsh indictment of the
royal city in 3:1-7...
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Genesis is the title given to the first book of the Pentateuch by its Greek translators. The word means "origin" or "beginning"; truly, Genesis is a book of beginnings. It describes the beginning of man and the universe which he inhabits, the beginning of sin, the consequent beginning of an effort at redemption, and the beginning of the Hebrew nation through whom this redemption was to come.
The book of Genesis, together with the early chapters of Exodus, describes the steps which led to the establishment of the theocracy. Two ideas are seen to be predominant in this book- the people of God and the promised land. Genesis has a character which is both special and universal. It embraces the entire world as it speaks of God as the Lord of the whole human race; yet, as an introduction to Jewish history, it makes the universal interest subordinate to the national. Its design is to show how God first revealed himself to the patriarchs of the Hebrew race in order to make of them a people who would serve as his witnesses on the earth. This is the inner principle of unity which pervades the entire book.
The contents of Genesis may be conveniently outlined in the following manner:
I. The Beginnings of History (1-11), II. The Story of Abraham (12-25), III. The Story of Isaac (25:19-26; 35), IV. The Story of Jacob and Esau (27:1-37:1), V. The Story of Joseph (37-50).
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The second book of the Pentateuch bears its name because of the subject matter of the first half of the book - the departure of the children of Israel from Egypt. The word, "exodus" is derived from a Greek word meaning "going out." Hundreds of years elapsed between the time of the events described in the closing chapters of Genesis and those of the beginning of Exodus. The exact number of years between the migration of Jacob into Egypt until the exodus is given as 430 (12:40-41). At the close of Genesis, Israel was living in the fertile land of Goshen and was being fed from the granaries of the Pharaoh. In Exodus, the Hebrews are seen as slaves of the Egyptians, without national consciousness or apparent religious purpose. Exodus shows the development of Israel into a real nation, as God began the first stages of fulfillment of His promise to Abraham. After the first seven verses of the book, noting the increase and prosperity of Israel, Exodus is seen to fall into seven rather distinct sections :
1 ) The sufferings of Israel (1:8-7:7). This section includes the birth, education and flight of Moses; his call to be deliverer of his people and his consequent return from Midian to Egypt; and his first ineffectual attempts to prevail upon Pharaoh to let the Israelites go, which resulted only in an increase in their burdens.
2 ) A manifestation of God's providential guidance of Israel, illustrated by the ten plagues (7:8-13:16). This section also includes the account of the observance of the first Passover (ch. 12).
3) The guiding of the people of Sinai (13:17-18:27), which tells of the departure and the miraculous crossing of the Red Sea. This section also contains a narrative of the principal events on the journey from the Red Sea to Sinai, including the coming of the manna, the observance of the Sabbath, the supply of water from the rock at Rephidim and the advice of Jethro concerning the civil government of the great mass of people.
4) The making of the covenant at Sinai, together with the reception of the Ten Commandments (19:1-24:18). The laws recorded in this section regulated the religious, civil, and social life of the Israelites.
5 ) Directions for the building of the tabernacle (24:18-31:18).
6 ) The renewing of the covenant after the sinful actions of the Israelites in connection with the making of the golden calf (32:1-35:3).
7 ) The actual building and dedication of the tabernacle of the Lord (35:4-40:38 ), under the supervision of the two master craftsmen, Bezalel and Oholiab.
Exodus is a book of redemption in which God delivers His people out of bondage and brings them into a special relationship with Himself.
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The accepted date of the writing of the Book of Exodus was
from 1635 to 1490 BC approximately.
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Archaeology, pictures, notes and maps
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Quick Survey of Genesis. – –1-2 – –The creation of the
universe, the world, all living things, and man. The
conditions of man in paradise. – –3 – –The original sin of
Adam and Eve, and God casting them out of paradise. – –4-5 –
– The history of Adam and his descendents all the way to the
time of Noah and the flood. – –6-7 – – The exceeding
wickedness of all mankind, the destruction of the world by
the flood, and Gods preservation of Noah and his family. – –
8-9 – – The restoration of the world, God's covenant to Noah
for all mankind and the rainbow, the prophecy of Noah. – –10
– – The repopulation of the world and the table of Nations
by the sons of Noah, Shem, Ham, Japheth and their
descendents. – –11 – – The building of the Tower of Babel,
Nimrod, the confusion of tongues, and God scattering mankind
throughout the world. – –12-25 – – The history and migration
of Abraham and his family as pilgrims in the land of Canaan.
– –26-27 – – The history of Isaac and his family. – –28-36 –
– The history of Jacob and his family. – –37- 40 – – The
history of Joseph and his brothers. – –41-50– – The history
of Joseph's exaltation by God in the land of Egypt and God's
incredible plan for the Hebrews.
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Quick Overview of Exodus. – –1 – –The slavery and oppression
of the Hebrews in Egypt. – –2-3 – –The birth of Moses and his
education in ancient Egypt, The life and calling of Moses to
be the Hebrew deliverer of Israel. – –4-11 – – Moses and Aaron
approached the Pharaoh of Egypt, the hardening of Pharaoh's
heart, the plagues of Egypt. – –12-13 – – The First Passover,
The Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. – –14-15 – – The
miracle of the parting of the Red Sea, The destruction of the
Egyptian army. – –16-18 – –The journey to Mount Sinai, the
manna, the Sabbath, water from the rock, Jethro. – –19-31 – –
The giving of the law from God to Moses on Mount Sinai. – –32-
33 – – The sin of the golden calf, the consequences of
idolatry. – – 34-40 – – The unbroken tables of the law written
on stone, the building of the tabernacle.
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In the Septuagint (The Greek version of the Hebrew Old Testament), the third book of the Pentateuch bears the title "Levitikon" ("pertaining to the Levites"), an adjective modifying the word "book." The Levites were the tribe from which the priests and others prominent in the worship services were chosen, in lieu of the firstborn sons of all the tribes (Num. 3:45). Leviticus fills an integral role in the Pentateuch. Just as it is necessary to be familiar with Exodus in order to understand Leviticus, some knowledge of Leviticus is necessary if one is to understand the religious activities of the Jews as portrayed in Numbers, Deuteronomy, and the rest of the Old Testament. The purpose of Leviticus may be defined as calling attention to the disparity between God's holiness and man's sinfulness and providing concrete steps whereby man might restore the fellowship which has been lost as a result of his own defilement. The laws connected with this restoration are varied. They are both general and specific; they seek, in one way or another, to govern the whole life of the people of God. In this sense, Leviticus is the most thoroughly legalistic book in the entire Old Testament. Throughout its laws is seen the unyielding demand: "Ye shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy." On the other hand, the climax of the book is clearly ch. 16, in which instructions are given for the Day of Atonement. On this day, God provided his people with a ceremony by means of which all of their sins for the previous year were counted as forgiven. The mercy which God displays in this service so foreshadows the work of Christ that the 16th chapter has been called "the most consummate flower of Messianic symbolism."
In addition to the laws, there are also some historical sections, but these, too, are closely connected with the priesthood. They include the consecration of the priests in chs. 8 and 9, the sin and punishment of Nadab and Abihu (ch. 10), and the stoning of a blasphemer (24: 10ff'). In this connection, it is interesting to note that only one mention is made of the Levites and that in an incidental manner (25:32ff).
The book may be divided as follows :
1 ) Laws concerning Sacrifice (1-7). In this section five types of offerings are discussed: burnt offerings, meal offerings, peace offerings, sin offerings and guilt offerings. This is filled out by a discussion of the sin offering as it is to be observed by various classes of individuals.
2 ) An historical section featuring the consecration of the priests (8-9) and the sin of Nadab and Abihu (ch. 10).
3 ) A section on laws of purification from ceremonial uncleanness (11-15). These furnish instructions as to the appropriate sacrifices and ordinances for ridding oneself of impurity.
4) The Day of Atonement (ch. 16).
5 ) Laws dealing with the conduct of God's people (17-20). These include various religious and ethical laws designed to accent the separation between Israel and the heathen nations.
6) Laws concerning the holiness of the priests (21-22).
7 ) A discussion of holy days and feasts (23-24). Included in this section are the Sabbath, Passover, the feasts of first fruits and harvest, Pentecost, the Day of Atonement and the feast of Tabernacles.
8 ) The Sabbatical and Jubilee Years (ch. 25).
9 ) Promises and threats connected with obedience to the laws (ch. 26).
10) An appendix containing the laws concerning vows (ch. 27).
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This book takes its name from the fact that it contains the account of the two census enumerations of the congregation of Israel in chs. 1-4 and ch. 26. The title, however, is interesting since there is really no connection with these "numberings." The original Hebrew title, "in the wilderness," is greatly to be preferred, as the book is certainly more a vital history of the events of the period of wanderings than a catalogue of lifeless statistics. Numbers follows naturally after Leviticus in the sequence of the books of the Pentateuch. After receiving the laws at Sinai, the journey to which was described in Exodus, the Israelites were ready to continue their march to Canaan. This book tells of their preparations, their sin in failing to trust in God and the resultant thirty-seven years of wanderings through the rough wilderness. At the end of the book, they are once again at the edge of Canaan, where they receive instructions for the conquest and division of the land.
The principle divisions of the book are as follows:
1) The preparation for the departure from Sinai (1:1-10:10). The events described here took place in nineteen days. In this time a census was taken of all men who were over twenty and who could serve in military efforts (1-4). The total obtained was 603,550 (1:46). This would indicate that the total population of the group was probably near three million. The census was followed by the cleansing and blessing of the congregation (5-6), the offering of gifts from the various tribes (7), the consecration of the Levites (8) and the observance of the Passover at Sinai (9:1-14).
2 ) The journey from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea (10:11-14:45). This section includes the account of the coming of the quail (11), the rebellion against Moses by Miriam and Aaron (12), and the fateful mission of the spies (13, 14).
3) The wanderings of the desert wilderness (15-19). As noted above, this covered a period of thirty-seven years, from the end of the second to the beginning of the fortieth year in the wilderness. Ch. 15 includes various laws and a record of capital punishment for Sabbath breaking. The rebellion of Korah (ch. 16) and the budding of Aaron's rod (ch. 17) are also mentioned here.
4) The history of the last year, from the second arrival of the Israelites at Kadesh till they reach "the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho" (20-36: 13) . Notable sections of this are the story of Balaam (22:2-24:25), the zeal of Phinehas (ch. 25) , the second census (26:1-51), instructions for dividing the land (26:52-27: 11), the appointment of Joshua as Moses' successor (27: 12-23), various laws concerning offerings and vows ( 28-30 ), the war with Midian ( ch. 31), the settlement of the tribes east of the Jordan (ch. 32) , a review of the locations at which Israel had camped during their wanderings (33: 1-49), more instructions concerning the conquest and division of Canaan (33:50-34:29 ), the appointment of the cities of refuge (ch. 35) and instructions concerning the marriage of land-owning Israelite women (ch. 36).
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The word "Deuteronomy" is taken from the Greek word for "the second law" or "the law repeated." The book is written in the form of discourses which Moses delivered to the people in the plains of Moab on the eve of their entrance into the promised land of Canaan. These discourses are addressed to every member of the congregation of Israel and not just to a small segment, such as the Levites. The discourses are not a second law in the sense of being a different law; neither are they to be taken merely as a recapitulation of those things recorded in Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. They are rather a forceful presentation of the most essential aspects of God's revelation with an emphasis on the spiritual principle of the law and its fulfillment, as well as a development and application of the law to circumstances which would face the Israelites in their new life in Canaan. These discourses were spoken in the eleventh month of the last year of Israel's wanderings, the fortieth year after leaving Egypt.
In the first speech (1:1-4:43), Moses strives briefly, but earnestly, to warn the people against the sins which had kept their fathers from entering the promised land. In order to stress the necessity of obedience, he recapitulates the chief events of the last forty years in the wilderness, emphasizing the role which disobedience and lack of trust had played in the afflictions of the Israelites.
The second discourse (4:44-26:19) enters more fully into the precepts of the Law. It may be viewed as the body of the whole address, the former being an introduction. This section is hortatory and legal, consisting of a review of Israel's moral and civil statutes, testimonies and judgments. This discourse is broken into two main sections : 1) chs. 5-11, an exposition of the Ten Commandments and 2) chs. 12-26, a group of special statutes on various matters, containing a strong ethical and religious emphasis.
The third discourse (27:1-31:30) deals primarily with the blessings of obedience and the curses of disobedience. Moses now speaks in conjunction with the elders of the people and with the priests and the Levites, whose office it would be to carry out the ceremony which Moses describes in this discourse. The place selected for the ceremony was the spot in the center of the land where the first altar to God had been erected. As soon as they passed over the Jordan, the people were commanded to set up great stones on Mt. Ebal. These were to be covered with plaster and inscribed with the law of God. They were also to build an altar, which seems to have been distinct from the stones, although it is difficult to be certain about this. Then the twelve tribes were to be divided between the two hills. Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Joseph and Benjamin were to station themselves on Mt. Gerizim to recite the blessings which God promised them if they would remain faithful to him. Across on Mt. Ebal, Reuben, Gad, Asher, Zebulun and Naphtali were to speak the curses with which the Lord had threatened disobedience.
After completing these discourses, Moses encouraged the people to follow their new leader, Joshua, and to go across and take the land which had been promised to Abraham. He wrote down the Law in a book and turned it over to the priests, who were to keep it as a perpetual reminder for all the people (31:9-13). It was to be read every seventh year, when the people assembled for the feast of Tabernacles.
At the command of the Lord, Moses and Joshua appeared before God at the tent of meeting. There God told them of the future infidelity of Israel and instructed Moses to leave the people a song which they were to learn and which was to serve as a witness for God against them. This song of Moses is recorded in ch. 32; it recounts the blessings which God has bestowed on his people and the corrupt manner in which they have responded to his beneficence. Ch. 33 contains Moses' blessing on the people and ch. 34 records the brief account of the death of this great leader of Israel.
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This book is named for its chief character, Joshua, whose name means "Jehovah is salvation." The Greek form of this name is Jesus. The first appearance of Joshua is as the leader of the forces of Israel against Amalek (Ex. 17:8ff). The manner in which he is introduced into the story indicates that he was already well established as a leader. Later, he accompanied Moses to the foot of Mt. Sinai, but did not make the ascent with him (Ex. 24). In Ex. 32-33 he is also found in close association with Moses. No doubt, the years which he spent with Moses greatly influenced his spiritual development. The aspect of his life for which Joshua is most often remembered is his having brought back a positive report from the land of Canaan after serving as one of twelve men sent to spy out the land (Num.13). From this it can be seen that the experience and spirit which were Joshua's equipped him well for his duties and responsibilities as the leader, of God's people.
The book may be regarded as consisting of three parts which may be analyzed as follows :
1) The Conquest of Canaan (1-12). This includes the preparation for and crossing of the Jordan (1-4). After the crossing, they camped at Gilgal. Here they circumcised all the males who were born in the wilderness, as circumcision had not been observed since the departure from Egypt. Gilgal was also the scene of the keeping of the Passover and the cessation of the manna. 5:13-6:27 tells of the miraculous destruction of Jericho and the salvation of Rahab. The crime and punishment of Achan is discussed in ch. 7. In ch. 8, the narrative records the avenging of the defeat which Israel had suffered at the hands of Al because of the sin of Achan. The latter portion of this chapter tells of the setting up of the stones on Mount Ebal. The stratagem of the Gibeonites is the topic of ch. 9. In ch. 10 is contained the story of the conquest of Southern Canaan, with the aid of Joshua's long day. Chs. 11-12 describe the conquest of Northern Canaan and give a list of the defeated kings.
2) The Distribution of the Territory (13-22). This provides a record of the area which was assigned to the various tribes (13-19), the appointment of the six cities of refuge (ch. 20) and the forty-eight cities of the Levites (ch. 21), as well as the departure of the Transjordanic tribes to their home.
3) Joshua's farewell addresses (23-24). The first of these is a speech of encouragement and warning. The second recalls the history of Israel, with emphasis on divine interventions on their behalf. At the close of this speech, Joshua issued the famous statement, "choose you this day whom you will serve . . . but as for me and my house, we will serve the Lord" (24:15).
The book closes with an account of the renewal of the covenant and the death of Joshua and Eleazer.
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The Books of Chronicles (Hebrew Divrei Hayyamim, דברי הימים,
Greek Paralipomenon, Παραλειπομένων) are part of the Hebrew
Bible. In the Masoretic Text, it appears as the first or last
book of the Ketuvim (the latter arrangement also making it the
final book of the Jewish bible). Chronicles largely parallels
the Davidic narratives in the Books of Samuel and the Books of
Kings.[1] It appears in two parts (I & II Chronicles),
immediately following 1 & 2 Samuel and 1 & 2 Kings as a
summary of them with minor details sometimes added. The
division of Chronicles and its place in the Christian canon of
the Old Testament are based upon the Septuagint...
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The Second Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, usually
referred to simply as Second Corinthians and often written 2
Corinthians, is the 8th book of the New Testament. The book,
originally written in Greek, is a letter from Paul of Tarsus
to the Christians of Corinth, Greece...
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The Second Epistle of John, usually referred to simply as
Second John and often written 2 John, is a book of the New
Testament attributed to John the Evangelist, traditionally
thought to be the author of the Gospel of John and the other
two epistles of John. This Epistle is the shortest book (by
verse) in the Bible, comprising a mere thirteen verses...
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The Books of Kings (Hebrew: Sefer melakhim, ספר מלכים) are
books included in the Hebrew Bible. They were originally
written in Hebrew and are recognised as scripture by Judaism
and Christianity. According to Biblical chronology, the events
in the Books of Kings occurred between the 10th and 6th
centuries BCE.
The books contain accounts of the kings of the ancient Kingdom
of Israel (united monarchy) and the Kingdom of Judah. They
contain the annals of the Jewish commonwealth from the
accession of Solomon until the subjugation of the kingdom by
Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians (apparently a period of
about four hundred and fifty-three years). The Books of Kings
synchronize with 1 Chronicles 28 – 2 Chronicles 36:21. While
in the Chronicles greater prominence is given to the priestly
or Levitical office, in the Kings greater prominence is given
to the royal and prophetic offices. Kings appears to have been
written considerably earlier than Chronicles and as such is
generally considered a more reliable historical source...
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The Second Epistle of Peter, usually referred to simply as
Second Peter and often written 2 Peter, is a book of the New
Testament of the Bible, traditionally ascribed to Saint Peter,
but in modern times widely regarded as pseudonymous.
It is the first New Testament book to treat other New
Testament writings as scripture, 2 Peter was one of the last
letters included in the New Testament canon; it quotes from
and adapts Jude extensively, identifies Jesus with God, and
addresses a threatening heresy which had arisen because the
end and salvation had not occurred...
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The Books of Samuel (Hebrew: Sefer Sh'muel ספר שמואל) are part
of the Hebrew Bible. The work was originally written in
Hebrew, and the Book(s) of Samuel originally formed a single
text, as they are often considered today in Jewish bibles.
Together with what is now referred to as the Book(s) of Kings,
the translators who created the Greek Septuagint divided the
text into four books, which they named the Books of the
Kingdoms. In the Latin Vulgate version, these then became the
Books of the Kings, thus 1 and 2 Samuel were referred to as 1
and 2 Kings, with 3 and 4 Kings being what are called 1 and 2
Kings by the King James Bible and its successors...
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The Second Epistle of Paul to the Thessalonians, often
referred to as Second Thessalonians and written 2
Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the
Christian Bible. It is traditionally attributed to Paul,
because it begins, "Paul, and Silvanus, and Timothy, unto the
church of the Thessalonians in God our Father and the Lord
Jesus Christ;" (2 Thess. 1:1 ) and ends, "The salutation of
Paul with mine own hand, which is the token in every epistle:
so I write" (2 Thess. 3:17 )...
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The Second Epistle of Paul to Timothy, usually referred to
simply as Second Timothy and often written 2 Timothy, is one
of the three Pastoral Epistles traditionally attributed to
Saint Paul, and is part of the New Testament. The
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia affirms Paul's
authorship and documents the fact that a vast majority of the
early church fathers attest to Paul's authorship of all the
pastoral epistles. Most conservative biblical scholars agree.
However, many modern biblical scholars argue that 2 Timothy
was not written by Paul but by an anonymous follower, after
Paul's death in the First Century...
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The Third Epistle of John, usually referred to simply as Third
John and often written 3 John, is a book of the New Testament
attributed to John the Evangelist, traditionally thought to be
the author of the Gospel of John and the other two epistles of
John. This Epistle is the shortest book in the Bible.
Indications within the letter suggest a genuine private
letter, composed to Gaius to commend a party of Christians led
by Demetrius, who were strangers to the place where he lived,
and who had gone on a mission to preach the gospel (verse 7).
The purpose of the letter is to encourage and strengthen
Gaius, and to warn him against the party headed by Diotrephes,
who refuses to cooperate with the presbyteros who is
writing...
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The Acts of the Apostles (Latin: Acta Apostolorum), usually
referred to simply as Acts, is the fifth book of the New
Testament; Acts outlines the history of the Apostolic Age. The
author is traditionally identified as Luke the Evangelist.
While the precise identity of the author is debated, the
general consensus is that this work was composed by a (Koine)
Greek speaking Gentile writing for an audience of Gentile
Christians. The Early Church Fathers wrote that Luke was a
physician in Antioch and an adherent of the Apostle Paul. Luke
is said to have written the volume entitled Acts of the
Apostles...
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The Book of Amos is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible. Amos
was the first biblical prophet whose words were recorded in a
book, an older contemporary of Hosea and Isaiah.[1] He was
active c. 750 BCE during the reign of Jeroboam II.[1] He lived
in the kingdom of Judah but preached in the northern kingdom
of Israel.[1] His major themes of social justice, God's
omnipotence, and divine judgment became staples of
prophecy.[1]
Without dispute, the Book of Amos has been accepted as
canonical by Jews, the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholics, and
Protestants...
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The Epistle of Paul to the Colossians, usually referred to
simply as Colossians, is the 12th book of the New Testament.
It was written, (according to the text), by Paul the Apostle
to the Church in Colossae, a small Phrygian city near Laodicea
and approximately 100 miles from Ephesus in Asia Minor.[1].
During the first generation after Jesus, Paul's epistles to
various churches helped establish early Christian theology.
Written in the 50s while Paul was in prison, Colossians is
similar to Ephesians, also written at this time.[2]
Increasingly, critical scholars ascribe the epistle to an
early follower writing as Paul. The epistle's description of
Christ as pre-eminent over creation marks it, for some
scholars, as representing an advanced christology not present
during Paul's lifetime.[3] Defenders of Pauline authorship
cite the work's similarities to Philemon, which is broadly
accepted as authentic...
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The Book of Daniel (Hebrew: דניאל) is a book in the Hebrew
Bible originally written in Hebrew and Aramaic. The book
revolves around the figure of Daniel, who tradition holds
wrote the book. The book in part tells the story of how
Daniel, a Judean, becomes chief of the magicians (4:9) in the
court of Nebuchadrezzar II, the ruler of Babylon from 605 to
562 BCE during the Babylonian Captivity, a period when Jews
were deported and exiled to Babylon following the Siege of
Jerusalem of 597 BCE. In contrast to the traditional belief
that the book was written around the time of those events,[1]
some modern biblical scholars figure that the Book of Daniel
was likely written or redacted during the Maccabean Age[2] and
that "the arguments for a date shortly before the death of
Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 164 are overwhelming."[3] Others
scholars, however, are less definite, suggesting that "the
most likely time of composition is somewhere between the
beginning of the second century BCE and the coming of
Pompey"[4] and that "evidence for a more specific date is not
available."[4] Yet other scholars argue for a third or fourth
century date...
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Deuteronomy (Greek: Δευτερονόμιον, "second law") or Devarim
(Hebrew: דְּבָרִים, literally "things" or "words") is the fifth
book of the Hebrew Bible, and the fifth of five books of the
Jewish Torah/Pentateuch.
A large part of the book consists of five sermons delivered
by Moses reviewing the previous forty years of wandering in
the wilderness, and the future entering into the Promised
Land. Its central element is a detailed law-code by which
the Israelites are to live within the Promised Land.
Theologically the book constitutes the renewing of the
covenant between Yahweh, the Jewish God, and the "Children
of Israel".
One of its most significant verses is considered to be
Deuteronomy 6:4 , which constitutes the Shema, a definitive
statement of Jewish identity: "Hear, O Israel: the LORD
(YHWH) (is) our God, the LORD is one."
Traditionally seen as recording the words of God given to
Moses,[1] modern scholarship dates the book to the late 7th
century BC, a product of the religious reforms carried out
under king Josiah, with later additions from the period
after the fall of Judah to the Babylonian empire in 586
BC...
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Ecclesiastes (often abbreviated Ecc) (Hebrew: קֹהֶלֶת, Kohelet,
variously transliterated as Kohelet, Qoheleth, Koheles,
Koheleth, or Coheleth) is a book of the Hebrew Bible. The
English name derives from the Greek translation of the
Hebrew title.
The main speaker in the book, identified by the name or
title Qohelet, introduces himself as "son of David, and king
in Jerusalem." The work consists of personal or
autobiographic matter, at times expressed in aphorisms and
maxims illuminated in terse paragraphs with reflections on
the meaning of life and the best way of life. The work
emphatically proclaims all the actions of man to be
inherently "vain", "futile", "empty", "meaningless",
"temporary", "transitory", or "fleeting," depending on
translation, as the lives of both wise and foolish men end
in death. While Qohelet clearly endorses wisdom as a means
for a well-lived earthly life, he is unable to ascribe
eternal meaning to it. In light of this perceived
senselessness, he suggests that one should enjoy the simple
pleasures of daily life, such as eating, drinking, and
taking enjoyment in one's work, which are gifts from the
hand of God...
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The Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians, usually referred to
simply as Ephesians, is the tenth book of the New Testament.
Its authorship has traditionally been credited to Paul, but it
is now widely accepted by critical scholarship to be "deutero-
Pauline," that is, written in Paul's name by a later author
strongly influenced by Paul's thought.[1][2][2][3][3][4] Bible
scholar Raymond E. Brown asserts that about 80% of critical
scholarship judges that Paul did not write Ephesians.[5]:p.47,
and Perrin and Duling[6] say that of six authoritative
scholarly references, "four of the six decide for
pseudonymity, and the other two (PCB and JBC) recognize the
difficulties in maintaining Pauline authorship. Indeed, the
difficulties are insurmountable."...
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The Book of Esther is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible.
The Book of Esther or the Megillah is the basis for the Jewish
celebration of Purim. Its full text is read aloud twice during
the celebration, in the evening and again the following
morning. The Biblical Book of Esther is set in the third year
of Ahasuerus, a king of Persia. The name Ahasuerus is
equivalent to Xerxes, both deriving from the Persian
Khashayarsha, thus Ahasuerus is usually identified as Xerxes I
(486-465 BCE), though Ahasuerus is identified as Artaxerxes in
the later Greek version of Esther (as well as by Josephus, the
Jewish commentary Esther Rabbah, the Ethiopic translation and
the Christian theologian Bar-Hebraeus who identified him more
precisely as Artaxerxes II [1]). The Book of Esther tells a
story of palace intrigue and genocide thwarted by a Jewish
queen of Persia...
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Exodus (Greek: ἔξοδος, exodos, meaning "departure") or Shemot
(Hebrew: שמות, literally "names") is the second book of the
Hebrew Bible, and the second of five books of the
Torah/Pentateuch.
Moses leads the Hebrews out of Egypt and through the
wilderness to the Mountain of God: Mount Sinai. There Yahweh,
through Moses, gives the Hebrews their laws and enters into a
covenant with them, by which he will give them the land of
Canaan in return for their faithfulness. The book ends with
the construction of the Tabernacle.
According to tradition, Exodus and the other four books of the
Torah were written by Moses. Modern biblical scholarship
places its final textual form in the mid 5th century BCE,
although a minority but important view would consider it a
product of the Hellenistic period...
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According to religious texts, Ezekiel (Hebrew: יְחֶזְקֵאל,
Y'khizqel, IPA: [jəħ.ezˈqel]), "God will strengthen" (from
חזק, khazaq, [kħaˈzaq], literally "to fasten upon",
figuratively "strong", and אל, el, [ʔel], literally
"strength", figuratively "Almighty"), was a priest in the
Bible who prophesied for 22 years sometime in the 6th century
BC in the form of visions while exiled in Babylon, as recorded
in the Book of Ezekiel.
Christianity regards Ezekiel as a prophet. Judaism considers
the Book of Ezekiel a part of its canon, and regards Ezekiel
as the third of the major prophets. Islam speaks of a prophet
named Dhul-Kifl, who is most commonly identified with
Ezekiel...
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The Book of Ezekiel is a book of the Hebrew Bible, and also
recognized as divinely inspired (and therefore canonical) by
most denominations of Christianity. The book derives its name
from the prophet Ezekiel, a prophet from the sixth-century
BC.[1] This book records Ezekiel's preaching. His name (Hb.
Yekhezqe’l) means "God strengthens" or "May God strengthen".
Ezekiel lived out his prophetic career among the community of
exiled Judeans in Babylon. He belonged to the priestly class
and was married (see Ezk. 24:15-24 ), but it is doubtful
whether he had any children.
The frequent use of vivid, symbolic language causes this book
to have much in common with the Book of Revelation in the New
Testament...
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The Book of Ezra is a book of the Hebrew Bible. It is the
record of events occurring at the close of the Babylonian
captivity, especially The Return to Zion. At one time, it
included the Book of Nehemiah, and the Jews regarded them as
one volume. The two are still distinguished in the Vulgate
version as I and II Esdras.
The book is divided into two principal parts:
The history of the first return of exiles, in the first year
of Cyrus the Great (536 BCE), till the completion and
dedication of the new Temple in Jerusalem, in the sixth year
of Darius (515 BCE). From the close of the sixth to the
opening of the seventh chapter there is a period of about
sixty years.
The history of the second return under Ezra, in the seventh
year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, and of the events that took
place at Jerusalem after Ezra's arrival there.
The book thus contains memorabilia connected with the Jews,
from the decree of Cyrus to the reformation by Ezra (456
BCE), extending over a period of about eighty years. A more
literal understanding does not have the sixty-year gap and
the seventh year of 'Artaxerxes' is really the seventh year
of Darius...
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The Epistle of Paul to the Galatians, usually referred to
simply as Galatians, is the ninth book of the New Testament.
It is a letter from Paul of Tarsus to a number of Early
Christian communities in the Roman province of Galatia in
central Anatolia. The author is principally concerned with the
controversy surrounding Gentile Christians and the Mosaic Law
within Early Christianity, see also Paul of Tarsus and
Judaism. Along with the Epistle to the Romans, it is the most
theologically significant of the Pauline epistles, and has
been particularly influential in Protestant thought...
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The Book of Genesis (Greek: Γένεσις, "birth", "origin," from
Hebrew: בְּרֵאשִׁית, Bereishit, "in the beginning")[1] is the
first book of the Hebrew Bible, the first of five books of
the Torah, which are called the Pentateuch in the Christian
Old Testament.
Genesis contains some of the best known biblical stories,
including the Hebrew account of the creation of the world,
Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, Noah's Ark, the Tower of Babel,
the Call of Abraham, Abraham and the sacrifice of Isaac,
Esau and Jacob, the marriage of Jacob, Jacob and Laban,
Sarah and Pharaoh, Sarah and Abimelech, the battle of the
Vale of Siddim, Sodom and Gomorrah, Jacob's wrestling with
the angel at Peniel, Joseph and his coat of many colours,
Joseph and the interpretation of Pharaoh's dreams, Onan and
his sin, the seduction of Lot by his daughters, the Blessing
of Jacob, the purchase of the cave of Machpelah, and others.
Structurally, it consists of the "primeval history"
(chapters 1–11 ) and cycles of Patriarchal stories (chapters
12–50 )-Abraham, Isaac, Jacob (renamed, Israel), and
concluding with Joseph. Modern critical scholarship believes
that the Book of Genesis reached its final form in the 5th
century BC, with a previous history of composition reaching
back into the 6th and 7th centuries...
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The Book of Habakkuk is the eighth book of the 12 minor
prophets of the Hebrew Bible.[1] It is attributed to the
prophet Habakkuk, and was probably composed in the late 7th
century BCE. A copy of chapters 1 and 2 (of 3) is included in
the Habakkuk Commentary, found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Chapters 1-2 are a dialog between Yahweh and the prophet. The
central message, that "the just shall live by his faith"
(2:4), plays an important rule in Christian thought. It is
used in the Epistle to the Romans 1:17, Galatians 3:11, and
the Epistle to the Hebrews 10:38 as the starting point of the
concept of faith.[1] Chapter 3 may be an independent addition,
now recognized as a liturgical piece, but was possibly written
by the same author as chapters 1 and 2...
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The Book of Haggai is a book of the Hebrew Bible, written by
the prophet Haggai. It was written in 520 BCE some 18 years
after Cyrus had conquered Babylon and issued a decree in 538
BCE allowing the captive Jews to return to Judea. He saw the
restoration of the temple as necessary for the restoration of
the religious practices and a sense of peoplehood after a long
exile.
It consists of two simple, comprehensive chapters. The object
of the prophet is generally urging the people to proceed with
the rebuilding of the second Jerusalem temple in 521 BCE after
the return of the deportees. Haggai attributes a recent
drought to the peoples' refusal to rebuild the temple, which
he sees as key to Jerusalem’s glory. The book ends with the
prediction of the downfall of kingdoms, with one Zerubbabel,
governor of Judah, as the Lord’s chosen leader. The language
here is not as finely wrought as in some other books of the
minor prophets, yet the intent seems straightforward...
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The Epistle to the Hebrews is one of the books in the New
Testament. Its author is anonymous.
The primary purpose of the Letter to the Hebrews is to exhort
Christians to persevere in the face of persecution. The
central thought of the entire Epistle is the doctrine of the
Person of Christ and his role as mediator between God and
humanity. No author is internally named. Since the earliest
days of the Church, the authorship has been debated and still
is unknown.[1]The Epistle to the Hebrews was thought by some
in antiquity such as Clement of Alexandria (Fragments from
Eusebius Ecclesiastical History Book VI)[2] to be by Paul.
The epistle opens with an exaltation of Jesus as "the radiance
of God's glory, the express image of his being, and upholding
all things by his powerful word."[1:3 ] The epistle presents
Jesus with the titles "pioneer" or "forerunner," "Son" and
"Son of God," "priest" and "high priest."[3] It has been
described as an "intricate" New Testament book.[4]...
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The Book of Hosea is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible. It
stands first in order among what are known as the twelve Minor
Prophets. Hosea (הושֵעַ) prophesied during a dark and
melancholic era of Israel's history, the period of the
Northern Kingdom's decline and fall in the 8th century BC. The
apostasy of the people was rampant, having turned away from
God in order to serve the calves of Jeroboam II (see 1 K
12.26-30; Ho 8.4-6) and Baal, a Canaanite god of fertility.
The figures of marriage and adultery are common in the Hebrew
Bible as representations of the relationship between God and
the people of Israel. Here we see the apostasy of Israel and
its punishment, with its future repentance, forgiveness, and
restoration...
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The Book of Isaiah (Hebrew: ספר ישעיה) is a book of the Bible
traditionally attributed to the Prophet Isaiah, who lived in
the second half of the 8th century BC.[1] In the first 39
chapters, Isaiah prophesies doom for a sinful Judah and for
all the nations of the world that oppose God. The last 27
chapters prophesy the restoration of the nation of Israel.
This section includes the Songs of the Suffering Servant, four
separate passages that Christians believe prefigure the coming
of Jesus Christ, and which are otherwise traditionally thought
to refer to the nation of Israel. This second of the book's
two major sections also includes prophecies of a new creation
in God's glorious future kingdom.[2]
There is considerable debate about the dating of the text; one
widely accepted critical hypothesis suggests that much if not
most of the text was not written in the 8th century BC.[3]
Tradition ascribes the Book of Isaiah to a single author,
Isaiah himself. Modern scholarship suggests the text has two
or three authors. This later author or authors, and their work
or works, are known as Deutero- or Second Isaiah and Trito- or
Third Isaiah respectively...
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The Epistle of James, usually referred to simply as James, is
a book in the New Testament. The author identifies himself as
"James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ". The
epistle may not be a true piece of correspondence between
specific parties, but rather an example of wisdom literature
formulated as a letter for circulation. The work is considered
New Testament wisdom literature because, "like Proverbs and
Sirach, it consists largely of moral exhortations and precepts
of a traditional and eclectic nature."[1] Similarly, the
Catholic Encyclopedia says, "the subjects treated of in the
Epistle are many and various; moreover, St. James not
infrequently, whilst elucidating a certain point, passes
abruptly to another, and presently resumes once more his
former argument."...
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The Book of Jeremiah, or Jeremiah (יִרְמְיָהוּ Yirməyāhū in
Hebrew), is part of the Hebrew Bible, Judaism's Tanakh, and
later became a part of Christianity's Old Testament. It was
originally written in a complex and poetic Hebrew (apart from
verse 10:11, curiously written in Biblical Aramaic), recording
the words and events surrounding the life of the Jewish
prophet Jeremiah who lived at the time of the destruction of
Solomon's Temple (587/6 BC) in Jerusalem during the fall of
the Kingdom of Judah at the hands of Babylonia...
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The Book of Job (Hebrew: אִיוֹב ʾ iyov) is one of the books of
the Hebrew Bible. It relates the story of Job, his trials at
the hands of Satan, his theological discussions with friends
on the origins and nature of his suffering, his challenge to
God, and finally a response from God. The Book itself
comprises a didactic poem set in a prose framing device and
has been called "the most profound and literary work of the
entire Old Testament".[1] The Book itself, along with its
numerous exegeses, are attempts to address the problem of
evil, i.e. the problem of reconciling the existence of evil or
suffering in the world with the existence of God...
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The Book of Joel is part of the Hebrew Bible. Joel is part of
a group of twelve prophetic books known as the Minor Prophets
or simply as The Twelve; the distinction 'minor' indicates the
short length of the text in relation to the larger prophetic
texts known as the "Major Prophets"...
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The Gospel According to John (Κατὰ Ἰωάννην εὐαγγέλιον, τὸ
εὐαγγέλιον κατὰ Ἰωάννην, kata Iōannēn euangelion, to
euangelion kata Iōannēn), commonly referred to as The Gospel
of John, is an account of the life and ministry of Jesus of
Nazareth. It details the story of Jesus from his Baptism to
his Resurrection. In the standard order of the canonical
gospels, it appears fourth, after the synoptic gospels
Matthew, Mark and Luke.
The Gospel's authorship is anonymous. However, in chapter 21
it is stated that it derives from the testimony of the
'Disciple whom Jesus loved', identified by Early Church
tradition with John the Apostle, one of Jesus' Twelve
Apostles. It is closely related in style and content to the
three surviving Epistles of John such that most commentators
routinely treat the four books together.[1]:p.63 Scholarly
opinion is divided as to whether these epistles are the work
of the evangelist himself or of his followers writing in his
name. The epistles are addressed to a particular but unnamed
church community. Most scholars presume that the Gospel,
too, is addressed to the specific circumstances of that
community. The evangelist urges his church to beware of
internal factions and to reject false teaching. He seeks to
strengthen the church community's resolution in the face of
hostility and persecution from the Jewish leadership of the
synagogue. It is now widely accepted that the discourses are
concerned with the actual issues of the church and synagogue
debate at the time when the Gospel was written."[1]:p.53 It
is notable that, in the gospel, the community still appears
to define itself primarily against Judaism, rather than as
part of a wider Christian church. Lindars points out that
Christianity started as a movement within Judaism, but he
says that gradually Christians and Jews became bitterly
opposed to one another...
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The Book of Jonah (Hebrew: Sefer Yonah) is a book in the
Hebrew Bible. It tells the story of a Hebrew prophet named
Jonah ben Amittai who is sent by God to prophesy the
destruction of Nineveh but tries to escape the divine
mission.[1] Set in the reign of Jeroboam II (786-746 BCE), it
was probably written in the post-exilic period, sometime
between the late fifth to early fourth century BC.[2] The
story has an interesting interpretive history (see below) and
has become well-known through popular children’s stories. In
Judaism it is the Haftarah for the afternoon of Yom Kippur due
to its story of God's willingness to forgive those who
repent...
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The Book of Joshua (Hebrew: Sefer Y'hoshua ספר יהושע) is the
sixth book in the Hebrew Bible. This book stands as the first
in the Former (or First) Prophets covering the history of
Israel from the possession of the Promised Land to the
Babylonian Captivity. The book of Joshua contains a history of
the Israelites from the death of Moses to that of Joshua.
After Moses' death, Joshua, by virtue of his previous
appointment as Moses' successor, received from God the command
to cross the Jordan River. In execution of this order Joshua
issues the requisite instructions to the stewards of the
people for the crossing of the Jordan; and he reminds the
Reubenites, Gadites, and the half of Manasseh of their pledge
given to Moses to help their brethren...
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The Epistle of Jude, usually referred to simply as Jude, is
the penultimate book of the New Testament and is attributed to
Jude, the brother of James the Just (who was called "the
brother of Jesus"). The letter of Jude was one of the disputed
books of the Canon. Although its canonical status was
contested, its authenticity was never doubted by the Early
Church. The links between the Epistle and 2 Peter, its use of
the Apocryphal Books, and its brevity raised concern...
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The Book of Judges (Hebrew: Sefer Shoftim ספר שופטים) is a
book of the Bible originally written in Hebrew. It appears in
the Tanakh and in the Christian Old Testament. Its title
refers to its contents; it contains the history of Biblical
judges (not to be confused with modern judges), who helped
rule and guide the ancient Israelites, and of their times.
As Judges stands today, the last judge it mentions is Samson,
and although there are two further stories, the traditional
view is that Samson's exploits probably synchronise with the
period immediately preceding Eli, who was both high priest and
judge. Both academic views and traditional thought hence view
the narrative of the judges as ending at Samson, picking up
again at 1 Samuel 1:1 to consider Eli, and continuing through
to 1 Samuel 7:2. As for the stories at the end of the Book,
which are set in the same time period as the judges but
discuss people other than the judges, there is much affinity
between these and the Book of Ruth, and many people believe
Ruth originally belonged amongst them. There were thirteen
Biblical Judges...
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The Book of Lamentations (Hebrew: אֵיכָה, Eikha, ʾēḫā(h)) is a
book of the Hebrew Bible. In Judaism it is traditionally
recited on the fast day of Tisha B'Av and in Christianity it
is traditionally read during Tenebrae of the Holy Triduum. It
is called in the Hebrew canon 'Eikhah, meaning "How," being
the formula for the commencement of a song of wailing. It is
the first word of the book (see 2 Sam. 1:19-27). The
Septuagint adopted the name rendered "Lamentations" (or
"Threnoi Hieremiou", abbreviated "Thren." in some Latin
commentaries, from the Greek threnoi = Hebrew qinoth) now in
common use, to denote the character of the book, in which the
prophet mourns over the desolations brought on Jerusalem and
the Holy Land by the Chaldeans. In the Hebrew Bible (the
Tanakh) it is placed among the Ketuvim, the Writings. Many
people believe Jeremiah was the author, but they still to this
day, do not know for sure...
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The Books of Chronicles (Hebrew Divrei Hayyamim, דברי הימים,
Greek Paralipomenon, Παραλειπομένων) are part of the Hebrew
Bible. In the Masoretic Text, it appears as the first or last
book of the Ketuvim (the latter arrangement also making it the
final book of the Jewish bible). Chronicles largely parallels
the Davidic narratives in the Books of Samuel and the Books of
Kings.[1] It appears in two parts (I & II Chronicles),
immediately following 1 & 2 Samuel and 1 & 2 Kings as a
summary of them with minor details sometimes added. The
division of Chronicles and its place in the Christian canon of
the Old Testament are based upon the Septuagint...
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The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, usually referred
to simply as First Corinthians and often written 1
Corinthians, is the seventh book of the New Testament. The
book, originally written in Greek, was a letter from Paul of
Tarsus and Sosthenes to the Christians of Corinth, Greece.
This epistle contains some of the best-known phrases in the
New Testament, including (depending on the translation) "all
things to all men" (9:22), "without love, I am nothing"
(13:2), "through a glass, darkly" (13:12), and "when I was a
child, I spoke as a child, I felt as a child, I thought as a
child" (13:11)...
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The First Epistle of John, usually referred to simply as First
John and often written 1 John, is a book of the New Testament.
This fourth catholic or "general" epistle is attributed to
John the Evangelist, traditionally thought to be the author of
the Gospel of John and the other two Epistles of John. This
Epistle was written in Ephesus between the years 100-110.[1]
The work was written to counter the heresies that Jesus did
not come "in the flesh," but only as a spirit. It also defined
how Christians are to discern true teachers: by their ethics,
their proclamation of Jesus in the flesh, and by their
love.[1]...
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The Books of Kings (Hebrew: Sefer melakhim, ספר מלכים) are
books included in the Hebrew Bible. They were originally
written in Hebrew and are recognised as scripture by Judaism
and Christianity. According to Biblical chronology, the events
in the Books of Kings occurred between the 10th and 6th
centuries BCE.
The books contain accounts of the kings of the ancient Kingdom
of Israel (united monarchy) and the Kingdom of Judah. They
contain the annals of the Jewish commonwealth from the
accession of Solomon until the subjugation of the kingdom by
Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians (apparently a period of
about four hundred and fifty-three years). The Books of Kings
synchronize with 1 Chronicles 28 – 2 Chronicles 36:21. While
in the Chronicles greater prominence is given to the priestly
or Levitical office, in the Kings greater prominence is given
to the royal and prophetic offices. Kings appears to have been
written considerably earlier than Chronicles and as such is
generally considered a more reliable historical source...
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The First Epistle of Peter, usually referred to simply as
First Peter and often written 1 Peter, is a book of the New
Testament. It has traditionally been held to have been written
by Saint Peter the apostle during his time as bishop of Rome
or Bishop of Antioch, though neither title is used in the
epistle. The letter is addressed to various churches in Asia
Minor suffering religious persecution...
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The Books of Samuel (Hebrew: Sefer Sh'muel ספר שמואל) are part
of the Hebrew Bible. The work was originally written in
Hebrew, and the Book(s) of Samuel originally formed a single
text, as they are often considered today in Jewish bibles.
Together with what is now referred to as the Book(s) of Kings,
the translators who created the Greek Septuagint divided the
text into four books, which they named the Books of the
Kingdoms. In the Latin Vulgate version, these then became the
Books of the Kings, thus 1 and 2 Samuel were referred to as 1
and 2 Kings, with 3 and 4 Kings being what are called 1 and 2
Kings by the King James Bible and its successors...
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The First Epistle of Paul to the Thessalonians, usually
referred to simply as First Thessalonians and often written 1
Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the
Christian Bible.
The first letter to the Thessalonians was likely the first of
Paul's letters, probably written by the end of A.D. 52[1],
making it, so far as is now known, the oldest extant Christian
document...
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The First Epistle of Paul to Timothy, usually referred to
simply as First Timothy and often written 1 Timothy, is one of
three letters in New Testament of the Bible often grouped
together as the Pastoral Epistles, the others being Second
Timothy and Titus. The letter, traditionally attributed to
Saint Paul, consists mainly of counsels to his younger
colleague and delegate Timothy regarding his ministry in
Ephesus (1:3). These include instructions on the forms of
worship and organization of the Church, the responsibilities
resting on its several members, including episcopoi (overseers
or bishops) and diaconoi ("deacons"); and secondly of
exhortation to faithfulness in maintaining the truth amid
surrounding errors (iv.iff), presented as a prophecy of erring
teachers to come...
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LITERATURE
Few books of the Old Testament are as difficult of
interpretation as the Book of Zechariah; no other book is as
Messianic. Jewish expositors like Abarbanel and Jarchi, and
Christian expositors such as Jerome, are forced to concede
that they have failed "to find their hands" in the
exposition of it, and that in their investigations they
passed from one labyrinth to another, and from one cloud
into another, until they lost themselves in trying to
discover the prophet's meaning. The scope of Zechariah's
vision and the profundity of his thought are almost without
a parallel. In the present writer's judgment, his book is
the most Messianic, the most truly apocalyptic and
eschatological, of all the writings of the Old Testament.
1. The Prophet:
Zechariah was the son of Berechiah, and the grandson of Iddo
(Zec 1:1,7). The same Iddo seems to be mentioned among the
priests who returned from exile under Zerubbabel and Joshua
in the year 536 BC (Neh 12:4; Ezr 2:2). If so, Zechariah was
a priest as well as a prophet, and presumably a young man
when he began to preach. Tradition, on the contrary,
declares that he was well advanced in years. He apparently
survived Haggai, his contemporary (Ezr 5:1; 6:14). He was a
poet as well as a prophet. Nothing is known of his end. The
Targum says he died a martyr.
2. His Times and Mission:
The earliest date in his book is the 2nd year (520 BC) of
the reign of Darius Hystaspis, and the latest, the 4th year
of the same king's reign (Zec 1:1,7; 7:1). Though these are
the only dates given in his writings, it is possible of
course that he may have continued active for several
additional years. Otherwise, he preached barely two years.
The conditions under which he labored were similar to those
in Haggai's times. Indeed, Haggai had begun to preach just
two months before Zechariah was called. At that time there
were upheavals and commotions in different parts of the
Persian empire, especially in the Northeast Jeremiah's
prophecies regarding the domination of Babylon for 70 years
had been fulfilled (Jer 15:11; 29:10). The returned captives
were becoming disheartened and depressed because Yahweh had
not made it possible to restore Zion and rebuild the temple.
The foundations of the latter had been already laid, but as
yet there was no superstructure (Ezr 3:8-10; Zec 1:16). The
altar of burnt offering was set up upon its old site, but as
yet there were no priests worthy to officiate in the ritual
of sacrifice (Ezr 3:2,3; Zec 3:3). The people had fallen
into apathy, and needed to be aroused to their opportunity.
Haggai had given them real initiative, for within 24 days
after he began to preach the people began to work (Hag
1:1,15). It was left for Zechariah to bring the task of
temple-building to completion. This Zechariah did
successfully; this, indeed, was his primary mission and
work...
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The book of Zechariah, in its existing form, consists of
three principal parts, vis. chs. 1-8; chs. 9-11; chs. 12-14.
1. The first of these divisions is allowed by the
critics to be the genuine work of Zechariah the son of Iddo.
It consists, first, of a short introduction or preface in
which the prophet announces his commission; then of a series
of visions, descriptive of all those hopes and anticipations
of which the building of the temple was the pledge and sure
foundation and finally of a discourse, delivered two years
later, in reply to questions respecting the observance of
certain established fasts.
2. The remainder of the book consists of two
sections of about equal length, chs. 9-11 and 12-14, each of
which has an inscription. (1) In the first section he
threatens Damascus and the seacoast of Israel with
misfortune, but declares that Jerusalem shall be protected.
(2) The second section is entitled "The burden of the word
of Jehovah for Israel." But Israel is here used of the
nation at large, not of Israel as distinct from Judah.
Indeed the prophecy which follows concerns Judah and
Jerusalem, in this the prophet beholds the near approach of
troublous times, when Jerusalem should be hard pressed by
enemies. But in that day Jehovah shall come to save them an
all the nations which gather themselves against Jerusalem
shall be destroyed. Many modern critics maintain that the
later chapters, from the ninth to the fourteenth, were
written by some other prophet, who lived before the exile.
The prophecy closes with a grand and stirring picture. All
nations are gathered together against Jerusalem, and seem
already sure of their prey. Half of their cruel work has
been accomplished, when Jehovah himself appears on behalf of
his people. He goes forth to war against the adversaries of
his people. He establishes his kingdom over all the earth.
All nations that are still left shall come up to Jerusalem,
as the great centre of religious worship, and the city; from
that day forward shall be a holy city. Such is, briefly, an
outline of the second portion of that book which is commonly
known as the Prophecy of Zechariah. Integrity. -Mede was the
first to call this in question. The probability that the
later chapters, from the ninth to the fourteenth, were by
some other prophet seems first to have been suggested to him
by the citation in St. Matthew. He rests his opinion partly
on the authority of St. Matthew and partly-on the contents
of the later chapters, which he considers require a date
earlier than the exile. Archbishop Newcombe went further. He
insisted on the great dissimilarity of style as well as
subject between the earlier and later chapters and he was
the first who advocated the theory that the last six
chapters of Zechariah are the work of two distinct prophets.
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1. The eleventh in order of the twelve minor prophets. He is
called in his prophecy the son of Berechiah and the grandson
of Iddo, whereas in the book of Ezra, Ezr 5:1; 6:14 he is
said to have been the son of Iddo. It is natural to suppose
as the prophet himself mentions his father's name, whereas
the book of Ezra mentions only Iddo, that Berechiah had died
early, and that there was now no intervening link between
the grandfather and the grandson. Zechariah, like Jeremiah
and Ezekiel before him, was priest as well as prophet. He
seems to have entered upon his office while yet young, Zec
2:4 and must have been born in Babylon whence he returned
with the first caravan of exiles under Zerubbabel and
Jeshua. It was in the eighth month, in the second year of
Darius, that he first publicly discharged his office. In
this he acted in concert with Haggai. Both prophets had the
same great object before them; both directed all their
energies to the building of the second temple. To their
influence we find the rebuilding of the temple in a great
measure ascribed. If the later Jewish accounts may be
trusted, Zechariah, as well as Haggai, was a member of the
Great Synagogue. The genuine writings of Zechariah help us
but little in our estimate of his character. Some faint
traces, however, we may observe in them, of his education in
Babylon. He leans avowedly on the authority of the older
prophets, and copies their expressions. Jeremiah especially
seems to have been his favorite; and hence the Jewish saying
that "the spirit of Jeremiah dwelt in Zechariah." But in
what may be called the peculiarities of his prophecy, he
approaches more nearly to Ezekiel and Daniel. Like them he
delights in visions; like them he uses symbols and
allegories rather than the bold figures and metaphors which
lend so much force and beauty to the writings of the earlier
prophets. Generally speaking, Zechariah's style is pure, and
remarkably free from Chaldaisms...
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Jehovah is renowned or remembered. (1.) A prophet of Judah,
the
eleventh of the twelve minor prophets. Like Ezekiel,
he was of
priestly extraction. He describes himself (1:1) as
"the son of
Berechiah." In Ezra 5:1 and 6:14 he is called "the
son of Iddo,"
who was properly his grandfather. His prophetical
career began
in the second year of Darius (B.C. 520), about
sixteen years
after the return of the first company from exile. He
was
contemporary with Haggai (Ezra 5:1).
His book consists of two distinct parts, (1)
chapters 1 to 8,
inclusive, and (2) 9 to the end. It begins with a
preface
(1:1-6), which recalls the nation's past history,
for the
purpose of presenting a solemn warning to the
present
generation. Then follows a series of eight visions
(1:7-6:8),
succeeding one another in one night, which may be
regarded as a
symbolical history of Israel, intended to furnish
consolation to
the returned exiles and stir up hope in their minds.
The
symbolical action, the crowning of Joshua (6:9-15),
describes
how the kingdoms of the world become the kingdom of
God's
Christ.
Chapters 7 and 8, delivered two years later, are an
answer to
the question whether the days of mourning for the
destruction of
the city should be any longer kept, and an
encouraging address
to the people, assuring them of God's presence and
blessing.
The second part of the book (ch. 9-14) bears no
date. It is
probable that a considerable interval separates it
from the
first part. It consists of two burdens.
The first burden (ch. 9-11) gives an outline of the
course of
God's providential dealings with his people down to
the time of
the Advent.
The second burden (ch. 12-14) points out the glories
that
await Israel in "the latter day", the final conflict
and triumph
of God's kingdom.
(2.) The son or grandson of Jehoiada, the high
priest in the
times of Ahaziah and Joash. After the death of
Jehoiada he
boldly condemned both the king and the people for
their
rebellion against God (2 Chr. 24:20), which so
stirred up their
resentment against him that at the king's
commandment they
stoned him with stones, and he died "in the court of
the house
of the Lord" (24:21). Christ alludes to this deed of
murder in
Matt. 23:35, Luke 11:51. (See ZACHARIAS -T0003862
[2].)
(3.) A prophet, who had "understanding in the seeing
of God,"
in the time of Uzziah, who was much indebted to him
for his wise
counsel (2 Chr. 26:5).
Besides these, there is a large number of persons
mentioned in
Scripture bearing this name of whom nothing is
known.
(4.) One of the chiefs of the tribe of Reuben (1
Chr. 5:7).
(5.) One of the porters of the tabernacle (1 Chr.
9:21).
(6.) 1 Chr. 9:37.
(7.) A Levite who assisted at the bringing up of the
ark from
the house of Obededom (1 Chr. 15:20-24).
(8.) A Kohathite Levite (1 Chr. 24:25).
(9.) A Merarite Levite (1 Chr. 27:21).
(10.) The father of Iddo (1 Chr. 27:21).
(11.) One who assisted in teaching the law to the
people in
the time of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 17:7).
(12.) A Levite of the sons of Asaph (2 Chr. 20:14).
(13.) One of Jehoshaphat's sons (2 Chr. 21:2).
(14.) The father of Abijah, who was the mother of
Hezekiah (2
Chr. 29:1).
(15.) One of the sons of Asaph (2 Chr. 29:13).
(16.) One of the "rulers of the house of God" (2
Chr. 35:8).
(17.) A chief of the people in the time of Ezra, who
consulted
him about the return from captivity (Ezra 8:16);
probably the
same as mentioned in Neh. 8:4,
(18.) Neh. 11:12.
(19.) Neh. 12:16.
(20.) Neh. 12:35,41.
(21.) Isa. 8:2.
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The Jewish saying was, "the spirit of Jeremiah dwelt in
Zechariah." Like Ezekiel and Daniel, Zechariah delights in
symbols, allegories, and visions of angels ministering
before Jehovah and executing His commands on earth.
Zechariah, like Genesis, Job, and Chronicles, brings Satan
personally into view. The mention of myrtles (representing
the then depressed Jewish church, Zechariah 1:11) accords
with the fact of their non mention before the Babylonian
exile (Nehemiah 8:15); contrast the original command as to
the trees at the feast of tabernacles, "palms, and willows
of the brook" Esther's name Hadassah means "myrtle". (See
MYRTLE.) Joshua's filthy garments (Zechariah 3) were those
assumed by the accused in Persian courts; the white robe
substituted was the caftan, to this day put upon a state
minister in the East when acquitted. Some forms and phrases
indicate a late age (as 'achath used as the indefinite
article).
Zechariah encouraged the Jews in rebuilding the
temple by unfolding the glorious future in contrast with the
present depression of the theocracy. Matthew (Matthew 27:9)
quotes Zechariah 11:12 as Jeremiah's words. Doubtless
because Zechariah had before his mind Jeremiah 18:1-2;
Jeremiah 32:6-12; Zechariah's prophecy is but a reiteration
of the fearful oracle of Jeremiah 18-19, about to be
fulfilled in the destruction of the Jewish nation. Jeremiah,
by the image of a potter's vessel (the symbol of God's
absolute power over His creatures: Romans 9:21; Isaiah 45:9;
Isaiah 64:8), portrayed their ruin in Nebuchadnezzar's
invasion.
Zechariah repeats this threat as about to be
fulfilled again by Rome for their rejection of Messiah
Matthew, by mentioning Jeremiah, implies that the field of
blood now bought by "the reward of iniquity" in the valley
of Hinnom was long ago a scene of doom symbolically
predicted, that the purchase of it with the traitor's price
renewed the prophecy and revived the curse. The mention of
Ephraim and Israel as distinct from Judah, in chapters 10 to
14, points to the ultimate restoration, not only of the Jews
but of the northern Israelite ten tribes, who never returned
as a body from their Assyrian captivity, the earnest of
which was given in the numbers out of the ten tribes who
returned with their brethren of Judah from the Babylonian
captivity under Cyrus. There are four parts:...
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1. Eleventh of the 12 minor prophets. Son of Berechiah,
grandson of Iddo; Ezra (Ezra 5:1; Exr 6:14) says son of
Iddo, omitting Berechiah the intermediate link, as less
known, and perhaps having died early. Zechariah was
probably, like Ezekiel, priest as well as prophet, Iddo
being the priest who returned with Zerubbabel and Joshua
from Babylon (Nehemiah 12:4; Nehemiah 12:16). His priestly
birth suits the sacerdotal character of his prophecies
(Zechariah 6:13).
He left Babylon, where he was born, very young.
Zechariah began prophesying in youth (Zechariah 2:4), "this
young man. In the eighth month, in Darius' second year (520
B.C.), Zechariah first prophesied with Haggai (who began two
months earlier) in support of Zerubbabel and Shealtiel in
the building of the temple, which had been suspended under
Pseudo-Smerdis Artaxerxes (Ezra 4:24; Ezra 5:1-2; Ezra
6:14). The two, "Haggai the prophet and Zechariah the son of
Iddo" the priest prophet, according to a probable tradition
composed psalms for the liturgy of the temple: Psalms 137;
146 to 148, according to Septuagint; Psalm 125, 126 (See
NEHEMIAH) according to the Peshito; Psalm 111 according to
Vulgate.
The Hallelujah characterizes the post exile psalms,
it occurs at both beginning and end of Psalms 146 to 150;
these are all joyous thanksgivings, free from the
lamentations which appear in the other post exile psalms.
Probably sung at the consecration of the walls under
Nehemiah; but Hengstenberg thinks at the consecration of the
second temple. Jewish tradition makes Zecharia a member of
the great synagogue. frontZECHARIAH, BOOK OF.)
2. Firstborn son of Meshelemiah, a Korhite, keeper
of the N. gate of the tabernacle under David (1 Chronicles
9:21; 1 Chronicles 26:2; 1 Chronicles 26:14, "a wise
counsellor".)...
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(hidden by Jehovah).
1. The ninth in order of the twelve minor prophets.
His pedigree is traced to his fourth ancestor, Hezekiah, Zep
1:1 supposed to be the celebrated king of that name. The
chief characteristics of this book are the unity and harmony
of the composition, the grace, energy and dignity of its
style, and the rapid and effective alternations of threats
and promises. The general tone of the last portion is
Messianic, but without any specific reference to the person
of our Lord. The date of the book is given in the
inscription--viz, the reign of Josiah, from 642 to 611 B.C.
It is most probable moreover, that the prophecy was
delivered before the eighteenth year of Josiah.
2. The son of Maaseiah, Jer 21:1 and sagan or second
priest in the reign of Zedekiah. (B.C. 588.) He succeeded
Jehoida, Jer 29:25,26 and was probably a ruler of the
temple, whose office it was, among others, to punish
pretenders to the gift of prophecy. Jer 29:29 On the capture
of Jerusalem he was taken and slain at Riblah. Jer 52:24,27;
2Ki 25:18,21
3. Father of Josiah, 2, Zec 6:10 and of Hen,
according to the reading of the received text of Zec 6:14
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Jehovah has concealed, or Jehovah of darkness. (1.) The son
of
Cushi, and great-grandson of Hezekiah, and the ninth
in the
order of the minor prophets. He prophesied in the
days of
Josiah, king of Judah (B.C. 641-610), and was
contemporary with
Jeremiah, with whom he had much in common. The book
of his
prophecies consists of:
(a) An introduction (1:1-6), announcing the judgment
of the
world, and the judgment upon Israel, because of
their
transgressions.
(b) The description of the judgment (1:7-18).
(c) An exhortation to seek God while there is still
time
(2:1-3).
(d) The announcement of judgment on the heathen
(2:4-15).
(e) The hopeless misery of Jerusalem (3:1-7).
(f) The promise of salvation (3:8-20).
(2.) The son of Maaseiah, the "second priest" in the
reign of
Zedekiah, often mentioned in Jeremiah as having been
sent from
the king to inquire (Jer. 21:1) regarding the coming
woes which
he had denounced, and to entreat the prophet's
intercession that
the judgment threatened might be averted (Jer.
29:25, 26, 29;
37:3; 52:24). He, along with some other captive
Jews, was put to
death by the king of Babylon "at Riblah in the land
of Hamath"
(2 Kings 25:21).
(3.) A Kohathite ancestor of the prophet Samuel (1
Chr. 6:36).
(4.) The father of Josiah, the priest who dwelt in
Jerusalem
when Darius issued the decree that the temple should
be rebuilt
(Zech. 6:10).
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zef-a-ni'-a (tsephanyah, tsephanyahu, "Yah hath treasured"):
(1) The prophet.
See ZEPHANIAH, BOOK OF.
(2) A Levite or priest (1 Ch 6:36 (Hebrew 6:21)), called in
some genealogies "Uriel" (1 Ch 6:24; 15:5,11).
(3) Judean father or fathers of various contemporaries of
Zechariah, the prophet (Zec 6:10,14).
(4) A priest, the second in rank in the days of Jeremiah. He
was a leader of the "patriotic" party which opposed Jeremiah.
Nevertheless, he was sent to the prophet as a messenger of
King Zedekiah when Nebuchadnezzar was about to attack the city
(Jer 21:1) and at other crises (Jer 37:3; compare 29:25,29; 2
Ki 25:18). That he continued to adhere to the policy of
resistance against Babylonian authority is indicated by the
fact that he was among the leaders of Israel taken by
Nebuzaradan before the king of Babylon, and killed at Riblah
(2 Ki 25:18 parallel Jer 52:24).
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LITERATURE
I. The Author.
1. Name:
The name "Zephaniah" (tsephanyah; Sophonias), which is borne
by three other men mentioned in the Old Testament, means
"Yah hides," or "Yah has hidden" or "treasured." "It
suggests," says G. A. Smith, "the prophet's birth in the
killing time of Manasseh" (2 Ki 21:16).
2. Ancestry:
The ancestry of the prophet is carried back four generations
(Zeph 1:1), which is unusual in the Old Testament (compare
Isa 1:1; Hos 1:1); hence, it is thought, not without reason
(Eiselen, Minor Prophets, 505), that the last-mentioned
ancestor, Hezekiah, must have been a prominent man--indeed,
no other than King Hezekiah of Judah, the contemporary of
Isaiah and Micah. If Zephaniah was of royal blood, his
condemnation of the royal princes (1:8) becomes of great
interest. In a similar manner did Isaiah, who in all
probability was of royal blood, condemn without hesitation
the shortcomings and vices of the rulers and the court. An
ancient tradition declares that Zephaniah was of the tribe
of Simeon, which would make it impossible for him to be of
royal blood; but the origin and value of this tradition are
uncertain.
Zephaniah lived in Judah; that he lived in Jerusalem is made
probable by the statement in 1:4, "I will cut off .... from
this place," as well as by his intimate knowledge of the
topography of the city (1:10,11).
3. Life:
For how long he continued his prophetic activity we do not
know, but it is not improbable that, as in the case of Amos,
his public activity was short, and that, after delivering
his message of judgment in connection with a great political
crisis, he retired to private life, though his interest in
reforms may have continued (2 Ki 23:2)...
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The bulk of the book forms the introduction to the grand
closing consummation under Messiah (Zephaniah 1:2 to 3:8;
Zephaniah 3:9-20).
I. Threat of judgments (Zephaniah 1:2-7). On whom
they shall fall (Zephaniah 1:8-11). Nearness and awfulness
of the day of the Lord, and impossibility of escape
(Zephaniah 1:12-18). Call to the apostate nation to
repentance, and to the meek and righteous to exercise those
graces which may avert the day of wrath (Zephaniah 2:1-3).
Motive to it: God's coming judgments on Israel's foes, the
Philistines, Moabites, Ammonites (the land of which three
nations the remnant of Jehovah's people shall possess),
Ethiopians, and Nineveh, which shall be a desolation;
"He will famish all the gods of the earth (by
destroying the nations worshipping them), and men shall
worship Him" each in his own house (Zephaniah 2:4-15). The
call being slighted and even Jerusalem being unreformed of
her filthiness by the judgments on surrounding nations, the
just God is constrained to chastise her (Zephaniah 3:1-7).
In all this the Chaldaeans' name, the executioners of God's
vengeance on Judah, is not mentioned as in Jeremiah, for the
latter being nearer the fulfillment prophesies more
explicitly.
II. After her chastisement Jehovah invites the pious
remnant of the Jews to wait upon Him, as He is about to
interpose for Judah and Jerusalem against the nations
gathered against her (Zechariah 12-14). "The remnant of
Israel shall no longer do iniquity. The Lord her God shall
rejoice over her with joy, and make her a praise among all
people," who in consequence shall "all call upon Him and
serve Him with one consent" (Zephaniah 3:8-20). The style is
graphic and vivid, and the language pure and free from
Aramaisms.
Zephaniah 2:14 corresponds to Isaiah 34:11;
Zephaniah 2:15 corresponds to Isaiah 47:8; Zephaniah 3:10
corresponds to Isaiah 18:1; Zephaniah 2:8 corresponds to
Isaiah 16:6; Zephaniah 1:5 corresponds to Jeremiah 8:2;
Zephaniah 1:12 corresponds to Jeremiah 48:11. Romans 15:6
apparently refers to Zephaniah 3:9.
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("Jehovah hath hidden") (Psalm 27:5; Psalm 83:3).
1. Ninth of the minor prophets; "in the days of
Josiah," between 642 and 611 B.C. "Son of Cushi, the son of
Gedaliah, the son of Amariah, the son of Hizkiah." The
specification of his father, grandfather, and great
grandfather, implies he was sprung from men of note. The
omission of the designation "king," or "king of Judah," is
against the notion that the "Hizkiah" means king Hezekiah
(compare Proverbs 25:1; Isaiah 38:9). He prophesied in the
former part of Josiah's reign. In Zephaniah 2:13-15 he
foretells Nineveh's fall (625 B.C.), therefore his
prophesying was before 625 B.C.; and in Zephaniah 1:4-6
threatens "cutting off" to "the remnant of Baal" and "the
name of the frontCHEMARIMS with the priests "; see Hosea
10:5 margin, "and them that worship the host of heaven upon
the housetops, and them that worship and that swear by the
Lord, and that swear by Malcham."
Fulfilled by Josiah (2 Kings 23:4-5). Josiah's
reformation was begun in the 12th year of his reign, and was
completed in the 18th. Zephaniah in denouncing the different
forms of idolatry paved the way for Josiah's work, and
probably cooperated with the king from the 12th to the 18th
year. Jewish tradition says that Zephaniah had as his
colleagues Jeremiah, labouring in the thoroughfares and
market places, and Huldah the prophetess in the college in
Jerusalem. His position among the prophets, and his
quotations from Joel, Amos, and Isaiah, indicate the
correctness of the date assigned to him in Zephaniah 1:1.
In Zephaniah 1:8, "I will punish the king's
children" must refer to coming judgments on the foreseen
idolatries of the younger members of the royal family
(Jeremiah 22:19; Jeremiah 39:6; 2 Kings 23:31-32-36-37; 2
Chronicles 36:5-6; 2 Kings 20:18). Not only the masses, but
even princes, should not escape the penalty of idolatry.
"The remnant of Baal" (Zephaniah 1:4) implies that Josiah's
reformation was already begun but not completed.
2. "The second priest" or sagan, next to the high
priest. Son of Maaseiah. Sent by Zedekiah to consult
Jeremiah (Jeremiah 21:1). Succeeded to Jehoiada who was in
exile. Appealed to by Shemaiah in a letter from Babylon to
punish Jeremiah with imprisonment and the stocks for
declaring the captivity would be long (Jeremiah 29:25-26;
Jeremiah 29:29). Zephaniah read the letter to Jeremiah. This
fact and Shemaiah's upbraiding Zephaniah for want of zeal
against Jeremiah imply that Zephaniah was less prejudiced
against Jeremiah than the others. This was the reason for
the king's choosing him as messenger to the prophet
(Jeremiah 37:3). Slain by Nebuchadnezzar as an accomplice in
Zedekiah's rebellion (Jeremiah 52:24; Jeremiah 52:27).
Jeremiah 52:3. Father of Hen or Josiah (Zechariah 6:14).
Zechariah 6:4. Ancestor of Samuel and Heman; a Kohathite
Levite (1 Chronicles 6:36), called Uriel 1 Chronicles 6:24.
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comforted by Jehovah. (1.) Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7. (2.) Neh.
3:16.
(3.) The son of Hachaliah (Neh. 1:1), and probably
of the
tribe of Judah. His family must have belonged to
Jerusalem (Neh.
2:3). He was one of the "Jews of the dispersion,"
and in his
youth was appointed to the important office of royal
cup-bearer
at the palace of Shushan. The king, Artaxerxes
Longimanus, seems
to have been on terms of friendly familiarity with
his
attendant. Through his brother Hanani, and perhaps
from other
sources (Neh. 1:2; 2:3), he heard of the mournful
and desolate
condition of the Holy City, and was filled with
sadness of
heart. For many days he fasted and mourned and
prayed for the
place of his fathers' sepulchres. At length the king
observed
his sadness of countenance and asked the reason of
it. Nehemiah
explained it all to the king, and obtained his
permission to go
up to Jerusalem and there to act as _tirshatha_, or
governor of
Judea. He went up in the spring of B.C. 446 (eleven
years after
Ezra), with a strong escort supplied by the king,
and with
letters to all the pashas of the provinces through
which he had
to pass, as also to Asaph, keeper of the royal
forests,
directing him to assist Nehemiah. On his arrival he
set himself
to survey the city, and to form a plan for its
restoration; a
plan which he carried out with great skill and
energy, so that
the whole was completed in about six months. He
remained in
Judea for thirteen years as governor, carrying out
many reforms,
notwithstanding much opposition that he encountered
(Neh.
13:11). He built up the state on the old lines,
"supplementing
and completing the work of Ezra," and making all
arrangements
for the safety and good government of the city. At
the close of
this important period of his public life, he
returned to Persia
to the service of his royal master at Shushan or
Ecbatana...
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(See EZRA; MALACHI.)
1. Son of Hachaliah, seemingly of Judah, as his
kinsman Hanani was so (Nehemiah 1:2); and Jerusalem was "the
place of his fathers' sepulchres" (Nehemiah 2:3). Probably
he was of David's lineage, as his name varied appears in it,
"Naum" (Luke 3:25), and his kinsman's name too, Hananiah,
son of Zerubbabel (1 Chronicles 3:19); his "fathers'
sepulchres" would be those of David's royal line. Cupbearer
of Artaxerxes (Longimanus) according to his own
autobiography, at Susa or Shushan, the principal Persian
palace; Ecbatana was the royal summer residence, Babylon the
spring, Persepolis the autumn, and Susa the winter. In
Artaxerxes' 20th year Hanani with other Jews came from
Jerusalem, reporting that the remnant there were in great
affliction, the wall broken down, and the gates burned.
Sorrow at the news drove him to fasting in expression of
sadness, and prayer before the God of heaven, who alone
could remedy the evil.
His prayer (Nehemiah 1:4-11) was marked by
importunate continuity, "day and night" (compare Isaiah
62:6-7; Luke 18:7), intercession for Israel, confession of
individual and national sin, pleading that God should
remember His promises of mercy upon their turning to Him,
however far cast out for transgression; also that He should
remember they are His people redeemed by His strong hand,
therefore His honour is at stake in their persons; and that
Nehemiah and they who pray with him desire to fear God's
name (Isaiah 26:8; contrast Psalm 66:18; compare Daniel 9,
Leviticus 26:33-39; Deuteronomy 4:25-31); lastly he asks God
to dispose Artaxerxes' heart to "mercy" (Proverbs 21:1).
"Let Thine ear ... Thine eyes be open ... hear the prayer,"
is an allusion to Solomon's prayer (1 Kings 8:28-29). After
four months (Nehemiah 1:1; Nehemiah 2:1), from Chisleu to
Nisan, of praying and waiting, in Artaxerxes' 20th year
Nehemiah with sad countenance ministered as his cupbearer...
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LITERATURE
I. Title and Contents.
1. Title:
Styled in the Hebrew Bible bemidhbar, "in the wilderness,"
from the 5th word in Nu 1:1, probably because of recording
the fortunes of Israel in the Sinaitic desert. The 4th book
of the Pentateuch (or of the Hexateuch, according to
criticism) was designated Arithmoi in the Septuagint, and
Numeri in the Vulgate, and from this last received its name
"Numbers" in the King James Version, in all 3 evidently
because of its reporting the 2 censuses which were taken,
the one at Sinai at the beginning and the other on the
plains of Moab at the close of the wanderings.
2. Contents:
Of the contents the following arrangement will be
sufficiently detailed:
(1) Before leaving Sinai, Nu 1:1 through 10:10 (a period of
19 days, from the 1st to the 20th of the 2nd month after the
exodus), describing:
(a) The numbering and ordering of the people, Numbers 1
through 4.
(b) The cleansing and blessing of the congregation, Numbers
5; 6.
(c) The princes' offerings and the dedication of the altar,
Numbers 7; 8.
(d) The observance of a second Passover, Nu 9:1-14.
(e) The cloud and the trumpets for the march, Nu 9:15
through 10:10.
(2) From Sinai to Kadesh, Nu 10:11 through 14:45 (a period
of 10 days, from the 20th to the 30th of the 2nd month),
narrating:
(a) The departure from Sinai, Nu 10:11-35.
(b) The events at Taberah and Kibroth-hattaavah, Numbers 11.
(c) The rebellion of Miriam and Aaron, Numbers 12.
(d) The mission of the spies, Numbers 13; 14.
(3) The wanderings in the desert, Numbers 15 through 19 (a
period of 37 years, from the end of the 2nd to the beginning
of the 40th year), recording:
(a) Sundry laws and the punishment of a Sabbath breaker,
Numbers 15.
(b) The rebellion of Korah, Numbers 16.
(c) The budding of Aaron's rod, Numbers 17.
(d) The duties and revenues of the priests and Levites,
Numbers 18.
(e) The water of separation for the unclean, Numbers 19.
(4) From Kadesh to Moab, Numbers 20; 21 (a period of 10
months, from the beginning of the 40th year), reciting:
(a) The story of Balaam, Nu 22:2 through 24:25.
(b) The zeal of Phinehas, Numbers 25.
(c) The second census, Nu 26:1-51...
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the fourth book of the law or Pentateuch. It takes its name
in the LXX. and Vulgate (whence our "Numbers") from the
double numbering or census of the people, the first of which
is given in chs. 1-4, and the second in ch. 28. Contents. --
The book may be said to contain generally the history of the
Israelites from the time of their leaving Sinai, in the
second year after the exodus till their arrival at the
borders of the Promised land in the fortieth year of their
journeyings It consists of the following principal
divisions:
1, The Preparations for the departure from Sinai. Nu
1:1 ... 10:10
2. The journey from Sinai to the borders of Canaan.
ch. Nu 10:11 ... 14:45
3. A brief notice of laws and events which
transpired during the thirty-seven years wandering in the
wilderness. ch. Nu 15:1 ... 19:22
4. The history of the last year, from the second
arrival of the Israelites in Kadesh till they reached "the
plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho." ch, Nu 20:1 ...
36:13 Integrity. --This, like the other books of the
Pentateuch, is supposed by many critics to consist of a
compilation from two or three or more earlier documents; but
the grounds on which this distinction of documents rests are
in every respect most unsatisfactory, and it may, in common
with the preceding books and Deuteronomy, be regarded as the
work of Moses. The book of Numbers is rich in fragments of
ancient poetry, some of them of great beauty and all
throwing an interesting light on the character of the times
in which they were composed. Such, for instance, is the
blessing of the high priest. ch. Nu 6:24-26 Such too are
chants which were the signal for the ark to move when the
people journeyed, and for it to rest when they were about to
encamp. In ch. 21 we have a passage cited from a book called
the "Book of the Wars of Jehovah." This was probably a
collection of ballads and songs composed on different
occasions by the watch-fires of the camp, and for the most
part, though not perhaps exclusively, in commemoration of
the victories of the Israelites over their enemies.
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the fourth of the books of the Pentateuch, called in the
Hebrew
be-midbar, i.e., "in the wilderness." In the LXX.
version it is
called "Numbers," and this name is now the usual
title of the
book. It is so called because it contains a record
of the
numbering of the people in the wilderness of Sinai
(1-4), and of
their numbering afterwards on the plain of Moab
(26).
This book is of special historical interest as
furnishing us
with details as to the route of the Israelites in
the wilderness
and their principal encampments. It may be divided
into three
parts:
1. The numbering of the people at Sinai, and
preparations for
their resuming their march (1-10:10). The sixth
chapter gives an
account of the vow of a Nazarite.
2. An account of the journey from Sinai to Moab, the
sending
out of the spies and the report they brought back,
and the
murmurings (eight times) of the people at the
hardships by the
way (10:11-21:20).
3. The transactions in the plain of Moab before
crossing the
Jordan (21:21-ch. 36).
The period comprehended in the history extends from
the second
month of the second year after the Exodus to the
beginning of
the eleventh month of the fortieth year, in all
about
thirty-eight years and ten months; a dreary period
of
wanderings, during which that disobedient generation
all died in
the wilderness. They were fewer in number at the end
of their
wanderings than when they left the land of Egypt. We
see in this
history, on the one hand, the unceasing care of the
Almighty
over his chosen people during their wanderings; and,
on the
other hand, the murmurings and rebellions by which
they offended
their heavenly Protector, drew down repeated marks
of his
displeasure, and provoked him to say that they
should "not enter
into his rest" because of their unbelief (Heb.
3:19).
This, like the other books of the Pentateuch, bears
evidence
of having been written by Moses.
The expression "the book of the wars of the Lord,"
occurring
in 21:14, has given rise to much discussion. But,
after all,
"what this book was is uncertain, whether some
writing of Israel
not now extant, or some writing of the Amorites
which contained
songs and triumphs of their king Sihon's victories,
out of which
Moses may cite this testimony, as Paul sometimes
does out of
heathen poets (Acts 17:28; Titus 1:12)."
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The book takes its name from the numberings (Numbers 1 and
Numbers 26). The Hebrew name it from its first word
waedaber, or its first distinctive word Bemidbar. It
narrates Israel's stay in the desert from the law giving at
Sinai (Leviticus 27:34) to their mustering in Moab's plains
before entering Canaan. The parts are four:
(1) Preparations for breaking up the camp at Sinai
to march to Canaan (Numbers 1 - 10:10).
(2) March from Sinai to Canaan's border; repulse by
the Amorites (Numbers 10:11-14:45).
(3) Selected incidents and enactments during the 38
years' penal wandering (Numbers 15:1-19:22).
(4) Last year in the desert, the 40th year after the
Exodus (Numbers 20:1-36;Numbers 20:13).
Israel's first encampment near Kadesh was at Rithmah
(from retem, the "broom") in midsummer, in the second year
after the Exodus; there for 40 days they awaited the spies'
report (Numbers 13:20; Numbers 13:25-26; Numbers 33:18-19,
from verses 20 to 36 are the stages of penal wandering). On
the first month of the 40th year they are at Kadesh once
more. The tabernacle and Moses remained at Kadesh on the
first occasion, while Israel attempted to occupy Canaan too
late (Numbers 14:44). For a long period ("many days") they
stayed still here, after failure, in hope God would yet
remit the sentence (Deuteronomy 1:45-46). Then they
"compassed Mount Seir (the wilderness of Paran) many days,"
until that whole generation died (Deuteronomy 2:1). The 17
stations belong to that dreary period (Numbers 33:19-36).
The people spread about the ridges of Paran, while the
tabernacle and camp moved among them from place to place. At
the second encampment at Kadesh they stayed three or four
months (Numbers 20:1 with Numbers 1:22-28; Numbers 33:38).
Miriam died, and was buried there...
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Obadiah is the shortest book in the Old Testament. The theme
of the book is the destruction of Edom. Consequent upon the
overthrow of Edom is the enlargement of the borders of Judah
and the establishment of the kingship of Yahweh. Thus far
all scholars are agreed; but on questions of authorship and
date there is wide divergence of opinion.
1. Contents of the Book:
(1) Yahweh summons the nations to the overthrow of proud
Edom. The men of Esau will be brought down from their lofty
strongholds; their hidden treasures will be rifled; their
confederates will turn against them; nor will the wise and
the mighty men in Edom be able to avert the crushing
calamity (Ob 1:1-9). (2) The overthrow of Edom is due to the
violence and cruelty shown toward his brother Jacob. The
prophet describes the cruelty and shameless gloating over a
brother's calamity, in the form of earnest appeals to Edom
not to do the selfish and heartless deeds of which he had
been guilty when Jerusalem was sacked by foreign foes (Ob
1:10-14). (3) The day of the display of Yahweh's retributive
righteousness upon the nations is near. Edom shall be
completely destroyed by the people whom he has tried to
uproot, while Israel's captives shall return to take
possession of their own land and also to seize and rule the
mount of Esau. Thus the kingship of Yahweh shall be
established (Ob 1:15-21)...
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o-ba-di'-a (`obhadhyah, more fully `obhadhyahu, "servant of
Yahweh"):
(1) The steward or prime minister of Ahab, who did his best
to protect the prophets of Yahweh against Jezebel's
persecution. He met Elijah on his return from Zarephath, and
bore to Ahab the news of Elijah's reappearance (1 Ki 18:3-
16).
(2) The prophet (Ob 1:1).
See OBADIAH, BOOK OF.
(3) A descendant of David (1 Ch 3:21).
(4) A chief of the tribe of Issachar (1 Ch 7:3).
(5) A descendant of Saul (1 Ch 8:38; 9:44).
(6) A Levite descended from Jeduthun (1 Ch 9:16), identical
with Abda (Neh 11:17).
(7) A chief of the Gadites (1 Ch 12:9).
(8) A Zebulunite, father of the chief Ishmaiah (1 Ch 27:19).
(9) One of the princes sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the law
in Judah (2 Ch 17:7).
(10) A Merarite employed by Josiah to oversee the workmen in
repairing the temple (2 Ch 34:12).
(11) The head of a family who went up with Ezra from Babylon
(Ezr 8:9).
(12) One of the men who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah
(Neh 10:5).
(13) A gate-keeper in the days of Nehemiah (Neh 12:25).
The name "Obadiah" was common in Israel from the days of
David to the close of the Old Testament. An ancient Hebrew
seal bears the inscription "Obadiah the servant of the
King."
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(servant of the Lord),
1. A man whose sons are enumerated in the genealogy
of the tribe of Judah. 1Ch 3:21 (B.C. 470.)
2. A descendant of Issachar and a chief man of his
tribe. 1Ch 7:3 (B.C. 1014.)
3. One of the six sons of Azel, a descendant of
Saul. 1Ch 8:33; 9:44 (B.C. 720.)
4. A Levite, son of Shemaiah, and descended from
Jeduthun. 1Ch 9:16; Ne 12:25
5. The second of the lion-faced Gadites who joined
David at Ziklag. 1Ch 12:9 (B.C. 1054.)
6. One of the Princes of Judah in the reign of
Jehoshaphat. 2Ch 17:7 (B.C. 909.)
7. The son of Jehiel, of the sons of Joab, who came
up in the second caravan with Ezra. Ezr 8:9
8. A priest, or family of priests, who settled the
covenant with Nehemiah. Ne 10:5
9. The fourth of the twelve minor prophets. We know
nothing of him except what we can gather from the short book
which bears his name. The question of his date must depend
upon the interpretation of the 11th verse of his prophecy.
He there speaks of the conquest of Jerusalem and the
captivity of Jacob as having occurred, He probably refers to
the captivity by Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 688. It must have been
uttered at some time in the five years which intervened
between B.C. 588 and 583. The book of Obadiah is a sustained
denunciation of the Edomites, melting into a vision of the
future glories of Zion when the arm of the Lord should have
wrought her deliverance and have repaid double upon her
enemies.
10. An officer of high rank in the court of Ahab.
1Ki 18:3 He was a devout worshipper of Jehovah, and at the
peril of his life concealed over a hundred prophets during
the persecution by Jezebel; 1Ki 18:3-16 (B.C. 904.)
11. The father of Ishmaiah who was chief of the
tribe of Zebulun in David's reign. 1Ch 27:19 (B.C. before
1014.)
12. A Merarite Levite in the reign of Josiah, and
one of the overseers of the workmen in the restoration of
the temple. 2Ch 34:12 (B.C.623.)
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consists of one chapter, "concerning Edom," its impending
doom
(1:1-16), and the restoration of Israel (1:17-21).
This is the
shortest book of the Old Testament.
There are on record the account of four captures of
Jerusalem,
(1) by Shishak in the reign of Rehoboam (1 Kings
14:25); (2) by
the Philistines and Arabians in the reign of Jehoram
(2 Chr.
21:16); (3) by Joash, the king of Israel, in the
reign of
Amaziah (2 Kings 14:13); and (4) by the Babylonians,
when
Jerusalem was taken and destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar
(B.C. 586).
Obadiah (1:11-14) speaks of this capture as a thing
past. He
sees the calamity as having already come on
Jerusalem, and the
Edomites as joining their forces with those of the
Chaldeans in
bringing about the degradation and ruin of Israel.
We do not
indeed read that the Edomites actually took part
with the
Chaldeans, but the probabilities are that they did
so, and this
explains the words of Obadiah in denouncing against
Edom the
judgments of God. The date of his prophecies was
thus in or
about the year of the destruction of Jerusalem.
Edom is the type of Israel's and of God's last foe
(Isa.
63:1-4). These will finally all be vanquished, and
the kingdom
will be the Lord's (comp. Ps. 22:28).
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servant of the Lord. (1.) An Israelite who was chief in the
household of King Ahab (1 Kings 18:3). Amid great
spiritual
degeneracy he maintained his fidelity to God, and
interposed to
protect The Lord's prophets, an hundred of whom he
hid at great
personal risk in a cave (4, 13). Ahab seems to have
held Obadiah
in great honour, although he had no sympathy with
his piety (5,
6, 7). The last notice of him is his bringing back
tidings to
Ahab that Elijah, whom he had so long sought for,
was at hand
(9-16). "Go," said Elijah to him, when he met him in
the way,
"go tell thy lord, Behold, Elijah is here."
(2.) A chief of the tribe of Issachar (1 Chr. 7:3).
(3.) A descendant of Saul (1 Chr. 8:38).
(4.) A Levite, after the Captivity (1 Chr. 9:16).
(5.) A Gadite who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr.
12:9).
(6.) A prince of Zebulun in the time of David (1
Chr. 27:19).
(7.) One of the princes sent by Jehoshaphat to
instruct the
people in the law (2 Chr. 17:7).
(8.) A Levite who superintended the repairs of the
temple
under Josiah (2 Chr. 34:12).
(9.) One who accompanied Ezra on the return from
Babylon (Ezra
8:9).
(10.) A prophet, fourth of the minor prophets in the
Hebrew
canon, and fifth in the LXX. He was probably
contemporary with
Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Of his personal history
nothing is known.
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("worshipper of Jehovah"; Arabic: Abdallah.)
1. One of Israhiah's "five" sons, of Issachar (1
Chronicles 7:3). But as four only are mentioned, Kennicott
with four manuscripts omits "and the sons of Israhiah," thus
making him brother not father of Obadiah, and both sons of
Uzzi. Syriac and Arabic have our text, but "four."
2. 1 Chronicles 8:38; 1 Chronicles 9:44.
3. 1 Chronicles 9:16; Nehemiah 12:24-25.
4. 1 Chronicles 3:21.
5. 1 Chronicles 12:8-9.
6. 2 Chronicles 17:7.
7. Ezra 8:9.
8. Nehemiah 10:5.
9. Over Ahab's house. A kind of lord high
chamberlain or mayor of the palace (1 Kings 18:3). As there
were saints in Nero's palace (Philemon 1:13; Philemon 4:22),
so they were in wicked Ahab's palace. Had not his value as a
servant made him necessary to Ahab, his piety would have
destroyed him. The pressure of the drought in the third year
was such that Ahab could trust none so well as Obadiah to
search throughout the land for water to preserve his
"beasts," his stud of "horses and mules." Ahab cared more
for these than for his perishing subjects! In a corrupt
court, in spite of the persecuting idolatrous queen Jezebel,
"Obadiah feared Jehovah," not merely a little but "greatly."
So much so that he dared to hide from her fury 100 prophets,
feeding them by fifty in a cave (compare on love to the
Lord's brethren, Matthew 25:40). Ahab went in one direction
in search of water, Obadiah another by himself. The latter
was startled by the sudden appearance of Elijah, who had
disappeared since his first announcement of the drought
coming at his word (1 Kings 17:1). Obadiah knew him and
reverently fell on his face saying, "art thou that my lord
Elijah?"...
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This most beautiful of all Paul's Epistles, and the most
intensely human, is one of the so-called Captivity Epistles
of which Ephesians, Colossians, and Philippians are the
others. Of these four PHILIPPIANS (which see) stands apart,
and was written more probably after the other three. These
are mutually interdependent, sent by the same bearer to
churches of the same district, and under similar conditions.
1. Place of Writing:
There is some diversity of opinion as to the place from
which the apostle wrote these letters. Certain scholars
(Reuss, Schenkel, Weiss, Holtzmann, Hilgenfeld, Hausrath and
Meyer) have urged Caesarea in opposition to the traditional
place, Rome. The arguments advanced are first that Onesimus
would have been more likely to have escaped to Caesarea than
to Rome, as it is nearer Colosse than Rome is, to which we
may reply that, though Caesarea is nearer, his chance of
escape would have been far greater in the capital than in
the provincial city. Again it is said that as Onesimus is
not commended in Ephesians, he had already been left behind
at Colosse; against which there are advanced the precarious
value of an argument from silence, and the fact that this
argument assumes a particular course which the bearers of
the letters would follow, namely, through Colosse to
Ephesus. A more forcible argument is that which is based on
the apostle's expected visit. In Phil 2:24 we read that he
expected to go to Macedonia on his release; in Philem 1:22
we find that he expected to go to Colosse. On the basis of
this latter reference it is assumed that he was to the south
of Colosse when writing and so at Caesarea. But it is quite
as probable that he would go to Colosse through Philippi as
the reverse; and it is quite possible that even if he had
intended to go direct to Colosse when he wrote to Philemon,
events may have come about to cause him to change his plans.
The last argument, based on the omission of any reference to
the earthquake of which Tacitus (Ann. xiv.27) and Eusebius
(Chron., O1, 207) write, is of force as opposed to the Rom
origin of the letters only on the assumption that these
writers both refer to the same event (by no means sure) and
that the epistles. were written after that event, and that
it was necessary that Paul should have mentioned it. If the
early chronology be accepted it falls entirely, as Tacitus'
earlier date would be after the epistles. were written. In
addition we have the further facts, favorable to Rome, that
Paul had no such freedom in Cuesarea as he is represented in
these epistles as enjoying; that no mention is made of
Philip who was in Caesarea and a most important member of
that community (Acts 21:8), and finally that there is no
probability that so large a body of disciples and companions
could have gathered about the apostle in his earlier and
more strict imprisonment, at Caesarea. We may therefore
conclude that the Captivity Epistles were written from Rome,
and not from Caesarea...
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fi-le'-mon, fi-le'-mun (Philemon): Among the converts of
Paul, perhaps while at Ephesus, was one whom he calls a
"fellow-worker," Philemon (Philem 1:1). He was probably a
man of some means, was celebrated for his hospitality
(Philem 1:5-7) and of considerable importance in the
ecclesia at Colosse. It was at his house (Philem 1:2) that
the Colossian Christians met as a center. It is more than
probable that this was a group of the Colossian church
rather than the entire ekklesia. His wife was named Apphia
(Philem 1:2); and Archippus (Philem 1:2) was no doubt his
son. From Col 4:17 we learn that Archippus held an office of
some importance in Colosse, whether he was a presbyter
(Abbott, ICC), or an evangelist, or perhaps the reader
(Zahn), we cannot tell. He is called here (Philem 1:2)
Paul's "fellow-soldier."
The relation between the apostle and Philemon was so close
and intimate that Paul does not hesitate to press him, on
the basis of it, to forgive his slave, Onesimus, for
stealing and for running away.
See PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO.
Tradition makes Philemon the bishop of Colosse (Apostolical
Constitutions, vii, 46), and the Greek Martyrology (Menae)
for November 22 tells us that he together with his wife and
son and Onesimus were martyred by stoning before Androcles,
the governor, in the days of Nero. With this the Latin
Martyrology agrees (compare Lightfoot, Ignatius, II, 535).
This evidence, however, is unsatisfactory and cannot be
trusted as giving unquestionable facts as to Philemon. The
only sure information is that in the epistle bearing his
name.
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the name of the Christian to whom Paul addressed his epistle
in behalf of Onesimus. He was a native probably of Colosse, or
at all events lived in that city when the apostle wrote to
him: first, because Onesimus was a Colossian, Col 4:9 and
secondly because Archippus was a Colossian, Col 4:17 whom Paul
associates with Philemon at the beginning of his letter. Phm
1:1,2
It is related that Philemon became bishop of Colosse,
and died as a martyr under Nero. It is evident from the letter
to him that Philemon was a man of property and influence,
since he is represented as the head of a numerous household,
and as exercising an expensive liberality toward his friends
and the poor in general. He was indebted to the apostle Paul
as the medium of his personal participation in the gospel. It
is not certain under what circumstances they became known to
each other. It is evident that on becoming a disciple he gave
no common proof of the sincerity and power of his faith. His
character as shadowed forth in the epistle to him, is one of
the noblest which the sacred record makes known to us.
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an inhabitant of Colosse, and apparently a person of some note
among the citizens (Col. 4:9; Philemon 1:2). He was
brought to a
knowledge of the gospel through the instrumentality of
Paul
(19), and held a prominent place in the Christian
community for
his piety and beneficence (4-7). He is called in the
epistle a
"fellow-labourer," and therefore probably held some
office in
the church at Colosse; at all events, the title
denotes that he
took part in the work of spreading a knowledge of the
gospel.
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is one of the letters which the apostle wrote during his
first captivity at Rome A.D. 63 or early in A.D. 64. Nothing
is wanted to confirm the genuineness of the epistle: the
external testimony is unimpeachable; nor does the epistle
itself offer anything to conflict with this decision. The
occasion of the letter was that Onesimus, a slave of
Philemon, had run away from him to Rome, either desiring
liberty or, as some suppose, having committed theft. Phm
1:18 Here he was converted under the instrumentality of
Paul. The latter; intimately connected with the master and
the servant, was naturally anxious to effect a
reconciliation between them. He used his influence with
Onesimus, ver. 12, to induce him to return to Colosse and
place himself again at the disposal of his master. On his
departure, Paul put into his hand this letter as evidence
that Onesirnus was a true and approved disciple of Christ,
and entitled as such to received, not as a servant but above
a servant, as a brother in the faith. The Epistle to
Philemon has one peculiar feature --its aesthetical
character it may be termed --which distinguishes it from all
the other epistles. The writer had peculiar difticulties to
overcame; but Paul, it is confessed, has shown a degree of
self-denial and a fact in dealing with them which in being
equal to the occasion could hardly be greater.
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was written from Rome at the same time as the epistles to
the
Colossians and Ephesians, and was sent also by
Onesimus. It was
addressed to Philemon and the members of his family.
It was written for the purpose of interceding for
Onesimus
(q.v.), who had deserted his master Philemon and
been
"unprofitable" to him. Paul had found Onesimus at
Rome, and had
there been instrumental in his conversion, and now
he sends him
back to his master with this letter.
This epistle has the character of a strictly private
letter,
and is the only one of such epistles preserved to
us. "It
exhibits the apostle in a new light. He throws off
as far as
possible his apostolic dignity and his fatherly
authority over
his converts. He speaks simply as Christian to
Christian. He
speaks, therefore, with that peculiar grace of
humility and
courtesy which has, under the reign of Christianity,
developed
the spirit of chivalry and what is called 'the
character of a
gentleman,' certainly very little known in the old
Greek and
Roman civilization" (Dr. Barry). (See SLAVE
-T0003458.)
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A Christian householder who hospitably entertained the
saints (Philemon 1:7) and befriended them with loving
sympathy at Colossae, for Onesimus and Archippus were
Colossians (Colossians 4:9; Colossians 4:17; Philemon 1:1-2;
Philemon 1:10); to whom Paul wrote the epistle. He calls
Philemon "brother," and says "thou owest unto me even thine
own self," namely, as being the instrument of thy conversion
(Philemon 1:19); probably during Paul's long stay at the
neighboring Ephesus (Acts 19:10), when "all they which dwelt
in Asia heard the word of the Lord Jesus." Colossians 2:1
shows Paul had not in person visited Colosse, though he must
have passed near it in going through Phrygia on his second
missionary tour (Acts 16:6).
The character which Paul gives Philemon for "love
and faith toward the Lord Jesus and all saints," so that
"the bowels of the saints were refreshed by him," and Paul
had "confidence in his obedience that he would do even more
than Paul said" is not mere politic flattery to induce him
to receive his slave Cnesimus kindly, but is the sincere
tribute of the apostle's esteem. Such Christian masters,
treating their slaves as "above servants" (Philemon 1:16),
"brothers beloved both in the flesh and in the Lord,"
mitigated the evil of slavery and paved the way for its
abolition. In the absence of a regular church building,
Philemon opened his house for Christian worship and
communion (Philemon 1:2; compare Romans 16:5). He "feared
God with all his house," like Abraham (Genesis 18:19),
Joshua (Joshua 24:15), and Cornelius (Acts 10:2,). The
attractive power of such a religion proved its divine
origination, and speedily, in spite of persecutions, won the
world.
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Anthenticity of. Origen (Hom. 19, Jer. 1:185) quotes it as
Paul's. Tertullian (Marcion 5:21), "the brevity of this
epistle is the cause of its escaping Marcion's falsifying
hands." Eusebius (E. H. 3:25) ranks it among "the
universally acknowledged (homologoumena) epistles of the
canon." Jerome (Prooem. Philemon iv. 442) argues against
those who thought its Subject beneath an apostle. Ignatius
(Ephesians 2, Magnes. 12) alludes to Philemon 1:20. Compare
Polycarp 1 and 6. The catalogues, the Muratori Fragment, the
list of Athanasius (Ep. 39), Jerome (Ep. 2 ad Paulin.), the
council of Laodicea (A.D. 364), and the third of Carthage
(A.D. 397) support it.
Its brevity accounts for the few quotations from it
in the fathers. Paley (Hor. Paul.) shows its authenticity
from the undesigned coincidences between it and the epistle
to the Colossians. Place and time of writing. The same
bearer Onesimus bore it and epistle to Colossians; in the
latter (Colossians 4:7-9) Tychicus is joined with Onesimus.
Both address Archippus (Philemon 1:2; Colossians 4:17). Paul
and Timothy stand in both headings. In both Paul writes as a
prisoner (Philemon 1:9; Colossians 4:18). Both were written
at Rome during the early and freer portion of Paul's first
imprisonment, A.D. 62; in Philemon 1:22 he anticipates a
speedy release.
AIM. This epistle is a beautiful sample of
Christianity applied to every day life and home relations
and mutual duty of master and servant (Psalm 101:2-7).
Onesimus of Colosse, (Colossians 4:9), Philemon's slave, had
fled to Rome after defrauding his master (Philemon 1:18).
Paul there was instrumental in converting him; then
persuaded him to return (Philemon 1:12) and gave him this
epistle, recommending him to Philemon's favorable reception
as henceforth about to be his "forever," no longer
unprofitable but, realizing his name, "profitable to Paul
and Philemon" (Philemon 1:11; Philemon 1:15).
Not until Philemon 1:10, and not until its end, does
the name occur. Paul skillfully makes the favorable
description precede the name which had fallen into so bad
repute with Philemon; "I beseech thee for my son whom I
begat in my bonds, Onesimus." Trusting soon to be free Paul
begs Philemon to prepare him a lodging at Colosse. Paul
addresses this epistle also to Apphia, who, from its
domestic subject, is supposed to have been Philemon's wife,
and to Archippus, a minister of the Colossian (Colossians
4:17) church, and supposed to be Philemon's relative and
inmate of his house...
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LITERATURE
I. Paul and the Church at Philippi.
Paul was on his second missionary journey in the year 52 AD.
He felt that he was strangely thwarted in many of his plans.
He had had a most distressing illness in Galatia. The Spirit
would not permit him to preach in Asia, and when he essayed
to enter Bithynia the Spirit again would not suffer it.
Baffled and perplexed, the apostle with his two companions,
Silas and Timothy, went on to the seacoast and stopped in
Troas. Here at last his leading became clear. A vision of a
man from Macedonia convinced him that it was the will of God
that he should preach in the western continent of Europe.
The way was opened at once. The winds were favorable. In two
days he came to Neapolis. At once he took the broad paved
way of the Via Egnatia up to the mountain pass and down on
the other side to Philippi, a journey of some 8 miles. There
was no synagogue at Philippi, but a little company of Jews
gathered for Sabbath worship at "a place of prayer"
(proseuche, Acts 16:13), about a mile to the West of the
city gate on the shore of the river Gangites (see
PROSEUCHA). Paul and his companions talked to the women
gathered there, and Lydia was converted. Later, a maid with
the spirit of divination was exorcised. Paul and Silas were
scourged and thrown into prison, an earthquake set them
free, the jailer became a believer, the magistrates repented
their treatment of men who were Roman citizens and besought
them to leave the city (Acts 16:6-40). Paul had had his
first experience of a Roman scourging and of lying in the
stocks of a Roman prison here at Philippi, yet he went on
his way rejoicing, for a company of disciples had been
formed, and he had won the devotion of loyal and loving
hearts for himself and his Master (see PHILIPPI). That was
worth all the persecution and the pain. The Christians at
Philippi seem to have been Paul's favorites among all his
converts. He never lost any opportunity of visiting them and
refreshing his spirit with their presence in the after-
years. Six years later he was resident in Ephesus, and
having sent Titus to Corinth with a letter to the
Corinthians and being in doubt as to the spirit in which it
would be received, he appointed a meeting with Titus in
Macedonia, and probably spent the anxious days of his
waiting at Philippi. If he met Titus there, he may have
written 2 Corinthians in that city (2 Cor 2:13; 7:6). Paul
returned to Ephesus, and after the riot in that city he went
over again into Macedonia and made his third visit to
Philippi. He probably promised the Philippians at this time
that he would return to Philippi to celebrate the Easter
week with his beloved converts there. He went on into
Greece, but in 3 months he was back again, at the festival
of the resurrection in the year 58 AD (Acts 20:2,6). We read
in 1 Tim 1:3 that Paul visited Macedonia after the Roman
imprisonment. He enjoyed himself among the Philippians. They
were Christians after his own heart. He thanks God for their
fellowship from the first day until now (Phil 1:5). He
declares that they are his beloved who have always obeyed,
not in his presence only, but much more in his absence (Phil
2:12). With fond repetition he addresses them as his
brethren, beloved and longed for, his joy and crown, his
beloved (Phil 4:1). This was Paul's favorite church, and we
can gather from the epistle good reason for this fact...
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was St. Paul from Rome in A.D. 62 or 63. St. Paul's
connection with Philippi was of a peculiar character, which
gave rise to the writing of this epistle. St. Paul entered
its walls A.D. 52. Ac 16:18 There, at a greater distance
from Jerusalem than any apostle had yet penetrated, the
long-restrained energy of St, Paul was again employed in
laying the foundation of a Christian church, Philippi was
endeared to St. Paul not only by the hospitality of Lydia,
the deep sympathy of the converts, and the remarkable
miracle which set a seal on his preaching, but, also by the
successful exercise of his missionary activity after a long
suspense, and by the happy consequences of his undaunted
endurance of ignominies which remained in his memory, Phm
1:30 after the long interval of eleven years. Leaving
Timothy and Luke to watch over the infant church, Paul and
Silas went to Thessalonica, 1Th 2:2 whither they were
followed by the alms of the Philippians, Phm 4:16 and thence
southward. After the lapse of five years, spent chiefly at
Corinth and Ephesus, St. Paul passed through Macedonia, A.D.
57, on his way to Greece, and probably visited Philippi for
the second time, and was there joined by Timothy. He wrote
at Philippi his second Epistle to the Corinthians. On
returning from Greece, Ac 20:4 he again found a refuge among
his faithful Philippians, where he spent some days at
Easter, A.D. 58, with St. Luke, who accompanied him when he
sailed from Neapolis. Once more, in his Roman captivity,
A.D. 62, their care of him revived-again. They sent
Epaphroditus bearing their alms for the apostle's support,
and ready also to tender his personal service. Phm 2:25 St.
Paul's aim in writing is plainly this: while acknowledging
the alms of the Philippians and the personal services of
their messenger, to give them some information respecting
his own condition, and some advice respecting theirs.
Strangely full of joy and thanksgiving amidst adversity,
like the apostle's midnight hymn from the depth of his
Philippian dungeon, this epistle went forth from his prison
at Rome. In most other epistles he writes with a sustained
effort to instruct, or with sorrow, or with indignation; he
is striving to supply imperfect or to correct erroneous
teaching, to put down scandalous impurity or to schism in
the church which he addresses. But in this epistle, though
he knew the Philippians intimately and was not blind to the
faults and tendencies to fault of some of them, yet he
mentions no evil so characteristic of the whole Church as to
call for general censure on his part or amendment on theirs.
Of all his epistles to churches, none has so little of an
official character as this.
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was written by Paul during the two years when he was "in
bonds"
in Rome (Phil. 1:7-13), probably early in the year
A.D. 62 or in
the end of 61.
The Philippians had sent Epaphroditus, their
messenger, with
contributions to meet the necessities of the
apostle; and on his
return Paul sent back with him this letter. With
this precious
communication Epaphroditus sets out on his homeward
journey.
"The joy caused by his return, and the effect of
this wonderful
letter when first read in the church of Philippi,
are hidden
from us. And we may almost say that with this letter
the church
itself passes from our view. To-day, in silent
meadows, quiet
cattle browse among the ruins which mark the site of
what was
once the flourishing Roman colony of Philippi, the
home of the
most attractive church of the apostolic age. But the
name and
fame and spiritual influence of that church will
never pass. To
myriads of men and women in every age and nation the
letter
written in a dungeon at Rome, and carried along the
Egnatian Way
by an obscure Christian messenger, has been a light
divine and a
cheerful guide along the most rugged paths of life"
(Professor
Beet).
The church at Philippi was the first-fruits of
European
Christianity. Their attachment to the apostle was
very fervent,
and so also was his affection for them. They alone
of all the
churches helped him by their contributions, which he
gratefully
acknowledges (Acts 20:33-35; 2 Cor. 11:7-12; 2
Thess. 3:8). The
pecuniary liberality of the Philippians comes out
very
conspicuously (Phil. 4:15). "This was a
characteristic of the
Macedonian missions, as 2 Cor. 8 and 9 amply and
beautifully
prove. It is remarkable that the Macedonian converts
were, as a
class, very poor (2 Cor. 8:2); and the parallel
facts, their
poverty and their open-handed support of the great
missionary
and his work, are deeply harmonious. At the present
day the
missionary liberality of poor Christians is, in
proportion,
really greater than that of the rich" (Moule's
Philippians,
Introd.).
The contents of this epistle give an interesting
insight into
the condition of the church at Rome at the time it
was written.
Paul's imprisonment, we are informed, was no
hindrance to his
preaching the gospel, but rather "turned out to the
furtherance
of the gospel." The gospel spread very extensively
among the
Roman soldiers, with whom he was in constant
contact, and the
Christians grew into a "vast multitude." It is plain
that
Christianity was at this time making rapid
advancement in Rome.
The doctrinal statements of this epistle bear a
close relation
to those of the Epistle to the Romans. Compare also
Phil. 3:20
with Eph. 2:12, 19, where the church is presented
under the idea
of a city or commonwealth for the first time in
Paul's writings.
The personal glory of Christ is also set forth in
almost
parallel forms of expression in Phil. 2:5-11,
compared with Eph.
1:17-23; 2:8; and Col. 1:15-20. "This exposition of
the grace
and wonder of His personal majesty, personal self-
abasement, and
personal exaltation after it," found in these
epistles, "is, in
a great measure, a new development in the
revelations given
through St. Paul" (Moule). Other minuter analogies
in forms of
expression and of thought are also found in these
epistles of
the Captivity.
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INTERNAL EVIDENCE. The style, thought, and doctrine agree
with Paul's. The incidental allusions confirm his
authorship. Paley (Hor. Paul. 7) instances the mention of
the object of Epaphroditus' journey to Rome, his sickness;
the Philippian contribution to Paul's wants (Philemon 1:7;
Philemon 2:25-30; Philemon 4:10-18); Timothy's having been
long with Paul at Philippi (Philemon 1:1; Philemon 2:19);
Paul's being for long a prisoner at Rome (Philemon 1:12-14;
Philemon 2:17-28); his willingness to die for Christ
(Philemon 1:23, compare 2 Corinthians 5:8); the Philippians
having seen his maltreatment at Philippi (Philemon 1:29-30;
Philemon 2:1-2).
EXTERNAL EVIDENCE. Polycarp (ad Philipp. 3 and 11,
A.D. 107); so that Christians who heard Paul's epistle read
for the first time may have spoken with Polycarp. Marcion in
Tertullian (A D. 140) acknowledges its authenticity. So the
Muratorian Fragment; Irenaeuns (adv. Haer, 4:18, section 4);
Clemens Alex. (Paedagog. 1, 1:10); the epistle to the
churches of Lyons and Vienne (A. D. 177) in Eusebius (H. E.,
5:2); Tertullian (Resurr. Carnis, 23); Origen (Celsus, 1,
3:122); Cyprian (Testim. against the Jews, 3:39).
OBJECT. To thank them for contributions sent by
Epaphroditus, who in returning takes back the epistle. Also
to express Christian sympathy, and to exhort to imitation of
Christ in humility and lowly love, instead of existing
dissensions, as between Euodias and Syntyche (Philemon 4:2),
and to warn against Judaizers. In this epistle alone are no
positive censures; no doctrinal error or schism had as yet
sprung up.
DIVISIONS.
I. Address: his state as a prisoner, theirs, his
sending Epaphroditus to them (Philippians 1; 2).
Epaphroditus probably was a presbyter of the Philippian
church, who cheered Paul in iris imprisonment by bringing
the Philippian token of love and liberality. By the fatigues
of the journey that "brother, companion in labour, and
fellow soldier" brought on himself dangerous sickness
(Philemon 2:25-30). But now being well he "longed" to return
to his Philippian flock and relieve them of their anxiety
about him. So Paul takes the opportunity of sending an
epistle by him.
II. Caution against Judaizers, contrasting his own
former legalism with his present following Christ as his all
(Philippians 3)...
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I. The Book's Account of Itself.
1. Title and Headings:
At the beginning, intended apparently to cover the whole
work, stands the title: "The proverbs of Solomon the son of
David, king of Israel." It seemed good to the compilers,
however, to repeat, or perhaps retain an older heading, "The
proverbs of Solomon" at Prov 10, as if in some special sense
the collection there beginning deserved it; and at Prov 25
still another heading occurs: "These also are proverbs of
Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah king of Judah copied
out." All these ascribe the proverbs to Solomon; but the
heading (30:1), "The words of Agur the son of Jakeh; the
oracle," and the heading (31:1), "The words of king Lemuel;
the oracle which his mother taught him," indicate that
authorship other than that of Solomon is represented; while
the mention of "the words of the wise" (1:6; 22:17), as also
the definite heading, "These also are sayings of the wise"
(24:23), ascribe parts of the book to the sages in general.
The book is confessedly a series of compilations made at
different times; confessedly, also, to a considerable extent
at least, the work of a number, perhaps a whole guild, of
writers.
2. Authorship or Literary Species?:
It is hazardous to argue either for or against a specific
authorship; nor is it my intention to do so. The question
naturally arises, however, in what sense this book, with its
composite structure so outspoken, can lay claim to being the
work of Solomon. Does the title refer to actual personal
authorship, or does it name a species and type of literature
of which Solomon was the originator and inspirer--as if it
meant to say "the Solomonic proverbs"? We may work toward
the answer of this question by noting some literary facts...
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The title of this book in Hebrew is taken from its first
word, mashal, which originally meant "a comparison." It is
sometimes translated parable, sometimes proverb as here. The
superscriptions which are affixed to several portions of the
book, in chs. Pr 1:1; 10:1; 25:1 attribute the authorship of
those portions to Solomon the son of David, king of Israel.
With the exception of the last two chapters, which are
distinctly assigned to other author it is probable that the
statement of the superscriptions is in the main correct, and
that the majority of the proverbs contained in the book were
uttered or collected by Solomon. Speaking roughly, the book
consists of three main divisions, with two appendices:--
1. Chs. 1-9 form a connected didactic Wisdom is
praised and the youth exhorted to devote himself to her.
This portion is preceded by an introduction and title
describing the character and general aim of the book.
2. Chs. 10-24 with the title "The Proverbs of
Solomon," consist of three parts: Pr 10:1-22; Pr 10:16 a
collection of single proverbs and detached sentences out of
the region of moral teaching and worldly prudence; Pr 22:17-
24; Pr 22:21 a more connected didactic poem, with an
introduction, Pr 22:17-22 which contains precepts of
righteousness and prudence; Pr 24:23-34 with the inscription
"These also belong to the wise," a collection of unconnected
maxims, which serve as an appendix to the preceding. Then
follows the third division chs. 25-29, which, according to
the superscription, professes to be collection of Solomon's
proverbs, consisting of single sentences, which the men of
the court of Hezekiah copied out. The first appendix, ch.
30, "The words of Agur the son of Jakeh," is a collection of
partly proverbial and partly enigmatical sayings; the
second, ch. 31, is divided into two parts, "The words of
King Lemuel," vs. 1-6, and an alphabetical acrostic in
praise of a virtuous woman, which occupies the rest of the
chapter. Who was Agur and who was Jakeh, are questions which
have been often asked and never satisfactorily answered. All
that can be said of the first is that he was an unknown
Hebrew sage, the son of an equally unknown Jakeh, and that
he lived after the time of Hezekiah. Lemuel, like Agur, is
unknown. It is even uncertain whether he is to be regarded
as a real personage, or whether the name is merely
symbolical. The Proverbs are frequently quoted or alluded to
in the New Testament and the canonicity of the book thereby
confirmed. The following is a list of the principal
passages:-- Pr 1:16 compare Roma 3:10,15
Pr 3:7 compare Roma 12:16
Pr 3:11,12 compare Hebr 12:5,6, see also Reve 3:19
Pr 3:34 compare Jame 4:6
Pr 10:12 compare 1Pet 4:8
Pr 11:31 compare 1Pet 4:18
Pr 17:13 compare Roma 12:17; 1The 5:15; 1Pet 3:9
Pr 17:27 compare Jame 1:19
Pr 20:9 compare 1Joh 1:8
Pr 20:20 compare Matt 15:4; Mark 7:10
Pr 22:8 (LXX.), compare 2Cor 9:7
Pr 25:21,22 compare, Roma 12:20
Pr 26:11 compare, 2Pet 2:22
Pr 27:1 compare, Jame 4:13,14...
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a collection of moral and philosophical maxims of a wide
range
of subjects presented in a poetic form. This book
sets forth the
"philosophy of practical life. It is the sign to us
that the
Bible does not despise common sense and discretion.
It impresses
upon us in the most forcible manner the value of
intelligence
and prudence and of a good education. The whole
strength of the
Hebrew language and of the sacred authority of the
book is
thrown upon these homely truths. It deals, too, in
that refined,
discriminating, careful view of the finer shades of
human
character so often overlooked by theologians, but so
necessary
to any true estimate of human life" (Stanley's
Jewish Church).
As to the origin of this book, "it is probable that
Solomon
gathered and recast many proverbs which sprang from
human
experience in preceeding ages and were floating past
him on the
tide of time, and that he also elaborated many new
ones from the
material of his own experience. Towards the close of
the book,
indeed, are preserved some of Solomon's own sayings
that seem to
have fallen from his lips in later life and been
gathered by
other hands' (Arnot's Laws from Heaven, etc.)
This book is usually divided into three parts: (1.)
Consisting
of ch. 1-9, which contain an exhibition of wisdom as
the highest
good.
(2.) Consisting of ch. 10-24.
(3.) Containing proverbs of Solomon "which the men
of
Hezekiah, the king of Judah, collected" (ch. 25-29).
These are followed by two supplements, (1) "The
words of Agur"
(ch. 30); and (2) "The words of king Lemuel" (ch.
31).
Solomon is said to have written three thousand
proverbs, and
those contained in this book may be a selection from
these (1
Kings 4:32). In the New Testament there are thirty-
five direct
quotations from this book or allusions to it.
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mishlee, plural of maashaal, "comparison" or "likeness." The
Christian fathers (Clement, Ep. Cor. 1:57; Hegesippus,
Irenaeus in Eusebius H. E. 4:22) entitle it "Wisdom, the sum
of all virtues" (Panareros sophia). Pithy sayings (compare
David's quotation, 1 Samuel 24:13), like similes or with a
figure. The comparison is either expressed or left for the
hearer to supply. So Balaam's "parable" is prophecy in
figurative language (Numbers 23:7-10; 1 Samuel 10:12;
Ezekiel 12:22-23; Ezekiel 17:2-3; Ezekiel 18:2; Ezekiel
20:49; Ezekiel 24:3; Luke 4:23). In Job 27:1 "parable" (Job
29:1) means a figurative, sententious, weighty embodiment of
wisdom, not in this case short, but containing Job's whole
argument (Psalm 49:4, maashaal).
In Proverbs 1:6 "dark sayings" (chidah) are another
form of proverbs, the enigmatical obscurity being designed
to stimulate reflection (Habakkuk 2:6; Judges 14; 1 Kings
10:1; 2 Chronicles 9:1; Ezekiel 17:2; Psalm 78:2); the
melitsah (Proverbs 1:6), "interpretation" (so Chald. and
Vulgate versions), for which Gesenius translated "a saying
that needs an interpreter," i.e. enigmatical (Habakkuk 2:6).
For instance (Proverbs 12:27), "the slothful man roasteth
not that which he took in hunting" requires discernment to
see the point of comparison and the application; the
slothful man is too lazy to hunt, and therefore has nothing
to roast (compare 2 Thessalonians 3:10). "Proverb" is with
Jesus' disciples equivalent to an obscure saying (John
16:29).
Canonicity. The Book of Proverbs is found in all
Jewish lists among the ketubim, "writings" (hagiographa),
the third division of Scripture. The Talmud (Baba Bathra, 14
b.) gives the order, Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther,
Ezra (including Nehemiah), Chronicles. The New Testament
quotes and so canonizes (Proverbs 1:16; Romans 3:10; Romans
3:15. Proverbs 3:7; Romans 12:16. Proverbs 3:11-12; Hebrews
12:5-6; Revelation 3:19. Proverbs 3:34; James 4:6. Proverbs
10:12; 1 Peter 4:8. Proverbs 11:31; 1 Peter 4:17-18.
Proverbs 17:13; Romans 12:17; 1 Thessalonians 5:15; 1 Peter
3:9. Proverbs 17:27; James 1:19. Proverbs 20:9; 1 John 1:8.
Proverbs 20:20; Matthew 15:4. Proverbs 22:8; 2 Corinthians
9:6; Galatians 6:7; Galatians 6:9. Proverbs 25:21-22; Romans
12:20. Proverbs 26:11; 2 Peter 2:22. Proverbs 27:1; James
4:13)...
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LITERATURE
I. Introductory Topics.
1. Title:
The Hebrew title for the Psalter is cepher tehillim, "book
of praises." When we consider the fact that more than 20 of
these poems have praise for their keynote, and that there
are outbursts of thanksgiving in many others, the fitness of
the Hebrew title dawns upon us. As Ker well says, "The book
begins with benediction, and ends with praise--first,
blessing to man, and then glory to God." Hymns of praise,
though found in all parts of the Psalter, become far more
numerous in Books IV and V, as if the volume of praise would
gather itself up into a Hallelujah Chorus at the end. In the
Greek version the book is entitled in some manuscripts
Psalmoi, in others Psalterion, whence come our English
titles "Psalms," and "Psalter." The Greek word psalmos, as
well as the Hebrew mizmor, both of which are used in the
superscriptions prefixed to many of the separate psalms,
indicates a poem sung to the accompaniment of stringed
instruments. The title mizmor is found before 57 psalms. The
Psalter was the hymnal of the Jewish nation. To individual
psalms other titles are sometimes prefixed, such as shir,
"song"; tehillah, "praise"; tephillah, "prayer," etc. The
Psalter was both prayerbook and hymnal to the Jewish people.
It was also a manual for the nurture of the spiritual life
in private as well as public worship.
2. Place in the Canon:
The Psalms were placed in the kethubhim or "Writings," the
third group of the Hebrew Scriptures. As the chief book of
the kethubhim, the Psalter appears first in the great
majority of German manuscripts, though the Spanish
manuscripts place Psalms after Chronicles, and the Talmud
puts Ruth before Psalms. There has never been any serious
question as to the right of the Psalter to a place in the
Canon of Scripture. The book is possibly more highly
esteemed among Christians than by the Jews. If Christians
were permitted to retain only one book in the Old Testament,
they would almost certainly choose Psalms. By 100 BC, and
probably at a much earlier date, the Book of Psalms was
completed and recognized as part of the Hagiographa, the 3rd
division of the Hebrew Bible...
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The present Hebrew name of the book is Tehill'im,
"Praises;" but in the actual superscriptions of the psalms
the word Tehillah is applied only to one, Ps 145:1 ... which
is indeed emphatically a praise-hymn. The LXX. entitled them
psalmoi or "psalms," i.e., lyrical pieces to be sung to a
musical instrument. The Christian Church obviously received
the Psalter from the Jews not only as a constituent portion
of the sacred volume of Holy Scripture, but also as the
liturgical hymn-book which the Jewish Church had regularly
used in the temple. Division of the Psalms. --The book
contains 150 psalms, and may be divided into five great
divisions or books, which must have been originally formed
at different periods. Book I. is, by the superscriptions,
entirely Davidic nor do we find in it a trace of any but
David's authorship. We may well believe that the compilation
of the book was also David's work. Book II. appears by the
date of its latest psalm, Ps 46:1 ... to have been compiled
in the reign of King Hezekiah. It would naturally comprise,
1st, several or most of the Levitical psalms anterior to
that date; and 2d, the remainder of the psalms of David
previously uncompiled. To these latter the collector after
properly appending the single psalm of Solomon has affixed
the notice that "the prayers of David the son of Jesse are
ended." Ps 72:20 Book III., the interest of which centers in
the times of Hezekiah stretches out, by its last two psalms,
to the reign of Manasseh: it was probably compiled in the
reign of Josiah. It contains seventeen psalms, from Psal 73-
89 eleven by Asaph, four by the sons of Horah, one (86) by
David, and one by Ethan. Book IV. contains the remainder of
the psalms up to the date of the captivity, There are
seventeen, from Psal 90-106 --one by Moses, two by David,
and the rest anonymous. Book V., the psalms of the return,
contains forty-four, from Psal 107-180 --fifteen by David,
one by Solomon and the rest anonymous. There is nothing to
distinguish these two books from each other in respect of
outward decoration or arrangement and they may have been
compiled together in the days of Nehemiah. Connection of the
Psalms with Israelitish history. --The psalm of Moses Psal
90, which is in point of actual date the earliest,
faithfully reflects the long, weary wanderings, the
multiplied provocations and the consequent punishments of
the wilderness. It is, however, with David that Israelitish
psalmody may be said virtually to commence. Previous mastery
over his harp had probably already prepared the way for his
future strains, when the anointing oil of Samuel descended
upon him, and he began to drink in special measure, from
that day forward, of the Spirit of the Lord. It was then
that, victorious at home over the mysterious melancholy of
Saul and in the held over the vaunting champion of the
Philistine hosts, he sang how from even babes and sucklings
God had ordained strength because of his enemies. Psal 8.
His next psalms are of a different character; his
persecutions at the hands of Saul had commenced. When
David's reign has begun, it is still with the most exciting
incidents of his history, private or public, that his psalms
are mainly associated...
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The psalms are the production of various authors. "Only a
portion of the Book of Psalms claims David as its
author. Other
inspired poets in successive generations added now
one now
another contribution to the sacred collection, and
thus in the
wisdom of Providence it more completely reflects
every phase of
human emotion and circumstances than it otherwise
could." But it
is specially to David and his contemporaries that we
owe this
precious book. In the "titles" of the psalms, the
genuineness of
which there is no sufficient reason to doubt, 73 are
ascribed to
David. Peter and John (Acts 4:25) ascribe to him
also the second
psalm, which is one of the 48 that are anonymous.
About
two-thirds of the whole collection have been
ascribed to David.
Psalms 39, 62, and 77 are addressed to Jeduthun, to
be sung
after his manner or in his choir. Psalms 50 and 73-
83 are
addressed to Asaph, as the master of his choir, to
be sung in
the worship of God. The "sons of Korah," who formed
a leading
part of the Kohathite singers (2 Chr. 20:19), were
intrusted
with the arranging and singing of Ps. 42, 44-49, 84,
85, 87, and
88.
In Luke 24:44 the word "psalms" means the
Hagiographa, i.e.,
the holy writings, one of the sections into which
the Jews
divided the Old Testament. (See BIBLE -T0000580.)
None of the psalms can be proved to have been of a
later date
than the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, hence the whole
collection
extends over a period of about 1,000 years. There
are in the New
Testament 116 direct quotations from the Psalter.
The Psalter is divided, after the analogy of the
Pentateuch,
into five books, each closing with a doxology or
benediction:
(1.) The first book comprises the first 41 psalms,
all of
which are ascribed to David except 1, 2, 10, and 33,
which,
though anonymous, may also be ascribed to him.
(2.) Book second consists of the next 31 psalms (42-
72), 18 of
which are ascribed to David and 1 to Solomon (the
72nd). The
rest are anonymous.
(3.) The third book contains 17 psalms (73-89), of
which the
86th is ascribed to David, the 88th to Heman the
Ezrahite, and
the 89th to Ethan the Ezrahite.
(4.) The fourth book also contains 17 psalms (90-
106), of
which the 90th is ascribed to Moses, and the 101st
and 103rd to
David.
(5.) The fifth book contains the remaining psalms,
44 in
number. Of these, 15 are ascribed to David, and the
127th to
Solomon.
Ps. 136 is generally called "the great hallel." But
the Talmud
includes also Ps. 120-135. Ps. 113-118, inclusive,
constitute
the "hallel" recited at the three great feasts, at
the new moon,
and on the eight days of the feast of dedication.
"It is presumed that these several collections were
made at
times of high religious life: the first, probably,
near the
close of David's life; the second in the days of
Solomon; the
third by the singers of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 20:19);
the fourth
by the men of Hezekiah (29, 30, 31); and the fifth
in the days
of Ezra."
The Mosaic ritual makes no provision for the service
of song
in the worship of God. David first taught the Church
to sing the
praises of the Lord. He first introduced into the
ritual of the
tabernacle music and song.
Divers names are given to the psalms. (1.) Some bear
the
Hebrew designation _shir_ (Gr. ode, a song).
Thirteen have this
title. It means the flow of speech, as it were, in a
straight
line or in a regular strain. This title includes
secular as well
as sacred song.
(2.) Fifty-eight psalms bear the designation (Heb.)
_mitsmor_
(Gr. psalmos, a psalm), a lyric ode, or a song set
to music; a
sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument.
(3.) Ps. 145, and many others, have the designation
(Heb.)
_tehillah_ (Gr. hymnos, a hymn), meaning a song of
praise; a
song the prominent thought of which is the praise of
God.
(4.) Six psalms (16, 56-60) have the title (Heb.)
_michtam_
(q.v.).
(5.) Ps. 7 and Hab. 3 bear the title (Heb.)
_shiggaion_
(q.v.).
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(See DAVID; POETRY.) The Hebrew designation tehillim,
"praises" or hymns," occurring only in the title of Psalm
145 and about 30 times in the body of the Psalms, applies
only to some not to all the psalms. The glorification of God
is the design of them all, even the penitentiary and
precatory psalms; but tehilliym applies strictly to praise
songs alone, tephillowt to the prayer songs; Psalm 17; Psalm
72 end, closing the second book of Psalms, Psalm 86; 90; 102
title. No one Hebrew title comprehends all.
The Greek Septuagint has given the title "Psalms" (from
psalloo "to play an instrument") applied to the whole
collection. The Hebrew mizmor designates 65 psalms; in the
Syriac version it comprises the whole (from zaamar "to
decorate"), psalms of artificial, adorned structure
(Hengstenberg). "A rhythmical composition" (Lowth).
"Psalms," the designation most applicable to the whole book,
means songs accompanied by an instrument, especially the
harp (1 Chronicles 16:4-9; 2 Chronicles 5:12-13). Shir, "a
joyful thanksgiving song," is prefixed only to some. The
various kinds are specified in Ephesians 5:19; "psalms
(accompanied by an instrument), hymns (indirect praise of
God), ... spiritual songs (joyous lyric pieces; contrast
Amos 8:10)."
TITLES. Their genuineness is confirmed by their antiquity
(which is proved by their being unintelligible to the
Septuagint translators of the Hebrew into Greek), and by
their presence in the greatest number of manuscripts, and in
fragments of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion. Their
obscurity and occasional want of connection with the psalm's
contents (as title Psalm 34) are incompatible with their
origination from forgers. The orientals, moreover, usually
prefix titles to poems (Habakkuk 3:1; Isaiah 38:9); so David
(2 Samuel 23:1). The enigmatical titles, found only in the
psalms of David and of David's singers, accord with Eastern
taste. They are too "poetical, spirited, and profound for
any later collector" (Hengstenberg). So David's "bow song"
(2 Samuel 1:18), his enigmatical designation for "the song
on him expert with the bow" (2 Samuel 1:22)...
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LITERATURE
The last book of the New Testament. It professes to be the
record of prophetic visions given by Jesus Christ to John,
while the latter was a prisoner, "for the word of God and
the testimony of Jesus" (Rev 1:9), in PATMOS (which see), a
small rocky island in the Aegean, about 15 miles West of
Ephesus. Its precursor in the Old Testament is the Book of
Dnl, with the symbolic visions and mystical numbers of which
it stands in close affinity. The peculiar form of the book,
its relation to other "apocalyptic" writings, and to the
Fourth Gospel, likewise attributed to John, the
interpretation of its symbols, with disputed questions of
its date, of worship, unity, relations to contemporary
history, etc., have made it one of the most difficult books
in the New Testament to explain satisfactorily.
I. Title and General Character of Book.
1. Title:
"Revelation" answers to apokalupsis, in Rev 1:1. The oldest
form of the title would seem to be simply, "Apocalypse of
John," the appended words "the divine" (theologos, i.e.
"theologian") not being older than the 4th century (compare
the title given to Gregory of Nazianzus, "Gregory
theologian"). The book belongs to the class of works
commonly named "apocalyptic," as containing visions and
revelations of the future, frequently in symbolical form
(e.g. the Book of Enoch, the Apocalypse of Bar, the
Apocalypse of Ezr; see APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE), but it is
doubtful if the word here bears this technical sense. The
tendency at present is to group the New Testament Apocalypse
with these others, and attribute to it the same kind of
origin as theirs, namely, in the unbridled play of religious
fantasy, clothing itself in unreal visional form...
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LITERATURE
I. The Nature of Revelation.
1. The Religion of the Bible the Only Supernatural Religion:
The religion of the Bible is a frankly supernatural
religion. By this is not meant merely that, according to it,
all men, as creatures, live, move and have their being in
God. It is meant that, according to it, God has intervened
extraordinarily, in the course of the sinful world's
development, for the salvation of men otherwise lost. In
Eden the Lord God had been present with sinless man in such
a sense as to form a distinct element in his social
environment (Gen 3:8). This intimate association was broken
up by the Fall. But God did not therefore withdraw Himself
from concernment with men. Rather, He began at once a series
of interventions in human history by means of which man
might be rescued from his sin and, despite it, brought to
the end destined for him. These interventions involved the
segregation of a people for Himself, by whom God should be
known, and whose distinction should be that God should be
"nigh unto them" as He was not to other nations (Dt 4:7; Ps
145:18). But this people was not permitted to imagine that
it owed its segregation to anything in itself fitted to
attract or determine the Divine preference; no consciousness
was more poignant in Israel than that Yahweh had chosen it,
not it Him, and that Yahweh's choice of it rested solely on
His gracious will. Nor was this people permitted to imagine
that it was for its own sake alone that it had been singled
out to be the sole recipient of the knowledge of Yahweh; it
was made clear from the beginning that God's mysteriously
gracious dealing with it had as its ultimate end the
blessing of the whole world (Gen 12:2,3; 17:4,5,6,16; 18:18;
22:18; compare Rom 4:13), the bringing together again of the
divided families of the earth under the glorious reign of
Yahweh, and the reversal of the curse under which the whole
world lay for its sin (Gen 12:3). Meanwhile, however, Yahweh
was known only in Israel. To Israel God showed His word and
made known His statutes and judgments, and after this
fashion He dealt with no other nation; and therefore none
other knew His judgments (Ps 147:19 f). Accordingly, when
the hope of Israel (who was also the desire of all nations)
came, His own lips unhesitatingly declared that the
salvation He brought, though of universal application, was
"from the Jews" (Jn 4:22). And the nations to which this
salvation had not been made known are declared by the chief
agent in its proclamation to them to be, meanwhile, "far
off," "having no hope" and "without God in the world" (Eph
2:12), because they were aliens from the commonwealth of
Israel and strangers from the covenant of the promise...
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III. The Modes of Revelation.
1. Modes of Revelation:
Theophany may be taken as the typical form of "external
manifestation"; but by its side may be ranged all of those
mighty works by which God makes Himself known, including
express miracles, no doubt, but along with them every
supernatural intervention in the affairs of men, by means of
which a better understanding is communicated of what God is
or what are His purposes of grace to a sinful race. Under
"internal suggestion" may be subsumed all the characteristic
phenomena of what is most properly spoken of as "prophecy":
visions and dreams, which, according to a fundamental
passage (Nu 12:6), constitute the typical forms of prophecy,
and with them the whole "prophetic word," which shares its
essential characteristic with visions and dreams, since it
comes not by the will of man but from God. By "concursive
operation" may be meant that form of revelation illustrated
in an inspired psalm or epistle or history, in which no
human activity--not even the control of the will--is
superseded, but the Holy Spirit works in, with and through
them all in such a manner as to communicate to the product
qualities distinctly superhuman. There is no age in the
history of the religion of the Bible, from that of Moses to
that of Christ and His apostles, in which all these modes of
revelation do not find place. One or another may seem
particularly characteristic of this age or of that; but they
all occur in every age. And they occur side by side, broadly
speaking, on the same level. No discrimination is drawn
between them in point of worthiness as modes of revelation,
and much less in point of purity in the revelations
communicated through them. The circumstance that God spoke
to Moses, not by dream or vision but mouth to mouth, is,
indeed, adverted to (Nu 12:8) as a proof of the peculiar
favor shown to Moses and even of the superior dignity of
Moses above other organs of revelation: God admitted him to
an intimacy of intercourse which He did not accord to
others. But though Moses was thus distinguished above all
others in the dealings of God with him, no distinction is
drawn between the revelations given through him and those
given through other organs of revelation in point either of
Divinity or of authority. And beyond this we have no
Scriptural warrant to go on in contrasting one mode of
revelation with another. Dreams may seem to us little fitted
to serve as vehicles of divine communications. But there is
no suggestion in Scripture that revelations through dreams
stand on a lower plane than any others; and we should not
fail to remember that the essential characteristics of
revelations through dreams are shared by all forms of
revelation in which (whether we should call them visions or
not) the images or ideas which fill, or pass in procession
through, the consciousness are determined by some other
power than the recipient's own will. It may seem natural to
suppose that revelations rise in rank in proportion to the
fullness of the engagement of the mental activity of the
recipient in their reception. But we should bear in mind
that the intellectual or spiritual quality of a revelation
is not derived from the recipient but from its Divine Giver.
The fundamental fact in all revelation is that it is from
God. This is what gives unity to the whole process of
revelation, given though it may be in divers portions and in
divers manners and distributed though it may be through the
ages in accordance with the mere will of God, or as it may
have suited His developing purpose--this and its unitary
end, which is ever the building up of the kingdom of God. In
whatever diversity of forms, by means of whatever variety of
modes, in whatever distinguishable stages it is given, it is
ever the revelation of the One God, and it is ever the one
consistently developing redemptive revelation of God...
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the last book of the New Testament. It is often called the
Apocalypse, which is its title in Greek, signifying
"Revelation,"
1. Canonical authority and authorship. --The inquiry
as to the canonical authority of the Revelation resolves
itself into a question of authorship. Was St. John the
apostle and evangelist the writer of the Revelation? The
evidence adduced in support of his being the author consists
of (1) the assertions of the author and (2) historical
tradition. (1) The author's description of himself in the
1st and 22d chapters is certainly equivalent to an assertion
that he is the apostle. He names himself simply John,
without prefix or addition. is also described as a servant
of Christ, one who had borne testimony as an eye-witness of
the word of God and of the testimony of Christ. He is in
Patmos for the word of God and the testimony of Jesus
Christ. He is also a fellow sufferer with those whom he
addresses, and the authorized channel of the most direct and
important communication that was ever made to the Seven
Churches of Asia, of which churches John the apostle was at
that time the spiritual governor and teacher. Lastly, the
writer was a fellow servant of angels and a brother of
prophets. All these marks are found united in the apostle
John, and in him alone of all historical persons. (2) A long
series of writers testify to St. John's authorship: Justin
Martyr (cir. 150 A.D.), Eusebius, Irenaeus (A.D. 195),
Clement of Alexandria (about 200), Tertullian (207), Origen
(233). All the foregoing writers, testifying that the book
came from an apostle, believed that it was a part of Holy
Scripture. The book was admitted into the list of the Third
Council of Carthage, A.D. 397.
2. Time and place of writing. --The date of the
Revelation is given by the great majority of critics as A.D.
95-97. Irenaeus says: "It (i.e. the Revelation) was seen no
very long time ago, but almost in our own generation, at the
close of Domitian's reign. Eusebius also records that, in
the persecution under Domitian, John the apostle and
evangelist was banished to the Island Patmos for his
testimony of the divine word. There is no mention in any
writer of the first three centuries of any other time or
place, and the style in which the messages to the Seven
Churches are delivered rather suggests the notion that the
book was written in Patmos.
3. Interpretation. --Modern interpreters are
generally placed in three great divisions: (a) The
Historical or Continuous exposition, in whose opinion the
Revelation is a progressive history of the fortunes of the
Church from the first century to the end of time. (b) The
Praeterist expositors, who are of opinion that the
Revelation has been almost or altogether fulfilled in the
time which has passed since it was written; that it refers
principally to the triumph of Christianity over Judaism and
Paganism, signalized in the downfall of Jerusalem and of
Rome. (c) The Futurist expositors, whose views show a strong
reaction against some extravagances of the two preceding
schools. They believe that the whole book, excepting perhaps
the first three chapters, refers principally, if not
exclusively, to events which are yet-to come. Dr.Arnold in
his sermons "On the Interpretation of Prophecy" suggests
that we should bear in mind that predictions have a lower
historical sense as well as a higher spiritual sense; that
there may be one or more than one typical, imperfect,
historical fulfillment of the prophecy, in each of which the
higher spiritual fulfillment is shadowed forth more or less
distinctly.
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The Apocalypse, the closing book and the only prophetical
book
of the New Testament canon. The author of this book
was
undoubtedly John the apostle. His name occurs four
times in the
book itself (1:1, 4, 9; 22:8), and there is every
reason to
conclude that the "John" here mentioned was the
apostle. In a
manuscript of about the twelfth century he is called
"John the
divine," but no reason can be assigned for this
appellation.
The date of the writing of this book has generally
been fixed
at A.D. 96, in the reign of Domitian. There are
some, however,
who contend for an earlier date, A.D. 68 or 69, in
the reign of
Nero. Those who are in favour of the later date
appeal to the
testimony of the Christian father Irenaeus, who
received
information relative to this book from those who had
seen John
face to face. He says that the Apocalypse "was seen
no long time
ago."
As to the relation between this book and the Gospel
of John,
it has been well observed that "the leading ideas of
both are
the same. The one gives us in a magnificent vision,
the other in
a great historic drama, the supreme conflict between
good and
evil and its issue. In both Jesus Christ is the
central figure,
whose victory through defeat is the issue of the
conflict. In
both the Jewish dispensation is the preparation for
the gospel,
and the warfare and triumph of the Christ is
described in
language saturated with the Old Testament. The
difference of
date will go a long way toward explaining the
difference of
style." Plummer's Gospel of St. John, Introd.
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Authorship and authenticity. The writer calls himself John
(Revelation 1:1; Revelation 1:4; Revelation 1:9; Revelation
22:8). Justin Martyr (Dial. 308, A.D. 139-161) quotes it as
the apostle John's work, referring to the millennium and
general resurrection and judgment. Justin held his
controversy with the learned Jew Trypho at Ephesus, John's
residence 35 years previously; he says "the Revelation was
given to John, one of the twelve apostles of Christ."
Melito, bishop of Sardis (A.D. 171), one of the seven
churches whose angel was reproved (Revelation 3:1), is said
by Eusebius (H.E. iv. 26) to have written on the Revelation
of John. So, Theophilus of Antioch (A.D. 180) quoted from
the Revelation of John (Eusebius iv. 26), also Apollonius of
Asia Minor in the end of the second century. Irenaeus (A.D.
195), a hearer of Polycarp (John's disciple, probably the
angel of the Smyrnean church, Usher), quotes repeatedly
Revelation as the apostle John's writing (Haer. iv. 20,
section 11; 21, section 3; 30, section 4; 5:26, section 1;
30, section 3; 35, section 2).
In v. 30, section 1 he quotes the beast's number 666
(Revelation 13:18) as in all the old copies, and orally
confirmed to him by persons who had seen John, adding "we do
not hazard a confident theory as to Antichrist's name, for
if it had been necessary that his name should be proclaimed
openly at this present time it would have been declared by
him who saw the apocalyptic vision, for it was seen not long
ago, but almost in our generation, toward the end of
Domitian's reign." In writing "against heresies" ten years
after Polycarp's martyrdom he quotes Revelation 20 times as
inspired Scripture. These are testimonies of those
contemporary with John's immediate successors, and connected
with the region of the seven churches to which Revelation is
addressed. Tertullian of northern Africa (A.D. 220, Adv.
Marcion iii. 14, 24) quotes the apostle John's description
of the sword proceeding out of Christ's mouth (Revelation
19:15), and the heavenly city (Revelation 21). See also De
Resurr. 27; De Anima 8:9; De Praescr. Haeretic, 33...
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LITERATURE
This is the greatest, in every sense, of the apostolic
letters of Paul; in scale, in scope, and in its wonderful
combination of doctrinal, ethical and administrative wisdom
and power. In some respects the later Epistles, Ephesians
and Colossians, lead us to even higher and deeper arcana of
revelation, and they, like Romans, combine with the
exposition of truth a luminous doctrine of duty. But the
range of Roman is larger in both directions, and presents us
also with noble and far-reaching discussions of Christian
polity, instructions in spiritual utterance and the like, to
which those Epistles present no parallel, and which only the
Corinthian Epistles rival.
1. Its Genuineness:
No suspicion on the head of the genuineness of the Epistle
exists which needs serious consideration. Signs of the
influence of the Epistle can be traced, at least very
probably, in the New Testament itself; in 1 Peter, and, as
some think, in James. But in our opinion Jas was the earlier
writing, and Lightfoot has given strong grounds for the
belief that the paragraph on faith and justification (Jas 2)
has no reference to perversions of Pauline teaching, but
deals with rabbinism. Clement of Rome repeatedly quotes
Romans, and so do Ignatius, Polycarp, Justin. Marcion
includes it in his list of Pauline Epistles, and it is safe
to say in general Romans "has been recognized in the
Christian church as long as any collection of Paul's
Epistles has been extant" (A. Robertson, in HDB, under the
word). But above all other evidences it testifies to itself.
The fabrication of such a writing, with its close and
complex thought, its power and marked originality of
treatment, its noble morale, and its spiritual elevation and
ardor, is nothing short of a moral impossibility. A mighty
mind and equally great heart live in every page, and a soul
exquisitely sensitive and always intent upon truth and
holiness. Literary personation is an art which has come to
anything like maturity only in modern times, certainly not
before the Renaissance. In a fully developed form it is
hardly earlier than the 19th century. And even now who can
point to a consciously personated authorship going along
with high moral principle and purpose?...
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1. The date of this epistle is fixed at the time of the
visit recorded in Acts 20:3 during the winter and spring
following the apostle's long residence at Ephesus A.D. 58.
On this visit he remained in Greece three months.
2. The place of writing was Corinth.
3. The occasion which prompted it,,and the
circumstances attending its writing, were as follows:--St.
Paul had long purposed visiting Rome, and still retained
this purpose, wishing also to extend his journey to Spain.
Etom. 1:9-13; 15:22-29. For the time, however, he was
prevented from carrying out his design, as he was bound for
Jerusalem with the alms of the Gentile Christians, and
meanwhile he addressed this letter to the Romans, to supply
the lack of his personal teaching. Phoebe, a deaconess of
the neighboring church of Cenchreae, was on the point of
starting for Rome, ch. Ro 16:1,2 and probably conveyed the
letter. The body of the epistle was written at the apostle's
dictation by Tertius, ch. Ro 16:22 but perhaps we may infer,
from the abruptness of the final doxology, that it was added
by the apostle himself.
4. The origin of the Roman church is involved in
obscurity. If it had been founded by St. Peter according to
a later tradition, the absence of any allusion to him both
in this epistle and in the letters written by St. Paul from
Rome would admit of no explanation. It is equally clear that
no other apostle was like founder. The statement in the
Clementines --that the first tidings of the gospel reached
Rome during the lifetime of our Lord is evidently a fiction
for the purposes of the romance. On the other hand, it is
clear that the foundation of this church dates very far
back. It may be that some of these Romans, "both Jews and
proselytes," present. On the day of Pentecost Ac 2:10
carried back the earliest tidings of the new doctrine; or
the gospel may have first reached the imperial city through
those who were scattered abroad to escape the persecution
which followed on the death of Stephen. Ac 8:4; 11:10 At
first we may suppose that the gospel had preached there in a
confused and imperfect form, scarcely more than a phase of
Judaism, as in the case of Apollos at Corinth, Ac 18:25 or
the disciples at Ephesus. Ac 19:1-3 As time advanced and
better-instructed teachers arrived the clouds would
gradually clear away, fill at length the presence of the
great apostle himself at Rome dispersed the mists of Judaism
which still hung about the Roman church.
5. A question next arises as to the composition of
the Roman church at the time when St. Paul wrote. It is more
probable that St. Paul addressed a mixed church of Jews and
Gentiles, the latter perhaps being the more numerous. These
Gentile converts, however, were not for the most part native
Romans. Strange as the: paradox appears, nothing is more
certain than that the church of Rome was at this time a
Greek and not a Latin church. All the literature of the
early Roman church was written in the Greek tongue.
6. The heterogeneous composition of this church
explains the general character of the Epistle to the Romans.
In an assemblage so various we should expect to find, not
the exclusive predominance of a single form of error, but
the coincidence of different and opposing forms. It was:
therefore the business of the Christian teacher to reconcile
the opposing difficulties and to hold out a meeting-point in
the gospel. This is exactly what St. Paul does in the
Epistle to the Romans.
7. In describing the purport of this epistle we may
start from St. Paul's own words, which, standing at the
beginning of the doctrinal portion, may be taken as giving a
summary of the contents. ch. Ro 1:16,17 Accordingly the
epistle has been described as comprising "the religious
philosophy of the world's history "The atonement of Christ
is the centre of religious history. The epistle, from its
general character, lends itself more readily to an analysis
than is often the case with St. Paul's epistles. While this
epistle contains the fullest and most systematic exposition
of the apostle's teaching, it is at the same time a very
striking expression of his character. Nowhere do his earnest
and affectionate nature and his tact and delicacy in
handling unwelcome topics appear more strongly than when he
is dealing with the rejection of his fellow country men the
Jews. Internal evidence is so strongly in favor of the
genuineness of the Epistle to the Romans that it has never
been seriously questioned.
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This epistle was probably written at Corinth. Phoebe (Rom.
16:1)
of Cenchrea conveyed it to Rome, and Gaius of
Corinth
entertained the apostle at the time of his writing
it (16:23; 1
Cor. 1:14), and Erastus was chamberlain of the city,
i.e., of
Corinth (2 Tim. 4:20).
The precise time at which it was written is not
mentioned in
the epistle, but it was obviously written when the
apostle was
about to "go unto Jerusalem to minister unto the
saints", i.e.,
at the close of his second visit to Greece, during
the winter
preceding his last visit to that city (Rom. 15:25;
comp. Acts
19:21; 20:2, 3, 16; 1 Cor. 16:1-4), early in A.D.
58.
It is highly probable that Christianity was planted
in Rome by
some of those who had been at Jerusalem on the day
of Pentecost
(Acts 2:10). At this time the Jews were very
numerous in Rome,
and their synagogues were probably resorted to by
Romans also,
who in this way became acquainted with the great
facts regarding
Jesus as these were reported among the Jews. Thus a
church
composed of both Jews and Gentiles was formed at
Rome. Many of
the brethren went out to meet Paul on his approach
to Rome.
There are evidences that Christians were then in
Rome in
considerable numbers, and had probably more than one
place of
meeting (Rom. 16:14, 15).
The object of the apostle in writing to this church
was to
explain to them the great doctrines of the gospel.
His epistle
was a "word in season." Himself deeply impressed
with a sense of
the value of the doctrines of salvation, he opens up
in a clear
and connected form the whole system of the gospel in
its
relation both to Jew and Gentile. This epistle is
peculiar in
this, that it is a systematic exposition of the
gospel of
universal application. The subject is here treated
argumentatively, and is a plea for Gentiles
addressed to Jews.
In the Epistle to the Galatians, the same subject is
discussed,
but there the apostle pleads his own authority,
because the
church in Galatia had been founded by him.
After the introduction (1:1-15), the apostle
presents in it
divers aspects and relations the doctrine of
justification by
faith (1:16-11:36) on the ground of the imputed
righteousness of
Christ. He shows that salvation is all of grace, and
only of
grace. This main section of his letter is followed
by various
practical exhortations (12:1-15:13), which are
followed by a
conclusion containing personal explanations and
salutations,
which contain the names of twenty-four Christians at
Rome, a
benediction, and a doxology (Rom. 15:14-ch. 16).
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AUTHENTICITY, GENUINENESS. Peter (2 Peter 3:15-16) quotes
Romans 2:4, calling it "Scripture." The epistles of Clement
(Cor. 35) and Polycarp (ad Philippians 6) quote respectively
Romans 1:29-32 and Romans 14:10-12. Irenaeus (iv. 27,
section 2) quotes it as Paul's (Romans 4:10-11). Melito's
"Hearing of Faith" is entitled from Romans 10 or Galatians
3:2-3. The Muratorian Canon, Syriac and Old Latin versions,
have it. Heretics admitted its canonicity; so the Ophites
(Hippol. Haer. 99; Romans 1:20-26); Basilides (238, Romans
8:19-22; Romans 5:13-14); Valentinus (195, Romans 8:11); the
Valentinians Heracleon and Ptolemaeus; Tatian (Orat. 4,
Romans 1:20), and Marcion's canon. The epistle of the
churches of Vienne and Lyons (Eusebius, H. E. v. 1; Romans
8:18); Athenagoras (13, Romans 12:1; Romans 12:37; Romans
1:24); Theophilus of Antioch (Autol. 79, Romans 2:6; Romans
2:126; Romans 13:7-8). Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement of
Alexandria often quote it.
DATE AND PLACE OF WRITING. Paul wrote while at
Corinth, for he commends to the Romans Phoebe, deaconess of
Cenchreae, the port of Corinth (Romans 16:1-2). He was
lodging at Gaius' house (Romans 16:23), a chief member of
the Corinthian church (1 Corinthians 1:14). Erastus,
"treasurer" ("chamberlain", KJV), belonged to Corinth (2
Timothy 4:20; Acts 19:22). The time was during his visit in
the winter and spring following his long stay at Ephesus
(Romans 20:3); for he was just about to carry the
contributions of Macedonia and Achaia to Jerusalem (Romans
15:25-27; compare Acts 20:22), just after his stay at
Corinth at this time (Acts 24:17; 1 Corinthians 16:4; 2
Corinthians 8:1-2; 2 Corinthians 9:1, etc.). His design of
visiting Rome after Jerusalem (Romans 15:23-25) at this
particular time appears incidentally from Acts 19:21. Thus,
Paul wrote it in his third missionary journey, at the second
of the two visas to Corinth recorded in Acts. He remained
then three months in Greece.
He was on the point of sailing to Jerusalem when
obliged to alter his purpose; the sea therefore was by this
time navigable. It was not late in the spring, for, after
passing through Macedon and visiting the coast of Asia
Minor, he still expected to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost
(Acts 20:16). He must therefore have written the epistle to
the Romans early in spring, A.D. 58. Thus, it is logically
connected with the epistles to the Galatians and
Corinthians. He wrote 1 Corinthians before leaving Ephesus;
2 Corinthians on his way to Corinth; and Galatians at
Corinth, where also he wrote Romans. Hence, the resemblance
of these two epistles in style and substance. The epistle to
the Galatians and the two almost contemporaneous epistles to
the Corinthians are the most intense in feeling and varied
in expression of Paul's epistles...
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1. Order in the Canon:
The place which the Book of Ruth occupies in the order of
the books of the English Bible is not that of the Hebrew
Canon. There it is one of the five meghilloth or Rolls,
which were ordered to be read in the synagogue on 5 special
occasions or festivals during the year.
In printed editions of the Old Testament the megilloth are
usually arranged in the order: Cant, Ruth, Lamentations,
Ecclesiates, Esther. Ruth occupied the second position
because the book was appointed to be read at the Feast of
Weeks which was the second of the 5 special days. In Hebrew
manuscripts, however, the order varies considerably. In
Spanish manuscripts generally, and in one at least of the
German school cited by Dr. Ginsburg (Introduction to the
Hebrew Bible, London, 1897, 4), Ruth precedes Cant; and in
the former Ecclesiastes is placed before Lamentations. The
meghilloth constitute the second portion of the kethubhim or
Haigographa, the third great division of the books of the
Hebrew Scriptures. The Talmud, however, dissociates Ruth
altogether from the remaining meghilloth, and places it
first among the Hagiographa, before the Book of Psalms. By
the Greek translators the book was removed from the position
which it held in the Hebrew Canon, and because it described
events contemporaneous with the Judges, was attached as a
kind of appendix to the latter work. This sequence was
adopted in the Vulgate, and so has passed into all modern
Bibles...
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rooth (ruth; Rhouth): The name Ruth is found in the Old
Testament only in the book which is so entitled. It is a
contraction for re'uth perhaps signifying "comrade,"
"companion" (feminine; compare Ex 11:2, "every woman of her
neighbor"). OHL, 946, explains the word as an abstract noun
= "friendship." The Book of Ruth details the history of the
one decisive episode owing to which Ruth became an
ancestress of David and of the royal house of Judah. From
this point of view its peculiar interest lies in the close
friendship or alliance between Israel and Moab, which
rendered such a connection possible. Not improbably also
there is an allusion to this in the name itself.
1. History:
The history lies in the period of the Judges (Ruth 1:1), at
the close of a great famine in the land of Israel.
Elimelech, a native of Bethlehem, had, with his wife Naomi
and two sons, taken refuge in Moab from the famine. There,
after an interval of time which is not more precisely
defined, he died (Ruth 1:3), and his two sons, having
married women of Moab, in the course of a further ten years
also died, and left Orpah and Ruth widows (Ruth 1:5). Naomi
then decided to return to Israel, and her two daughters-in-
law accompanied her on her way (Ruth 1:7). Orpah, however,
turned back and only Ruth remained with Naomi, journeying
with her to Bethlehem, where they arrived "in the beginning
of barley harvest" (Ruth 1:22). The piety and fidelity of
Ruth are thus early exhibited in the course of the
narrative, in that she refused to abandon her mother-in-law,
although thrice exhorted to do so by Naomi herself, on
account of her own great age and the better prospects for
Ruth in her own country. Orpah yielded to persuasion, and
returned to Moab; but Ruth remained with Naomi.
At Bethlehem Ruth employed herself in gleaning in the field
during the harvest and was noticed by Boaz, the owner of the
field, a near kinsman of her father-in-law Elimelech. Boaz
gave her permission to glean as long as the harvest
continued; and told her that he had heard of her filial
conduct toward her mother-in-law. Moreover, he directed the
reapers to make intentional provision for her by dropping in
her way grain from their bundles (Ruth 2:15 f). She was thus
able to return to Naomi in the evening with a whole ephah of
barley (Ruth 2:17). In answer to questioning she explained
that her success in gleaning was due to the good-will of
Boaz, and the orders that he had given. She remained
accordingly and gleaned with his maidens throughout the
barley and wheat harvest, making her home with her mother-
in-law (Ruth 2:23). Naomi was anxious for the remarriage of
Ruth, both for her sake and to secure compliance with the
usage and law of Israel; and sent her to Boaz to recall to
him his duty as near kinsman of her late husband Elimelech
(Ruth 3:1 f). Boaz acknowledged the claim and promised to
take Ruth in marriage, failing fulfillment of the legal duty
of another whose relationship was nearer than that of Boaz
himself (Ruth 3:8-13). Naomi was confident that Boaz would
fulfill his promise, and advised Ruth to wait in patience...
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contains the history of Ruth, as narrated in the preceding
article. The main object of the writer is evidently to give an
account of David's ancestors; and the book was avowedly
composed long after the time of the heroine. See Ru 1:1;
4:7,17 Its date and author are quite uncertain. Tradition is
in favor of Samuel. It is probable that the books of Judges,
Ruth, Samuel and Kings originally formed but one work. The
book of Ruth clearly forms part of the books of Samuel,
supplying as it does the essential point of David's genealogy
and early family history, and is no less clearly connected
with the book of Judges by its opening verse and the epoch to
which the whole book relates.
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(a female friend) a Moabitish woman, the wife, first of
Mahlon, second of Boaz, the ancestress of David and
Christ,and one of the four women who are named by St.
Matthew in the genealogy of Christ. A severe famine in the
land of Judah induced Elimelech, a native of Bethlehem --
ephratah, to emigrate into the land of Moab, with his wife
Naomi, and his two sons, Mahlon and Chilion. This was
probably about the time of Gideon, B.C. 1250. At the end of
ten years Naomi now left a widow and childless, having heard
that there was plenty again in Judah, resolved to return to
Bethlehem, and her daughter-in-law Ruth returned with her.
They arrived at Bethlehem just at the beginning of barley
harvest, and Ruth, going out to glean, chanced to go into
the field of wheat, a wealthy man and a near kinsman of her
father-in-law, Elimelech. Upon learning who the stranger
was, Boaz treated her with the utmost kindness and respect,
and sent her home laden with corn which she had gleaned.
Encouraged by this incident, Naomi instructed Ruth to claim
at the hand of Boaz that he should perform the part of her
husband's near kinsman, by purchasing the inheritance of
Elimelech and taking her to be his wife. With all due
solemnity, Boaz took Ruth to be his wife, amidst the
blessings and congratulations of their neighbors. Their son,
Obed, was 'the father of Jesse, who was the father of David.
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was originally a part of the Book of Judges, but it now
forms
one of the twenty-four separate books of the Hebrew
Bible.
The history it contains refers to a period perhaps
about one
hundred and twenty-six years before the birth of
David. It gives
(1) an account of Naomi's going to Moab with her
husband,
Elimelech, and of her subsequent return to Bethlehem
with her
daughter-in-law; (2) the marriage of Boaz and Ruth;
and (3) the
birth of Obed, of whom David sprang.
The author of this book was probably Samuel,
according to
Jewish tradition.
"Brief as this book is, and simple as is its story,
it is
remarkably rich in examples of faith, patience,
industry, and
kindness, nor less so in indications of the care
which God takes
of those who put their trust in him."
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a friend, a Moabitess, the wife of Mahlon, whose father,
Elimelech, had settled in the land of Moab. On the
death of
Elimelech and Mahlon, Naomi came with Ruth, her
daughter-in-law,
who refused to leave her, to Bethlehem, the old home
from which
Elimelech had migrated. There she had a rich
relative, Boaz, to
whom Ruth was eventually married. She became the
mother of Obed,
the grandfather of David. Thus Ruth, a Gentile, is
among the
maternal progenitors of our Lord (Matt. 1:5). The
story of "the
gleaner Ruth illustrates the friendly relations
between the good
Boaz and his reapers, the Jewish land system, the
method of
transferring property from one person to another,
the working of
the Mosaic law for the relief of distressed and
ruined families;
but, above all, handing down the unselfishness, the
brave love,
the unshaken trustfulness of her who, though not of
the chosen
race, was, like the Canaanitess Tamar (Gen. 38:29;
Matt. 1:3)
and the Canaanitess Rahab (Matt. 1:5), privileged to
become the
ancestress of David, and so of 'great David's
greater Son'"
(Ruth 4:18-22).
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From Reuth, feminine of Reu, "friend." In beautiful contrast
to Judges' end in internecine bloodshed, the book of Ruth is
a picture of a peaceful, virtuous, filial obedience, and the
rich reward of choosing the Lord at the sacrifice of all
else. Orpah's end is shrouded in darkness, while Ruth is
remembered to all generations as chosen ancestress of
Messiah. Boaz' name is immoralized by linking himself with
the poor Moabitess, while the kinsman who would not mar his
own inheritance is unknown. Goethe said of this book, "we
have nothing so lovely in the whole range of epic and
idyllic poetry." Ruth is an instance of natural affection
made instrumental in leading to true religion. A "blossom of
pagandom stretching its flower cup desiringly toward the
light of revelation in Israel."
OBJECT. In Rth 4:18-22 the author shows his aim,
namely, to give a biographical sketch of the pious ancestors
of David the king. The book contains the inner and spiritual
background of the genealogies so prominent in Scripture. The
family life of David's ancestors is sketched to show how
they walked in single hearted piety toward God, and justice
and love, modesty and purity towards man. "Ruth the Moabite,
great-greatgrandmother of David, longed for the God and
people of Israel with all the deepest earnestness of her
nature, and joined herself to them with all the power of
love. Boaz was an Israelite without guile, full of holy
reverence for every ordinance of God and man, and full of
benevolent love and friendliness toward the poor pagan
woman. From such ancestors was the man descended in whom all
the nature of Israel was to find its royal concentration and
fullest expression." (Auberlen)...
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LITERATURE
The full title in Hebrew is "The Song of Songs, which is
Solomon's." The book is called by some Canticles, and by
others Solomon's Song. The Hebrew title implies that it is
the choicest of all songs, in keeping with the dictum of
Rabbi `Aqiba (90-135 AD) that "the entire world, from the
beginning until now, does not outweigh the day in which
Canticles was given to Israel."
I. Canonicity.
Early Jewish and Christian writers are silent as to the Song
of Songs. No use is made of it by Philo. There is no
quotation from it in the New Testament, nor is there any
clear allusion to it on the part of our Lord or the
apostles. The earliest distinct references to the Song of
Songs are found in Jewish writings of the 1st and 2nd
centuries AD (4 Esdras 5:24,26; 7:26; Ta`anith 4:8). The
question of the canonicity of the Song was debated as late
as the Synod of Jamnia (circa 90 AD), when it was decided
that Canticles was rightly reckoned to "defile the hands,"
i.e. was an inspired book. It should be borne in mind that
the Song of Songs was already esteemed by the Jews as a
sacred book, though prior to the Synod of Jamnia there was
probably a goodly number of Jewish teachers who did not
accept it as canonical. Selections from Canticles were sung
at certain festivals in the temple at Jerusalem, prior to
its destruction by Titus in 70 AD (Ta`anith 4:8). The Mishna
pronounces an anathema on all who treat Canticles as a
secular song (Sanhedhrin, 101a). The latest date for the
composition of the Song of Songs, according to critics of
the advanced school, is toward the close of the 3rd century
BC. We may be sure that it was included in the Kethubhim
before the ministry of our Lord, and so was for Him a part
of the Scriptures.
II. Text.
Most scholars regard the text of Canticles as comparatively
free from corruption. Gratz, Bickell, Budde and Cheyne have
suggested a good many emendations of the traditional text, a
few of which commend themselves as probable corrections of a
faulty text, but most of which are mere guesses without
sufficient confirmation from either external or internal
evidence. For details see Budde's able commentary, and
articles by Cheyne in JQR and Expository Times for 1898-99
and in the The Expositor, February, 1899...
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(Song of Songs), entitled in the Authorized Version THE
SONG OF SOLOMON. It was probably written by Solomon about
B.C. 1012. It may be called a drama, as it contains the
dramatic evolution of a simple love-story. Meaning.-- The
schools of interpretation may be divided into three: the
mystical or typical, the allegorical, and the literal.
1. The mystical interpretation owes its origin to
the desire to find a literal basis of fact for the
allegorical. This basis is either the marriage of Solomon
with Pharoah's daughter or his marriage with an Israelitish
woman, the Shulamite.
2. The allegorical. According to the Talmud the
beloved is taken to be God; the loved one, or bride, is the
congregation of Israel. In the Christian Church the
Talmudical interpretation, imported by Origen, was all but
universally received.
3. The literal interpretation. According to the most
generally-received interpretation of the modern literalists,
the Song is intended to display the victory of humble and
constant love over the temptations of wealth and royalty.
Canonicity.-- The book has been rejected from the Canon by
some critics; but in no case has its rejection been defended
on external grounds. It is found in the LXX. and in the
translations of Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion. It is
contained in the catalog given in the Talmud,a nd in the
catalogue of Melito; and in short we have the same evidence
for its canonicity as that which is commonly adduced for the
canonicity of any book of the Old Testament.
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called also, after the Vulgate, the "Canticles." It is the
"song
of songs" (1:1), as being the finest and most
precious of its
kind; the noblest song, "das Hohelied," as Luther
calls it. The
Solomonic authorship of this book has been called in
question,
but evidences, both internal and external, fairly
establish the
traditional view that it is the product of Solomon's
pen. It is
an allegorical poem setting forth the mutual love of
Christ and
the Church, under the emblem of the bridegroom and
the bride.
(Compare Matt. 9:15; John 3:29; Eph. 5:23, 27, 29;
Rev. 19:7-9;
21:2, 9; 22:17. Compare also Ps. 45; Isa. 54:4-6;
62:4, 5; Jer.
2:2; 3:1, 20; Ezek. 16; Hos. 2:16, 19, 20.)
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Shlomoh in Hebrew. Second child of David by Bathsheba.
Josephus makes Solomon last born of David's sons (Ant. 7:14,
section 2). His history is contained in 2 Samuel 12:24-25; 1
Chronicles 22:6-16; 1 Chronicles 22:1 Kings 1-11; 2
Chronicles 1-9. The leading events of his life were
selected, under inspiration: namely, his grandeur, extensive
commerce, and wisdom, etc. (1 Kings 9:10-10:29), from "the
book of the Acts of Solomon"; his accession and dedication
of the temple (1 Kings 1 - 1 Kings 8:66) from "the book of
Nathan the prophet"; his idolatry and its penal consequences
(1 Kings 11) from "the book of Ahijah the Shilonite and the
visions of Iddo the seer." Psalm 72 was his production under
the Spirit. Its objective character accords with Solomon's
other writings, whereas subjective feeling characterizes
David's psalms. Solomon's glorious and wide kingdom typifies
Messiah's. The Nile, Mediterranean, and Euphrates, were then
Israel's bounds (1 Kings 4:21; 2 Chronicles 9:26) as
promised in Genesis 15:18; Deuteronomy 11:24.
From thence Messiah is to reign to the ends of the
earth (Deuteronomy 11:8; Isaiah 9:5-6; Isaiah 11; Zechariah
9:10; see Micah 5:4; Numbers 24:19). "The song of degrees,"
i.e. for Israelites going up to the great feasts at
Jerusalem (Psalm 127), was also Solomon's. It has no trace
of the sadness which pervades "the songs of degrees" without
titles, and which accords with the post captivity period.
The individual comes into prominence here, whereas they
speak more of the nation and church. The theme suits Solomon
who occupied chiefly the domestic civic territory. The main
thought answers to Proverbs 10:22, "so God giveth His
beloved sleep," i.e. undisturbed repose and wealth without
the anxieties of the worldly, in a way they know not how
(Mark 4:27). So God gave to His beloved S. in sleep
(Hengstenberg supplies "in"); Matthew 6:25; Matthew 6:34.
Jedidiah ("beloved of Jehovah," Psalm 127:2) was his God-
given name (Psalm 60:5). Solomon evidently refers (Psalm
60:2) to his own experience (1 Kings 3:5-13; 1 Kings 4:20-
25), yet in so unstudied a way that the coincidence is
evidently undesigned, and so confirms the authenticity of
both psalm and independent history. (See PROVERBS;
CANTICLES, THE SONG OF SOLOMON; ECCLESIASTES, THE BOOK
OF.)...
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LITERATURE
I. Early Life.
Solomon was the son of David and Bath-sheba, and became the
3rd king of Israel.
1. Name and Meaning:
He was so named by his mother (2 Sam 12:24, Qere; see TEXT
AND MANUSCRIPTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT; TEXT OF THE OLD
TESTAMENT), but by the prophet Nathan, or by his father
(Vulgate), he was called Jedidiah--"loved of Yahweh." The
name "Solomon" is derived from the root meaning "to be
quiet" or "peaceful," and Solomon was certainly the least
warlike of all the kings of Israel or Judah, and in that
respect a remarkable contrast to his father (so 1 Ch 22:9).
His name in Hebrew compares with Irenaeus in Greek,
Friedrich in German, and Selim in Arabic; but it has been
suggested that the name should be pronounced shillumah, from
the word denoting "compensation," Bath-sheba's second son
being given in compensation for the loss of the first (but
see 3, below).
2. Sources:
The oldest sources for the biography of Solomon are
doubtless the "Annals of Solomon" referred to in 1 Ki 11:41,
the "history of Nathan the prophet," the "prophecy of Ahijah
the Shilonite" and the "visions of Iddo the seer," mentioned
in 2 Ch 9:29, all which may be merely the relative sections
of the great book of the "Annals of the Kings" from which
our Books of Kings and Chronicles are both derived. These
ancient works are, of course, lost to us save in so far as
they have been embodied in the Old Testament narrative.
There the life of South is contained in 2 Sam 12:24 f; 1 Ki
1 through 11; 1 Ch 22 through 2 Ch 9. Of these sources 2 Sam
12:24 f and 1 Ki 1; 2 are much the oldest and in fact form
part of one document, 2 Sam 9 through 20; 1 Ki 1; 2 dealing
with the domestic affairs of David, which may well be
contemporary with the events it describes. The date of the
composition of the Books of Chronicles is about 300 BC--700
years after the time of Solomon--and the date of the Books
of Kings, as a completed work, must, of course, be later
than the exile. Nothing of importance is gained from
citations from early historians in Josephus and later
writers. Far and away the best source for, at least, the
inner life of Solomon would be the writings ascribed to him
in the Old Testament, could we be sure that these were
genuine (see below)...
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(peaceful). I. Early life and occasion to the throne. --
Solomon was the child of David's old age, the last born of
all his sons. 1Ch 3:5 The yearnings of the "man of war" led
him to give to the new-horn infant the name of Solomon
(Shelomoth, the peaceful one). Nathan, with a marked
reference to the meaning of the king's own name (David, the
darling, the beloved one), calls the infant Jedidiah
(Jedid'yah), that is, the darling of the Lord. 2Sa 11:24,25
He was placed under the care of Nathan from his earliest
infancy. At first, apparently, there was no distinct purpose
to make him the heir. Absalom was still the king's favorite
son, 2Sa 13:37; 18:33 and was looked on by the people as the
destined successor. 2Sa 14:13; 15:1-6 The death of Absalom
when Solomon was about ten years old left the place vacant,
and David pledged his word in secret to Bath-sheba that he,
and no other, should be the heir. 1Ki 1:13 The words which
were spoken somewhat later express, doubtless, the purpose
which guided him throughout. 1Ch 28:9, 20 His son's life
should not he as his own had been, one of hardships and
wars, dark crimes and passionate repentance, but, from first
to last, be pure, blameless, peaceful, fulfilling the ideal
of glory and of righteousness after which he himself had
vainly striven. The glorious visions of Ps 72:1 ... may be
looked on as the prophetic expansion of these hopes of his
old age. So far,all was well. Apparently his influence over
his son's character was one exclusively for good. Nothing
that we know of Bath-sheba lends us to think of her as
likely to mould her son's mind and heart to the higher forms
of goodness. Under these influences the boy grew up. At the
age of ten or eleven he must have passed through the revolt
of Absalom, and shared his father's exile. 2Sa 15:16 He
would be taught all that priests or Levites or prophets had
to teach. When David was old and feeble, Adonijah, Solomon's
older brother attempted to gain possession of the throne;
but he was defeated, and Solomon went down to Gihon and was
proclaimed and anointed king. A few months more and Solomon
found himself, by his father's death, the sole occupant of
the throne. The position to which he succeeded was unique.
Never before, and never after, did the kingdom of Israel
take its place among the great monarchies of the East. Large
treasures, accumulated through many years, were at his
disposal. II. Personal appearance. --Of Solomon's personal
appearance we have no direct description, as we have of the
earlier kings. There are, however, materials for filling up
the gap...
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peaceful, (Heb. Shelomoh), David's second son by Bathsheba,
i.e., the first after their legal marriage (2 Sam.
12). He was
probably born about B.C. 1035 (1 Chr. 22:5; 29:1).
He succeeded
his father on the throne in early manhood, probably
about
sixteen or eighteen years of age. Nathan, to whom
his education
was intrusted, called him Jedidiah, i.e., "beloved
of the Lord"
(2 Sam. 12:24, 25). He was the first king of Israel
"born in the
purple." His father chose him as his successor,
passing over the
claims of his elder sons: "Assuredly Solomon my son
shall reign
after me." His history is recorded in 1 Kings 1-11
and 2 Chr.
1-9. His elevation to the throne took place before
his father's
death, and was hastened on mainly by Nathan and
Bathsheba, in
consequence of the rebellion of Adonijah (1 Kings
1:5-40).
During his long reign of forty years the Hebrew
monarchy gained
its highest splendour. This period has well been
called the
"Augustan age" of the Jewish annals. The first half
of his reign
was, however, by far the brighter and more
prosperous; the
latter half was clouded by the idolatries into which
he fell,
mainly from his heathen intermarriages (1 Kings
11:1-8; 14:21,
31).
Before his death David gave parting instructions to
his son (1
Kings 2:1-9; 1 Chr. 22:7-16; 28). As soon as he had
settled
himself in his kingdom, and arranged the affairs of
his
extensive empire, he entered into an alliance with
Egypt by the
marriage of the daughter of Pharaoh (1 Kings 3:1),
of whom,
however, nothing further is recorded. He surrounded
himself with
all the luxuries and the external grandeur of an
Eastern
monarch, and his government prospered. He entered
into an
alliance with Hiram, king of Tyre, who in many ways
greatly
assisted him in his numerous undertakings. (See
HIRAM
For some years before his death David was engaged in
the
active work of collecting materials (1 Chr. 29:6-9;
2 Chr.
2:3-7) for building a temple in Jerusalem as a
permanent abode
for the ark of the covenant. He was not permitted to
build the
house of God (1 Chr. 22:8); that honour was reserved
to his son
Solomon. (See TEMPLE -T0003610.)...
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TITUS or TITIUS JUSTUS
(Titos or Titios Ioustos (Acts 18:7)): Titus or Titius--for
the manuscripts vary in regard to the spelling--was the
prenomen of a certain Corinthian, a Jewish proselyte
(sebomenos ton Theon). See PROSELYTE). His name seems also
to indicate that he was a Roman by birth. He is altogether a
different person from Titus, Paul's assistant and companion
in some of his journeys, to whom also the Epistle to Titus
is addressed.
Titus or Titius Justus was not the "host of Paul at Corinth"
(HDB, article "Justus," p. 511), for Luke has already
narrated that, when Paul came to Corinth, "he abode with"
Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:3). What is said of Titius
Justus is that when the Jews in Corinth opposed themselves
to Paul and blasphemed when he testified that Jesus was the
Christ, then Paul ceased to preach the gospel in the Jewish
synagogue as he had formerly done, and "he departed thence,
and went into the house of a certain man named Titus Justus,
one that worshipped God, whose house joined hard to the
synagogue" (Acts 18:7).
"Titius Justus was evidently a Roman or a Latin, one of the
coloni of the colony Corinth. Like the centurion Cornelius,
he had been attracted to the synagogue. His citizenship
would afford Paul an opening to the more educated class of
the Corinthian population" (Ramsay, Paul the Traveler and
the Rom Citizen, 256).
Paul's residence in Corinth continued for a year and a half,
followed without a break by another period indicated in the
words, he "tarried after this yet many days" (Acts
18:11,18), and during the whole of this time he evidently
used the house of Titius Justus, for the purposes both of
preaching the gospel and of gathering the church together
for Christian worship and instruction, "teaching the word of
God among them" (Acts 18:11).
Titius Justus, therefore, must have been a wealthy man,
since he possessed a house in which there was an apartment
sufficiently large to be used for both of these purposes;
and he himself must have been a most enthusiastic member of
the church, when in a period of protracted difficulty and
persecution, he welcomed Paul to his house, that he might
use it as the meeting-place of the church in Corinth.
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ti'-tus (Titos (2 Cor 2:13; 7:6,13 ff; 8:6,16,23; 12:18;
Ga1:2:1,3; 2 Tim 4:10; Tit 1:4)):
1. One of Paul's Converts:
A Greek Christian, one of Paul's intimate friends, his
companion in some of his apostolic journeys, and one of his
assistants in Christian work. His name does not occur in the
Acts; and, elsewhere in the New Testament, it is found only
in 2 Corinthians, Galatians, 2 Timothy and Titus. As Paul
calls him "my true child after a common faith" (Tit 1:4), it
is probable that he was one of the apostle's converts.
2. Paul Refuses to Have Him Circumcised:
The first notice of Titus is in Acts 15:2, where we read
that after the conclusion of Paul's 1st missionary journey,
when he had returned to Antioch, a discussion arose in the
church there, in regard to the question whether it was
necessary that Gentile Christians should be circumcised and
should keep the Jewish Law. It was decided that Paul and
Barnabas, "and certain other of them," should go up to
Jerusalem to the apostles and elders about this question.
The "certain other of them" includes Titus, for in Gal 2:3
it is recorded that Titus was then with Paul. The Judaistic
party in the church at Jerusalem desired to have Titus
circumcised, but Paul gave no subjection to these persons
and to their wishes, "no, not for an hour; that the truth of
the gospel might continue with you" (Gal 2:5). The matter in
dispute was decided as recorded in Acts 15:13-29. The
decision was in favor of the free promulgation of the
gospel, as preached by Paul, and unrestricted by Jewish
ordinances. Paul's action therefore in regard to Titus was
justified. In fact Titus was a representative or test case.
It is difficult and perhaps impossible to give the true
reason why Titus is not mentioned by name in the Acts, but
he is certainly referred to in 15:2...
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There are no specialties in this epistle which require any
very elaborate treatment distinct from the other Pastoral
Letters of St. Paul. It was written about the same time and
under similar circumstances with the other two i.e., from
Ephesus, in the autumn of 67 in the interval between Paul's
two Roman imprisonments.
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Our materials for the biography of this companion of St.
Paul must be drawn entirely from the notices of him in the
Second Epistle to the Corinthians, the Galatians, and to
Titus himself, combined with the Second Epistle to Timothy.
He is not mentioned in the Acts at all. Taking the passages
in the epistles in the chronological order of the events
referred to, we turn first to Ga 2:1,3 We conceive the
journey mentioned here to be identical with that (recorded
in Acts 15) in which Paul and Barnabas went from Antioch to
Jerusalem to the conference which was to decide the question
of the necessity of circumcision to the Gentiles. Here we
see Titus in close association with Paul and Barnabas at
Antioch. He goes with them to Jerusalem. His circumcision
was either not insisted on at Jerusalem, or, if demanded,
was firmly resisted. He is very emphatically spoken of as a
Gentile by which is most probably meant that both his
parents were Gentiles. Titus would seem on the occasion of
the council to have been specially a representative of the
church of the uncircumcision. It is to our purpose to remark
that, in the passage cited above, Titus is so mentioned as
apparently to imply that he had become personally known to
the Galatian Christians. After leaving Galatia., Ac 18:23
and spending a long time at Ephesus, Ac 19:1; 20:1 the
apostle proceeded to Macedonia by way of Troas. Here he
expected to meet Titus, 2Co 2:13 who had been sent on a
mission to Corinth. In this hope he was disappointed, but in
Macedonia Titus joined him. 2Co 7:6,7,13-15 The mission to
Corinth had reference to the immoralities rebuked in the
First Epistle, and to the collection at that time in
progress, for the poor Christians of Judea. 2Co 8:6 Thus we
are prepared for what the apostle now proceeds to do after
his encouraging conversations with Titus regarding the
Corinthian church. He sends him back from Macedonia to
Corinth, in company with two other trustworthy Christians,
bearing the Second Epistle, and with an earnest request,
ibid. 2Co 8:6,17 that he would see to the completion of the
collection. ch. 2Co 8:6 A considerable interval now elapses
before we come upon the next notices of this disciple. St.
Paul's first imprisonment is concluded, and his last trial
is impending. In the interval between the two, he and Titus
were together in Crete. Tit 1:5 We see Titus remaining in
the island when St. Paul left it and receiving there a
letter written to him by the apostle. From this letter we
gather the following biographical details. In the first
place we learn that he was originally converted through St.
Paul's instrumentality. Tit 1:4 Next we learn the various
particulars of the responsible duties which he had to
discharge. In Crete, he is to complete what St. Paul had
been obliged to leave unfinished, ch. Tit 1:5 and he is to
organize the church throughout the island by appointing
presbytery in every city. Next he is to control and bridle,
ver. 11, the restless and mischievous Judaizers. He is also
to look for the arrival in Crete of Artemas and Tychicus,
ch. Tit 3:12 and then is to hasten to join St. Paul at
Nicopolis, where the apostle purposes to pass the winter.
Zenas and Apollos are in Crete, or expected there; for Titus
is to send them on their journey, and to supply them with
whatever they need for it. Whether Titus did join the
apostle at Nicopolis we cannot tell; but we naturally
connect the mention of this place with what St. Paul wrote,
at no great interval of time afterward, in the last of the
Pastoral Epistles, 2Ti 4:10 for Dalmatia lay to the north of
Nicopolis, at no great distance from it. From the form of
the whole sentence, it seems probable that this disciple had
been with St. Paul in Rome during his final imprisonment;
but this cannot be asserted confidently. The traditional
connection of Titus with Crete is much more specific and
constant, though here again we cannot be certain of the
facts. He said to have been permanent bishop in the island,
and to have died there at an advanced age. The modern
capital, Candia, appears to claim the honor of being his
burial-place. In the fragment by the lawyer Zenas, Titus is
called bishop of Gortyna. Lastly, the name of Titus was the
watchword of the Cretans when they were invaded by the
Venetians.
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was probably written about the same time as the first
epistle to
Timothy, with which it has many affinities. "Both
letters were
addressed to persons left by the writer to preside
in their
respective churches during his absence. Both letters
are
principally occupied in describing the
qualifications to be
sought for in those whom they should appoint to
offices in the
church; and the ingredients of this description are
in both
letters nearly the same. Timothy and Titus are
likewise
cautioned against the same prevailing corruptions,
and in
particular against the same misdirection of their
cares and
studies. This affinity obtains not only in the
subject of the
letters, which from the similarity of situation in
the persons
to whom they were addressed might be expected to be
somewhat
alike, but extends in a great variety of instances
to the
phrases and expressions. The writer accosts his two
friends with
the same salutation, and passes on to the business
of his letter
by the same transition (comp. 1 Tim. 1:2, 3 with
Titus 1:4, 5; 1
Tim.1:4 with Titus 1:13, 14; 3:9; 1 Tim. 4:12 with
Titus 2:7,
15).", Paley's Horae Paulinae.
The date of its composition may be concluded from
the
circumstance that it was written after Paul's visit
to Crete
(Titus 1:5). That visit could not be the one
referred to in Acts
27:7, when Paul was on his voyage to Rome as a
prisoner, and
where he continued a prisoner for two years. We may
warrantably
suppose that after his release Paul sailed from Rome
into Asia
and took Crete by the way, and that there he left
Titus "to set
in order the things that were wanting." Thence he
went to
Ephesus, where he left Timothy, and from Ephesus to
Macedonia,
where he wrote First Timothy, and thence to
Nicopolis in Epirus,
from which place he wrote to Titus, about A.D. 66 or
67.
In the subscription to the epistle it is said to
have been
written from "Nicopolis of Macedonia," but no such
place is
known. The subscriptions to the epistles are of no
authority, as
they are not authentic.
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honourable, was with Paul and Barnabas at Antioch, and
accompanied them to the council at Jerusalem (Gal.
2:1-3; Acts
15:2), although his name nowhere occurs in the Acts
of the
Apostles. He appears to have been a Gentile, and to
have been
chiefly engaged in ministering to Gentiles; for Paul
sternly
refused to have him circumcised, inasmuch as in his
case the
cause of gospel liberty was at stake. We find him,
at a later
period, with Paul and Timothy at Ephesus, whence he
was sent by
Paul to Corinth for the purpose of getting the
contributions of
the church there in behalf of the poor saints at
Jerusalem sent
forward (2 Cor. 8:6; 12:18). He rejoined the apostle
when he was
in Macedonia, and cheered him with the tidings he
brought from
Corinth (7:6-15). After this his name is not
mentioned till
after Paul's first imprisonment, when we find him
engaged in the
organization of the church in Crete, where the
apostle had left
him for this purpose (Titus 1:5). The last notice of
him is in 2
Tim. 4:10, where we find him with Paul at Rome
during his second
imprisonment. From Rome he was sent into Dalmatia,
no doubt on
some important missionary errand. We have no record
of his
death. He is not mentioned in the Acts.
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frontTIMOTHY, EPISTLES TO.) Genuineness. Ignatius (Tralles,
3) uses "behaviour" (katasteema), in the New Testament found
only in Titus 2:3. Clement of Rome quotes it, Ep. ad Cor. 2
Irenaeus, i. 16, section 3, calls it Paul's epistle.
Theophilus (ad Autol. iii. 14) quotes it as Scripture.
Justin Martyr in the second century alludes to Titus 3:4
(Dial. contra Tryph. 47). Compare Clem. Alex. Strom. 1:350,
and Tertullian Praescr. Haer. 6. Time and place of writing.
Paul wrote this epistle on his way to Nicopolis, where he
intended wintering, and where he was arrested shortly before
his martyrdom A.D. 67. The tone so closely resembles (See 1
TIMOTHY that if the latter, as appears probable, was written
at Corinth the epistle to Titus must have been so too, the
epistle to Timothy shortly after Paul's arrival at Corinth,
the epistle to Titus afterwards when he resolved on going to
Nicopolis.
The bearers of his epistles to Ephesus and Crete
respectively would have an easy route from Corinth; his own
journey to Nicopolis too would be convenient from Corinth.
Seeds of Christianity may have been carried to Crete shortly
after the first Pentecost by Peter's hearers (Acts 2:11).
Paul doubtless furthered the gospel cause during his visit
there on his way to the hearing of his appeal to Caesar,
before his first imprisonment at Rome (Acts 27:7), etc. He
visited Crete again after his first imprisonment, probably
on his way to Miletus, Colosse, and Ephesus, from which
latter Alford thinks he wrote to Titus; thence by Troas to
Macedon and Corinth (2 Timothy 4:20), the more probable
place of writing the epistle to Titus; thence to Nicopolis
in Epirus.
Titus in his missions for Paul to Corinth had
probably thence visited Crete, which was within easy reach.
He was thus suited to superintend the church there, and
carry on Paul's work by completing the church's
organization. Paul in this epistle follows up the
instructions he had already given by word of mouth. Paul's
visit to Crete may possibly also have been from Corinth, to
which he in that case would return. Doctrine. The Pauline
doctrines of the grace of God providing the atonement in
Christ (Titus 2:10-13), free justification (Titus 3:5-7)
producing holiness of life by the regenerating and renewing
Spirit, and expectancy of Christ's coming in glory, are
briefly but emphatically put forward. The abruptness and
severity of tone, caused by the Cretan irregularities, are
tempered by a loving and gracious recognition of our high
privileges which flow from the grace of "God our Saviour."
As the Father is nowhere said to "give Himself for us," and
as ONE Greek article binds together "the great God" and "our
Saviour" (Titus 2:13, "the glorious appearing of Him who is
at once the great God ceded our Saviour") Jesus must be God.
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Paul's companion in missionary tours. Not mentioned in Acts.
A Greek, and therefore a Gentile (Galatians 2:1; Galatians
2:3); converted through Paul (Titus 1:4), "mine own son
after the common faith." Included in the "certain other of
them" who accompanied the apostle and Barnabas when they
were deputed from the church of Antioch to consult the
church at Jerusalem concerning the circumcision of Gentile
converts (Acts 15:2), and agreeably to the decree of the
council there was exempted from circumcision, Paul resisting
the attempt to force Titus to be so, for both his parents
were Gentile, and Titus represented at the council the
church of the uncircumcision (contrast TIMOTHY who was on
one side of Jewish parentage: Acts 16:3.) He was with Paul
at Ephesus (Acts 19), and was sent thence to Corinth to
commence the collection for the Jerusalem saints, and to
ascertain the effect of the first epistle on the Corinthians
(2 Corinthians 7:6-9; 2 Corinthians 8:6; 2 Corinthians
12:18); and there showed an unmercenary spirit.
Next, Titus went to Macedon, where he rejoined Paul
who had been eagerly looking for him at Troas (Acts 20:1;
Acts 20:6; 2 Corinthians 2:12-13); "Titus my brother" (2
Corinthians 7:6; 2 Corinthians 8:23), also "my partner and
fellow helper concerning you." The history (Acts 20) does
not record Paul's passing through Troas in going from
Ephesus to Macedon, but it does in coming from that country;
also that he had disciples there (Acts 20:6-7) which accords
with the epistle (2 Corinthians 2:12): an undesigned
coincidence confirming genuineness. Paul had fixed a time
with Titus to meet him at Troas, and had desired him, if
detained so as not to be able to be at Troas in time, to
proceed at once to Macedon to Philippi, the next stage on
his own journey. Hence, though a wide door of usefulness
opened to Paul at Troas, his eagerness to hear from Titus
about the Corinthian church led him not to stay longer
there, when the time fixed was past, but to hasten on to
Macedon to meet Titus there...
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LITERATURE
I. Title and Authorship.
The name Joshua signifies "Yahweh is deliverance" or
"salvation" (see JOSHUA). The Greek form of the name is
Jesus (Iesous, Acts 7:45; Heb 4:8). In later Jewish history
the name appears to have become popular, and is even found
with a local significance, as the designation of a small
town in Southern Israel (yeshua`], Neh 11:26). The use of
the title by the Jews to denote the Book of Joshua did not
imply a belief that the book was actually written or
dictated by him; or even that the narratives themselves were
in substance derived from him, and owed their authenticity
and reliability to his sanction and control. In the earliest
Jewish literature the association of a name with a book was
not intended in any case to indicate authorship. And the
Book of Joshua is no exception to the rule that such early
writings, especially when their contents are of a historical
nature, are usually anonymous. The title is intended to
describe, not authorship, but theme; and to represent that
the life and deeds of Joshua form the main subject with
which the book is concerned.
II. Contents.
With regard to the contents of Joshua, it will be found to
consist of two well-marked divisions, in the first of which
(Joshua 1-2) are narrated the invasion and gradual conquest
under the command of Joshua of the land on the West of the
Jordan; while the 2nd part describes in detail the allotment
of the country to the several tribes with the boundaries of
their territories, and concludes with a brief notice of the
death and burial of Joshua himself.
1. Invasion and Conquest of Western Israel:
Joshua 1: Renewal of the Divine promise to Joshua and
exhortation to fearlessness and courage (1:1-9); directions
to the people to prepare for the passage of the river, and a
reminder to the eastern tribes (Reuben, Gad, and half and
Manasseh) of the condition under which they held their
possession beyond Jordan; the renewal by these tribes of
their pledge of loyalty to Moses' successor (1:10-18)...
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I. Form and Significance of Name.
The name Joshua, a contracted form of Jehoshua (yehoshua`),
which also appears in the form Jeshua (yeshua`, Neh 8:17),
signifies "Yahweh is deliverance" or "salvation," and is
formed on the analogy of many Israelite names, as Jehoiakim
(yehoyaqim), "Yahweh exalteth," Jehohanan (yehochanan),
"Yahweh is gracious," Elishua or Elisha ('elishua`,
elisha`), "God is deliverance," Elizur ('elitsur), "God is a
rock," etc. In the narrative of the mission of the spies in
Nu 13, the name is given as Hoshea (hoshea`, 13:8,16;
compare Dt 32:44), which is changed by Moses to Joshua (Nu
13:16). In the passage in Deuteronomy, however, the earlier
form of the name is regarded by Dr. Driver (Commentary in
the place cited.) as an erroneous reading.
The Greek form of the name is Jesus (Iesous, Acts 7:45; Heb
4:8, the Revised Version (British and American) "Joshua,"
but the King James Version "Jesus" in both passages), and
this form appears even in the passages cited above from
Nehemiah and Deuteronomy. In Nu 13:8,16, however, Septuagint
has Hause. The name occurs in later Jewish history, e.g. as
that of the owner of the field in which the ark rested after
its return from the land of the Philistines (1 Sam 6:14,18),
and appears to have become especially frequent after the
exile (Ezr 2:40; Zec 3:1ab, etc.). It is also found (Jeshua)
with a local signification as the name of one of the
"villages" in Southern Judea, where the repatriated Jews
dwelt after their return from Babylon (Neh 11:26).
II. History of the Life of Joshua.
The narrative of the life of Joshua, the son of Nun, is
naturally divided into two parts, in which he held entirely
different positions with regard to the people of Israel, and
discharged different duties. In the earlier period he is the
servant and minister of Moses, loyal to his leader, and one
of his most trusted and valiant captains. After the death of
Moses he himself succeeds to the leadership of the Israelite
host, and conducts them to a settlement in the Promised
Land. The service of the earlier years of his life is a
preparation and equipment for the office and responsibility
that devolved upon him in the later period...
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Named from Joshua the son of Nun, who is the principal
character in it. The book may be regarded as consisting of
three parts:
1. The conquest of Canaan; chs. 1-12.
2. The partition of Canaan; chs. 13-22.
3. Joshua's farewell; chs. 23,24. Nothing is really
known as to the authorship of the book. Joshua himself is
generally named as the author by the Jewish writers and the
Christian fathers; but no contemporary assertion or
sufficient historical proof of the fact exists, and it
cannot be maintained without qualification. The last verses,
ch. Jos 24:29-33 were obviously added at a later time. Some
events, such as the capture of Hebron, of Debir, Jos 15:13-
19 and Judg 1:10-15
of Leshem, Jos 19:47 and Judg 18:7
and the joint occupation of Jerusalem, Jos 15:63 and
Judg 1:21
probably did not occur till after Joshua's death.
(It was written probably during Joshua's life, or soon after
his death (B.C. 1420), and includes his own records, with
revision by some other person not long afterward.)
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(saviour, or whose help is Jehovah). His name appears in the
various forms of HOSHEA, OSHEA, JEHOSHUA, JESHUA and JESUS.
1. The son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim. 1Ch 7:27
(B.C. 1530-1420.) He was nearly forty years old when he
shared in the hurried triumph of the exodus. He is mentioned
first in connection with the fight against Amalek at
Rephidim, when he was chosen by Moses to lead the
Israelites. Ex 17:9 Soon afterward he was one of the twelve
chiefs who were sent, Nu 13:17 to explore the land of
Canaan, and one of the two, ch. Nu 14:6 who gave an
encouraging report of their journey. Moses, shortly before
his death, was directed, Nu 27:18 to invest Joshua with
authority over the people. God himself gave Joshua a charge
by the mouth of the dying lawgiver. De 31:14,23 Under the
direction of God again renewed, Jos 1:1 Joshua assumed the
command of the people at Shittim, sent spies into Jericho,
crossed the Jordan, fortified a camp at Gilgal, circumcised
the people, kept the passover, and was visited by the
Captain of the Lord's host. A miracle made the fall of
Jericho more terrible to the Canaanites. In the great battle
of Beth-horon the Amorites were signally routed, and the
south country was open to the Israelites. Joshua returned to
the camp at Gilgal, master of half of Israel. He defeated
the Canaanites under Jabin king of Hazor. In six years, six
tribes, with thirty-one petty chiefs, were conquered.
Joshua, now stricken in years, proceeded to make the
division of the conquered land. Timnath-serah in Mount
Ephraim was assigned as Joshua's peculiar inheritance. After
an interval of rest, Joshua convoked an assembly from all
Israel. He delivered two solemn addresses, recorded in Jos
23:24 He died at the age of 110 years, and was buried in his
own city, Timnath-serah.
2. An inhabitant of Beth-shemesh, in whose land was
the stone at which the milch-kine stopped when they drew the
ark of God with the offerings of the Philistines from Ekron
to Beth-shemesh. 1Sa 6:14,18 (B.C. 1124.)
3. A governor of the city who gave his name to a
gate of Jerusalem. 2Ki 23:8 (In the reign of Josiah, B.C.
628.)
4. Jeshua the son of Jozadak. Hag 1:14; 2:12; Zec
3:1 etc.
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contains a history of the Israelites from the death of Moses
to
that of Joshua. It consists of three parts: (1.) The
history of
the conquest of the land (1-12). (2.) The allotment
of the land
to the different tribes, with the appointment of
cities of
refuge, the provision for the Levites (13-22), and
the dismissal
of the eastern tribes to their homes. This section
has been
compared to the Domesday Book of the Norman
conquest. (3.) The
farewell addresses of Joshua, with an account of his
death (23,
24).
This book stands first in the second of the three
sections,
(1) the Law, (2) the Prophets, (3) the "other
writings" =
Hagiographa, into which the Jewish Church divided
the Old
Testament. There is every reason for concluding that
the uniform
tradition of the Jews is correct when they assign
the authorship
of the book to Joshua, all except the concluding
section; the
last verses (24:29-33) were added by some other
hand.
There are two difficulties connected with this book
which have
given rise to much discussion, (1.) The miracle of
the standing
still of the sun and moon on Gibeon. The record of
it occurs in
Joshua's impassioned prayer of faith, as quoted
(Josh. 10:12-15)
from the "Book of Jasher" (q.v.). There are many
explanations
given of these words. They need, however, present no
difficulty
if we believe in the possibility of God's miraculous
interposition in behalf of his people. Whether it
was caused by
the refraction of the light, or how, we know not.
(2.) Another difficulty arises out of the command
given by God
utterly to exterminate the Canaanites. "Shall not
the Judge of
all the earth do right?" It is enough that Joshua
clearly knew
that this was the will of God, who employs his
terrible
agencies, famine, pestilence, and war, in the
righteous
government of this world. The Canaanites had sunk
into a state
of immorality and corruption so foul and degrading
that they had
to be rooted out of the land with the edge of the
sword. "The
Israelites' sword, in its bloodiest executions,
wrought a work
of mercy for all the countries of the earth to the
very end of
the world."...
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Jehovah is his help, or Jehovah the Saviour. The son of Nun,
of
the tribe of Ephraim, the successor of Moses as the
leader of
Israel. He is called Jehoshua in Num. 13:16 (A.V.),
and Jesus in
Acts 7:45 and Heb. 4:8 (R.V., Joshua).
He was born in Egypt, and was probably of the age of
Caleb,
with whom he is generally associated. He shared in
all the
events of the Exodus, and held the place of
commander of the
host of the Israelites at their great battle against
the
Amalekites in Rephidim (Ex. 17:8-16). He became
Moses' minister
or servant, and accompanied him part of the way when
he ascended
Mount Sinai to receive the two tables (Ex. 32:17).
He was also
one of the twelve who were sent on by Moses to
explore the land
of Canaan (Num. 13:16, 17), and only he and Caleb
gave an
encouraging report. Under the direction of God,
Moses, before
his death, invested Joshua in a public and solemn
manner with
authority over the people as his successor (Deut.
31:23). The
people were encamped at Shittim when he assumed the
command
(Josh. 1:1); and crossing the Jordan, they encamped
at Gilgal,
where, having circumcised the people, he kept the
Passover, and
was visited by the Captain of the Lord's host, who
spoke to him
encouraging words (1:1-9).
Now began the wars of conquest which Joshua carried
on for
many years, the record of which is in the book which
bears his
name. Six nations and thirty-one kings were
conquered by him
(Josh. 11:18-23; 12:24). Having thus subdued the
Canaanites,
Joshua divided the land among the tribes, Timnath-
serah in Mount
Ephraim being assigned to himself as his own
inheritance. (See
SHILOH -T0003375; PRIEST -T0003001.)
His work being done, he died, at the age of one
hundred and
ten years, twenty-five years after having crossed
the Jordan. He
was buried in his own city of Timnath-serah (Josh.
24); and "the
light of Israel for the time faded away."
Joshua has been regarded as a type of Christ (Heb.
4:8) in the
following particulars: (1) In the name common to
both; (2)
Joshua brings the people into the possession of the
Promised
Land, as Jesus brings his people to the heavenly
Canaan; and (3)
as Joshua succeeded Moses, so the Gospel succeeds
the Law.
The character of Joshua is thus well sketched by
Edersheim:,
"Born a slave in Egypt, he must have been about
forty years old
at the time of the Exodus. Attached to the person of
Moses, he
led Israel in the first decisive battle against
Amalek (Ex.
17:9, 13), while Moses in the prayer of faith held
up to heaven
the God-given 'rod.' It was no doubt on that
occasion that his
name was changed from Oshea, 'help,' to Jehoshua,
'Jehovah is
help' (Num. 13:16). And this name is the key to his
life and
work. Alike in bringing the people into Canaan, in
his wars, and
in the distribution of the land among the tribes,
from the
miraculous crossing of Jordan and taking of Jericho
to his last
address, he was the embodiment of his new name,
'Jehovah is
help.' To this outward calling his character also
corresponded.
It is marked by singleness of purpose, directness,
and
decision...He sets an object before him, and
unswervingly
follows it" (Bible Hist., iii. 103)
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LITERATURE
The Writer:
The writer of this short epistle calls himself Jude or Judas
(Ioudas. His name was a common one among the Jews: there
were few others of more frequent use. Two among the apostles
bore it, namely, Judas, mentioned in Jn 14:22 (compare Lk
6:16), and Judas Iscariot. Jude describes himself as "a
servant of Jesus Christ, and brother of James" (Jude 1:1).
The James here mentioned is no doubt the person who is
called "the Lord's brother" (Gal 1:19), the writer of the
epistle that bears his name. Neither of the two was an
apostle. The opening sentence of Jude simply affirms that
the writer is a "servant of Jesus Christ." This, if
anywhere, should be the appropriate place for the mention of
his apostleship, if he were an apostle. The appellation
"servant of Jesus Christ" "is never thus barely used in an
address of an epistle to designate an apostle" (Alford).
Phil 1:1 has a similar expression, "Paul and Timothy,
servants of Jesus Christ," but "the designation common to
two persons necessarily sinks to the rank of the inferior
one." In other instances "servant" is associated with
"apostle" (Rom 1:1; Tit 1:1). Jude 1:17,18 speaks of the
"apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ; that they said to you"--
language which an apostle would hardly use of his fellow-
apostles.
In Mk 6:3 are found the names of those of whom Jesus is said
to be the brother, namely, James and Joses, and Judas and
Simon. It is quite generally held by writers that the James
and Judas here mentioned are the two whose epistles are
found in the New Testament. It is noteworthy, however, that
neither of them hints at his relationship with Jesus; their
unaffected humility kept them silent. Jude mentions that he
is the "brother of James," perhaps to give authority and
weight to his words, for James was far more distinguished
and influential than he. The inference seems legitimate that
Jude addresses Christians among whom James was highly
esteemed, or, if no longer living, among whom his memory was
sacredly revered, and accordingly it is altogether probable
that Jude writes to the same class of readers as James--
Jewish Christians. James writes to the "Twelve Tribes of the
Dispersion." Jude likewise addresses a wide circle of
believers, namely, the "called, beloved in God the Father,
and kept for Jesus Christ" (1:1). While he does not
designate a special and distinct class, yet as James's
"brother," as belonging to the family of Joseph, and as in
some true sense related to the Lord Jesus Himself, it seems
probable, if not certain, that his Epistle was intended for
Christian Hebrews who stood in urgent need of such testimony
and appeal as Jude offers...
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jood (Ioudas): Brother of the Lord, and author of the Epistle
of Jude.
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Its author was probably Jude, one of the brethren of
Jesus, the subject of the preceding article. There are no
data from which to determine its date or place of writing,
but it is placed about A.D. 65. The object of the epistle is
plainly enough announced ver. 3; the reason for this
exhortation is given ver.
4. The remainder of the epistle is almost entirely
occupied by a minute depiction of the adversaries of the
faith. The epistle closes by briefly reminding the readers
of the oft-repeated prediction of the apostles --among whom
the writer seems not to rank himself --that the faith would
be assailed by such enemies as he has depicted, vs. Jude
1:17-19 exhorting them to maintain their own steadfastness
in the faith, vs. Jude 1:20,21 while they earnestly sought
to rescue others from the corrupt example of those
licentious livers, vs. Jude 1:22,23 and commending them to
the power of God in language which forcibly recalls the
closing benediction of the epistle to the Romans. vs. Jude
1:24,25 cf. Roma 16:25-27
This epistle presents one peculiarity, which, as we
learn from St. Jerome, caused its authority to be impugned
in very early times --the supposed citation of apocryphal
writings. vs. Jude 1:9,14,15 The larger portion of this
epistle, vs. Jude 1:3-16 is almost identical in language and
subject with a part of the Second Epistle of Peter. 2Pe 2:1-
19
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3. Contents:
The Book of Jdg consists of 3 main parts or divisions, which
are readily distinguished.
(1) Introductory, Judges 1 through 2:5.
A brief summary and recapitulation of the events of the
conquest of Western Israel, for the most part parallel to
the narrative of Joshua, but with a few additional details
and some divergences from the earlier account, in particular
emphasizing (Jdg 1:27-36) the general failure of the
Israelites to expel completely the original inhabitants of
the land, which is described as a violation of their
covenant with Yahweh (Jdg 2:1-3), entailing upon them
suffering and permanent weakness. The introductory verse
(Jdg 1:1), which refers to the death of Joshua as having
already taken place, seems to be intended as a general
indication of the historical period of the book as a whole;
for some at least of the events narrated in Jdg 1 through
2:5 took place during Joshua's lifetime.
(2) The Central and Main Portion, Judges 2:6 through 16.
A series of narratives of 12 "judges," each of whom in turn,
by his devotion and prowess, was enabled to deliver Israel
from thralldom and oppression, and for a longer or shorter
term ruled over the people whom he had thus saved from their
enemies. Each successive repentance on the part of the
people, however, and their deliverance are followed, on the
death of the judge, by renewed apostasy, which entails upon
them renewed misery and servitude, from which they are again
rescued when in response to their prayer the Lord "raises
up" for them another judge and deliverer. Thus the entire
history is set as it were in a recurrent framework of moral
and religious teaching and warning; and the lesson is
enforced that it is the sin of the people, their abandonment
of Yahweh and persistent idolatry, which entails upon them
calamity, from which the Divine long-suffering and
forbearance alone makes for them a way of escape...
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The author was "Judas, the brother of James" the Less (Jude
1:1), called also Lebbaeus (Matt. 10:3) and
Thaddaeus (Mark
3:18). The genuineness of this epistle was early
questioned, and
doubts regarding it were revived at the time of the
Reformation;
but the evidences in support of its claims are
complete. It has
all the marks of having proceeded from the writer
whose name it
bears.
There is nothing very definite to determine the time
and place
at which it was written. It was apparently written
in the later
period of the apostolic age, for when it was written
there were
persons still alive who had heard the apostles
preach (ver. 17).
It may thus have been written about A.D. 66 or 70,
and
apparently in Israel.
The epistle is addressed to Christians in general
(ver. 1),
and its design is to put them on their guard against
the
misleading efforts of a certain class of errorists
to which they
were exposed. The style of the epistle is that of an
"impassioned invective, in the impetuous whirlwind
of which the
writer is hurried along, collecting example after
example of
divine vengeance on the ungodly; heaping epithet
upon epithet,
and piling image upon image, and, as it were,
labouring for
words and images strong enough to depict the
polluted character
of the licentious apostates against whom he is
warning the
Church; returning again and again to the subject, as
though all
language was insufficient to give an adequate idea
of their
profligacy, and to express his burning hatred of
their
perversion of the doctrines of the gospel."
The striking resemblance this epistle bears to 2
Peter
suggests the idea that the author of the one had
seen the
epistle of the other.
The doxology with which the epistle concludes is
regarded as
the finest in the New Testament.
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of which the book or Ruth formed originally a part, contains
a history from Joshua to Samson. The book may be divided
into two parts:--
1. Chs. 1-16. We may observe in general on this
portion of the book that it is almost entirely a history of
the wars of deliverance.
2. Chs. 17-21. This part has no formal connection
with the preceding, and is often called an appendix. The
period to which the narrative relates is simply marked by
the expression, "when there was no king in Israel." ch. Jud
19:1; 18:1 It records -- (a) The conquest of Laish by a
portion of the tribe of Dan, and the establishment there of
the idolatrous worship of Jehovah already instituted by
Micah in Mount Ephraim. (b) The almost total extinction of
the tribe of Benjamin. Chs. 17-21 are inserted both as an
illustration of the sin of Israel during the time of the
judges and as presenting a contrast with the better order
prevailing in the time of the kings. The time commonly
assigned to the period contained in this book is 299 years.
The dates given in the last article amount to 410 years,
without the 40 years of Eli; but in 1Ki 6:1 the whole period
from the exodus to the building of the temple is stated as
480 years. But probably some of the judges were
contemporary, so that their total period is 299 years
instead of 410. Mr. Smith in his Old Testament history gives
the following approximate dates: Periods...Years -- Ending
about B.C.:
1. From the exodus to the passage of Jordan...40 --
1451.
2. To the death of Joshua and the surviving
elders...[40] -- 1411.
3. Judgeship of Othniel...40 -- 1371.
4,5. Judgeship of Ehud (Shamgar included)...80 --
1291.
6. Judgeship of Deborah and Barak...40 -- 1251.
7. Judgeship of Gideon...40 -- 1211.
8,9. Abimelech to Abdon, total...[80] -- 1131.
10. Oppression of the Philistines, contemporary with
the judgeships of Eli, Samson (and Samuel?)...40 -- 1091.
11. Reign of Saul (including perhaps Samuel)...40 --
1051.
12. Reign of David...40 -- 1011. Total...480. On the
whole, it seems safer to give up the attempt to ascertain
the chronology exactly.
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is so called because it contains the history of the
deliverance
and government of Israel by the men who bore the
title of the
"judges." The book of Ruth originally formed part of
this book,
but about A.D. 450 it was separated from it and
placed in the
Hebrew scriptures immediately after the Song of
Solomon.
The book contains, (1.) An introduction (1-3:6),
connecting it
with the previous narrative in Joshua, as a "link in
the chain
of books." (2.) The history of the thirteen judges
(3:7-16:31)
in the following order:
FIRST PERIOD (3:7-ch. 5)
Years
I. Servitude under Chushan-rishathaim of
Mesopotamia 8
1. OTHNIEL delivers Israel, rest 40
II. Servitude under Eglon of Moab:
Ammon, Amalek 18
2. EHUD'S deliverance, rest 80
3. SHAMGAR Unknown.
III. Servitude under Jabin of Hazor in
Canaan 20
4. DEBORAH and,
5. BARAK 40
(206)
SECOND PERIOD (6-10:5)
IV. Servitude under Midian, Amalek, and
children of the east 7
6. GIDEON 40
ABIMELECH, Gideon's son, reigns as
king over Israel 3
7. TOLA 23
8. JAIR 22
(95)
THIRD PERIOD (10:6-ch. 12)
V. Servitude under Ammonites with the
Philistines 18
9. JEPHTHAH 6
10. IBZAN 7
11. ELON 10
12. ABDON 8
(49)
FOURTH PERIOD (13-16)
VI. Seritude under Philistines 40
13. SAMSON 20
(60)
In all 410
Samson's exploits probably synchronize with the
period
immediately preceding the national repentance and
reformation
under Samuel (1 Sam. 7:2-6).
After Samson came Eli, who was both high priest and
judge. He
directed the civil and religious affairs of the
people for forty
years, at the close of which the Philistines again
invaded the
land and oppressed it for twenty years. Samuel was
raised up to
deliver the people from this oppression, and he
judged Israel
for some twelve years, when the direction of affairs
fell into
the hands of Saul, who was anointed king. If Eli and
Samuel are
included, there were then fifteen judges. But the
chronology of
this whole period is uncertain.
(3.) The historic section of the book is followed by
an
appendix (17-21), which has no formal connection
with that which
goes before. It records (a) the conquest (17, 18) of
Laish by a
portion of the tribe of Dan; and (b) the almost
total extinction
of the tribe of Benjamin by the other tribes, in
consequence of
their assisting the men of Gibeah (19-21). This
section properly
belongs to the period only a few years after the
death of
Joshua. It shows the religious and moral degeneracy
of the
people.
The author of this book was most probably Samuel.
The internal
evidence both of the first sixteen chapters and of
the appendix
warrants this conclusion. It was probably composed
during Saul's
reign, or at the very beginning of David's. The
words in
18:30,31, imply that it was written after the taking
of the ark
by the Philistines, and after it was set up at Nob
(1 Sam. 21).
In David's reign the ark was at Gibeon (1 Chr.
16:39)
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lam-en-ta'-shunz,--The Lamentations of Jeremiah:
1. Name:
This is a collective name which tradition has given to 5
elegies found in the Hebrew Canon that lament the fate of
destroyed Jerusalem. The rabbis call this little book 'Ekhah
("how"), according to the word of lament with which it
begins, or qinoth. On the basis of the latter term the
Septuagint calls it threnoi, or Latin Threni, or
"Lamentations."
2. Form:
The little book consists of 5 lamentations, each one forming
the contents of a chapter. The first 4 are marked by the
acrostic use of the alphabet. In addition, the qinah
("elegy") meter is found in these hymns, in which a longer
line (3 or 4 accents) is followed by a shorter (2 or 3
accents). In Lam 1 and 2 the acrostic letters begin three
such double lines; in Lam 4, however, two double lines. In
Lam 3 a letter controls three pairs, but is repeated at the
beginning of each line. In Lam 5 the alphabet is wanting;
but in this case too the number of pairs of lines agrees
with the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, i.e. 22.
In Lam 2; 3 and 4, the letter `ayin (`) follows pe (p), as
is the case in Ps 34. Lamentations 1, however, follows the
usual order.
3. Contents:
These 5 hymns all refer to the great national catastrophe
that overtook the Jews and in particular the capital city,
Jerusalem, through the Chaldeans, 587-586 BC. The sufferings
and the anxieties of the city, the destruction of the
sanctuary, the cruelty and taunts of the enemies of Israel,
especially the Edomites, the disgrace that befell the king
and his nobles, priests and prophets, and that, too, not
without their own guilt, the devastation and ruin of the
country--all this is described, and appeal is made to the
mercy of God. A careful sequence of thought cannot be
expected in the lyrical feeling and in the alphabetical
form. Repetitions are found in large numbers, but each one
of these hymns emphasizes some special feature of the
calamity. Lamentations 3 is unique, as in it one person
describes his own peculiar sufferings in connection with the
general calamity, and then too in the name of the others
begins a psalm of repentance. This person did not suffer so
severely because he was an exceptional sinner, but because
of the unrighteousness of his people. These hymns were not
written during the siege, but later, at a time when the
people still vividly remembered the sufferings and the
anxieties of that time and when the impression made on them
by the fall of Jerusalem was still as powerful as ever...
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Title. --The Hebrew title of this book, Ecah, is taken, like
the titles of the five books of Moses, from the Hebrew word
with which it opens. Author. --The poems included in this
collection appear in the Hebrew canon with no name attached
to them, but Jeremiah has been almost universally regarded
as their author. Date. --The poems belong unmistakably to
the last days of the kingdom, or the commencement of the
exile, B.C. 629-586. They are written by one who speaks,
with the vividness and intensity of an eye-witness, of the
misery which he bewails. Contents. --The book consists of
five chapter, each of which, however, is a separate poem,
complete in itself, and having a distinct subject, but
brought at the same time under a plan which includes them
all. A complicated alphabetic structure pervades nearly the
whole book. (1) Chs. 1,2 and 4 contain twenty-two verses
each, arranged in alphabetic order, each verse falling into
three nearly balanced clauses; ch. La 2:19 forms an
exception, as having a fourth clause. (2) Ch. 3 contains
three short verses under each letter of the alphabet, the
initial letter being three times repeated. (3) Ch. 5
contains the same number of verses as chs. 1,2,4, but
without the alphabetic order. Jeremiah was not merely a
patriot-poet, weeping over the ruin of his country; he was a
prophet who had seen all this coming, and had foretold it as
inevitable. There are perhaps few portions of the Old
Testament which appear to have done the work they were meant
to do more effectually than this. The book has supplied
thousands with the fullest utterance for their sorrows in
the critical periods of national or individual suffering. We
may well believe that it soothed the weary years of the
Babylonian exile. It enters largely into the order of the
Latin Church for the services of passion-week. On the ninth
day of the month of Ab (July-August), the Lamentations of
Jeremiah were read, year by year, with fasting and weeping,
to commemorate the misery out of which the people had been
delivered.
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called in the Hebrew canon _'Ekhah_, meaning "How," being
the
formula for the commencement of a song of wailing.
It is the
first word of the book (see 2 Sam. 1:19-27). The
LXX. adopted
the name rendered "Lamentations" (Gr. threnoi = Heb.
qinoth) now
in common use, to denote the character of the book,
in which the
prophet mourns over the desolations brought on the
city and the
holy land by Chaldeans. In the Hebrew Bible it is
placed among
the Khethubim. (See BIBLE -T0000580.)
As to its authorship, there is no room for hesitancy
in
following the LXX. and the Targum in ascribing it to
Jeremiah.
The spirit, tone, language, and subject-matter are
in accord
with the testimony of tradition in assigning it to
him.
According to tradition, he retired after the
destruction of
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar to a cavern outside the
Damascus
gate, where he wrote this book. That cavern is still
pointed
out. "In the face of a rocky hill, on the western
side of the
city, the local belief has placed 'the grotto of
Jeremiah.'
There, in that fixed attitude of grief which Michael
Angelo has
immortalized, the prophet may well be supposed to
have mourned
the fall of his country" (Stanley, Jewish Church).
The book consists of five separate poems. In chapter
1 the
prophet dwells on the manifold miseries oppressed by
which the
city sits as a solitary widow weeping sorely. In
chapter 2 these
miseries are described in connection with the
national sins that
had caused them. Chapter 3 speaks of hope for the
people of God.
The chastisement would only be for their good; a
better day
would dawn for them. Chapter 4 laments the ruin and
desolation
that had come upon the city and temple, but traces
it only to
the people's sins. Chapter 5 is a prayer that Zion's
reproach
may be taken away in the repentance and recovery of
the people.
The first four poems (chapters) are acrostics, like
some of
the Psalms (25, 34, 37, 119), i.e., each verse
begins with a
letter of the Hebrew alphabet taken in order. The
first, second,
and fourth have each twenty-two verses, the number
of the
letters in the Hebrew alphabet. The third has sixty-
six verses,
in which each three successive verses begin with the
same
letter. The fifth is not acrostic.
Speaking of the "Wailing-place (q.v.) of the Jews"
at
Jerusalem, a portion of the old wall of the temple
of Solomon,
Schaff says: "There the Jews assemble every Friday
afternoon to
bewail the downfall of the holy city, kissing the
stone wall and
watering it with their tears. They repeat from their
well-worn
Hebrew Bibles and prayer-books the Lamentations of
Jeremiah and
suitable Psalms."
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Hebrew eechah called from the first word "How," etc., the
formula in beginning a lamentation (2 Samuel 1:19). These
"Lamentations" (we get the title from Septuagint, Greek
threnoi, Hebrew kinot) or five elegies in the Hebrew Bible
stand between Ruth and Ecclesiastes, among the Cherubim, or
Hagiographa (holy writings), designated from the principal
one, the Psalms," by our Lord (Luke 24:44). No "word of
Jehovah "or divine message to the sinful and suffering
people occurs in Lamentations. Jeremiah is in it the
sufferer, not the prophet and teacher, but a sufferer
speaking under the Holy Spirit. Josephus (c. Apion)
enumerated the prophetic books as thirteen, reckoning
Jeremiah and Lamentations as one book, as Judges and Ruth,
Ezra and Nehemiah. Jeremiah wrote "lamentations" on the
death of Josiah, and it was made "an ordinance in Israel"
that "singing women" should "speak" of that king in
lamentation.
So here he writes "lamentations" on the overthrow of
the Jewish city and people, as Septuagint expressly state in
a prefatory verse, embodying probably much of the language
of his original elegy on Josiah (2 Chronicles 35:25), and
passing now to the more universal calamity, of which
Josiah's sad death was the presage and forerunner. Thus, the
words originally applied to Josiah (Lamentations 4:20)
Jeremiah now applies to the throne of Judah in general, the
last representative of which, Zedekiah, had just been
blinded and carried to Babylon (compare Jeremiah 39:5-7):
"the breath of our nostrils, the anointed of Jehovah, was
taken in their pits, of whom we said, Under his shadow we
shall live among the (live securely in spite of the
surrounding) pagan." The language, true of good Josiah, is
too favorable to apply to Zedekiah personally; it is as
royal David's representative, and type of Messiah, and
Judah's head, that he is viewed...
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LITERATURE
I. General Data.
1. Name:
The third book of the Pentateuch is generally named by the
Jews according to the first word, wayyiqra' (Origen Ouikra,
by the Septuagint called according to its contents
Leuitikon, or Leueitikon, by the Vulgate, accordingly,
"Leviticus" (i.e. Liber), sometimes "Leviticum"). The Jews
have also another name taken from its contents, namely,
torath kohanim, "Law of the Priests."
2. Character of Book:
As a matter of fact ordinances pertaining to the priesthood,
to the Levitical system, and to the cults constitute a most
important part of this book; but specifically religious and
ethical commands, as we find them, e.g. in Lev 18 through
20, are not wanting; and there are also some historical
sections, which, however, are again connected with the
matter referring to the cults, namely the consecration of
the priests in Lev 8 and 9, the sin and the punishment of
two sons of Aaron, Nadab and Abihu (10:1 ff), and the
account of the stoning of a blasphemer (24:10 ff). Of the
Levites, on the other hand, the book does not treat at all.
They are mentioned only once and that incidentally in 25:32
ff. The laws are stated to have been given behar Cinay
(7:38; 25:1; 26:46; 27:34), which expression, on account of
Lev 11, in which Yahweh is described as speaking to Moses
out of the tent of meeting, is not to be translated "upon"
but "at" Mt. Sinai. The connection of this book with the
preceding and following books, i.e. Exodus and Numbers,
which is commonly acknowledged as being the case, at least
in some sense, leaves for the contents of Leviticus exactly
the period of a single month, since the last chronological
statement of Ex 40:17 as the time of the erection of the
tabernacle mentions the 1st day of the 1st month of the 2nd
year of the Exodus, and Nu 1:1 takes us to the 1st day of
the 2nd month of the same year. Within this time of one
month the consecration of the priests fills out 8 days (Lev
8:33; 9:1). A sequence in time is indicated only by Lev
16:1, which directly connects with what is reported in Lev
10 concerning Nadab and Abihu. In the same way the
ordinances given in 10:6 ff are connected with the events
described in 8:1 through 10:5. The laws are described as
being revelations of Yahweh, generally given to Moses
(compare 1:1; 4:1; 5:14; 6:19,24 (Hebrew 12,17); 7:22,28,
etc.); sometimes to Moses and Aaron (compare 11:1; 13:1;
14:33; 15:1, etc.), and, rarely, to Aaron alone (10:8). In
10:12 ff, Moses gives some directions to the priests, which
are based on a former revelation (compare 6:16 (Hebrew 9)
ff; 7:37 ff). In 10:16 ff, we have a difference of opinion
between Moses and Aaron, or rather his sons, which was
decided on the basis of an independent application of
principles given in Leviticus. Most of these commands are to
be announced to Israel (1:2; 4:2; 7:23,19; 9:3 ff; 11:2;
12:2; 15:2; 18:2, etc.); others to the priests (6:9,25
(Hebrew 2,18); 21:2; 22:2, etc.); or to the priests and the
Israelites (17:2; 22:18), while the directions in reference
to the Day of Atonement, with which Aaron was primarily
concerned (16:2), beginning with 16:29, without a special
superscription, are undeniably changed into injunctions
addressed to all Israel; compare also 21:24 and 21:2. As the
Book of Exodus treats of the communion which God offers on
His part to Israel and which culminates at last in His
dwelling in the tent of meeting (40:34 ff; compare under
EXODUS, I, 2), the Book of Leviticus contains the ordinances
which were to be carried out by the Israelites in religious,
ethical and cultural matters, in order to restore and
maintain this communion with God, notwithstanding the
imperfections and the guilt of the Israelites. And as this
book thus with good reason occupies its well established
place in the story of the founding and in the earliest
history of theocracy, so too even a casual survey and
intelligent glance at the contents of the book will show
that we have here a well-arranged and organic unity, a
conviction which is only confirmed and strengthened by the
presentation of the structure of the book in detail (see
under II, below).
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The third book in the Pentateuch is called Leviticus because
it relates principally to the Levites and priests and their
services. The book is generally held to have been written by
Moses. Those critics even who hold a different opinion as to
the other books of the Pentateuch assign this book in the main
to him. One of the most notable features of the book is what
may be called its spiritual meaning. That so elaborate a
ritual looked beyond itself we cannot doubt. It was a prophecy
of things to come; a shadow whereof the substance was Christ
and his kingdom. We may not always be able to say what the
exact relation is between the type and the antitype; but we
cannot read the Epistle to the Hebrews and not acknowledge
that the Levitical priests "served the pattern and type of
heavenly things;" that the sacrifices of the law pointed to
and found their interpretation in the Lamb of God; that the
ordinances of outward purification signified the true inner
cleansing of the heart and conscience from dead works to serve
the living God. One idea --HOLINESS-- moreover penetrates the
whole of this vast and burdensome ceremonial, and gives it a
real glory even apart from any prophetic significance.
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The third Gospel is ascribed, by the general consent of
ancient Christendom, to "the beloved physician," Luke, the
friend and companion of the apostle Paul.
1. Date of the Gospel of Luke. --From Ac 1:1 it is
clear that the Gospel described "the former treatise" was
written before the Acts of the Apostles; but how much
earlier is uncertain. Perhaps it was written at Caesarea
during St. Paul's imprisonment there, A.D. 58-60.
2. Place where the Gospel was written. --If the time
has been rightly indicated, the place would be Caesarea.
3. Origin of the Gospel. --The preface, contained in
the first four verses of the Gospel, describes the object of
its writer. Here are several facts to be observed. There
were many narratives of the life of our Lord Current at the
early time when Luke wrote his Gospel. The ground of fitness
for the task St. Luke places in his having carefully
followed out the whole course of events from the beginning.
He does not claim the character of an eye-witness from the
first but possibly he may have been a witness of some part
of our Lord's doings. The ancient opinion that Luke wrote
his Gospel under the influence of Paul rests on the
authority of Irenreus, Tertulian, Origen and Eusebius. The
four verses could not have been put at the head of a history
composed under the exclusive guidance of Paul or of any one
apostle and as little could they have introduced a gospel
simply communicated by another. The truth seems to be that
St. Luke, seeking information from every quarter, sought it
from the preaching of his be loved master St. Paul; and the
apostle in his turn employed the knowledge acquired from
other sources by his disciple.
4. Purpose for which the Gospel was written. --The
evangelist professes to write that Theophilus "might know
the certainty of those things wherein he had been
instructed." ch, Lu 1:4 This Theophilus was probably a
native of Italy and perhaps an inhabitant of Rome, in
tracing St. Paul's journey to Rome, places which an Italian
might be supposed not to know are described minutely, Ac
27:8,12,16 but when he comes to Sicily and Italy this is
neglected. Hence it would appear that the person for whom
Luke wrote in the first instance was a Gentile reader; and
accordingly we find traces in the Gospel of a leaning toward
Gentile rather than Jewish converts.
5. Language and style of the Gospel. --It has never
been doubted that the Gospel was written in Greek, whilst
Hebraisms are frequent, classical idioms and Greek compound
words abound, for which there is classical authority. (Prof.
Gregory, in "Why Four Gospels" says that Luke wrote for
Greek readers, and therefore the character and needs of the
Greeks furnish the key to this Gospel. The Greek was the
representation of reason and humanity. He looked upon
himself as having the mission of perfecting man. He was
intellectual, cultured, not without hope of a higher world.
Luke's Gospel therefore represented the character and career
of Christ as answering the conception of a perfect and
divine humanity. Reason, beauty righteousness and truth are
exhibited as they meet in Jesus in their full splendor.
Jesus was the Saviour of all men, redeeming them to a
perfect and cultured manhood. --ED.)
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III. Origin.
1. Against the Wellhausen Hypothesis:
As in the article ATONEMENT, DAY OF, sec. I, 2, (2), we took
a stand against the modern attempts at splitting up the
text, and in III, 1 against theory of the late origin of the
whole pericope, we must, after trying under II to prove the
unity of the Book of Leviticus, yet examine the modern claim
that the book as a whole is the product of later times.
Since the entire book is ascribed to the Priestly Code (see
II, 1 above), the answer to the question as to the time when
it was written will depend on the attitude which we take
toward the Wellhausen hypothesis, which insists that the
Priestly Code was not published until the time of the exile
in 444 BC (Neh 8 through 10).
(1) The Argument from Silence.
One of the most important proofs for this claim is the
"argument from silence" (argumentum e silentio). How careful
one must be in making use of this argument can be seen from
the fact that, e.g., the high priest with his full title is
mentioned but a single time in the entire Book of Leviticus,
namely in 21:10; and that the Levites are not mentioned save
once (25:32 ff), and then incidentally. As is well known, it
is the adherents of the Wellhausen hypothesis themselves who
now claim that the bulk of the entire literature of the Old
Testament originated in the post-exilic period and long
after the year 444 BC. Leaving out of consideration for the
present the Books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah, all of
which describe the history of Israel from the standpoint of
the Priestly Code (P), we note that this later literature is
not any richer in its references to P than is the older
literature; and that in those cases where such references
are found in this literature assigned to a late period, it
is just as difficult to decide whether these passages refer
merely to a custom or to a codified set of laws.
(2) Attitude of Prophets toward Sacrificial System...
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Wayyiqra' is the Hebrew name, from the initial word; the
middle book of the Pentateuch. The laws "which the Lord
commanded Moses in Mount Sinai, in the day that he commanded
the children of Israel to offer their oblations unto the
Lord in the wilderness of Sinai" (Leviticus 7:38). Given
between the setting up of the tabernacle and its departure
from Sinai, i.e. between the first day of the first month
and the 20th day of the second month of the second year of
the Exodus (Exodus 40:2; Exodus 40:17; Numbers 10:11). Two
chief subjects are handled:
(1) Leviticus 1-16, the fundamental ordinances of
Israel's fellowship with Jehovah;
(2) Leviticus 17-27, the laws for hallowing Israel
in this covenant fellowship. Privilege and duty, grace
conferred and grace inwrought, go hand in hand.
First;
(1) The law of offerings, Leviticus 1-7.
(2) Investiture of Aaron and consecration of
priests, Leviticus 8-10.
(3) Rules as to clean and unclean, Leviticus 11-15.
(4) The day of atonement, the summing up of all
means of grace for the nation and the church, annually.
Second;
(1) Israel's life as holy and separate from
heathendom, in food, marriage, and toward fellow men,
Leviticus 17-20; the mutual connection of Leviticus 18;
Leviticus 19; Leviticus 20, is marked by recurring phrases,
"I are the Lord," "ye shall be holy, for I ... am holy."
(2) Holiness of priests and of offerings, Leviticus
21-22.
(3) Holiness shown in the holy convocations,
sabbaths, perpetual light in the tabernacle, shewbread,
Leviticus 23-24.
(4) Perpetuation of the theocracy by the sabbatical
and Jubilee years, the perpetual tenure of land, the
redemption of it and bond servants (Leviticus 25); and by
fatherly chastisement of the people and restoration on
repentance, Leviticus 26.
(5) Appendix on vows, which are not encouraged
especially, yet permitted with some restrictions (Leviticus
27)...
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LITERATURE
1. Text:
The five primary uncials (Codices Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus,
Vaticanus, Ephraemi, Bezae) are the chief witnesses for the
text of Luke's Gospel. This group is reinforced by L, Codex
Delta and the Freer (Detroit) MS; R, T, X and Xi are also
valuable in fragments. The other uncials are of secondary
value. The Latin, Egyptian and Syriac versions are also of
great importance. There are 4 Latin versions (African,
European, Italian, Vulgate), 3 Egyptian (Memphitic, Sahidic,
Bohairic), 5 Syriac (Curetonian, Sinaitic, Peshitto,
Harclean, Palestinian or Jerusalem). Many of the cursive
(minuscule) manuscripts are also of considerable worth, as
are some of the quotations from the Fathers.
Blass, Philology of the Gospels (1898), has advanced theory
of two recensions of this Gospel (a longer and a shorter),
such as he holds to be true of Acts. In the case of Acts,
theory has won some acceptance (see ACTS OF THE APOSTLES),
but that is not true of the Gospel to any extent. The
Western text of the Gospel is the shorter text, while in
Acts it is the longer text. In both instances Blass holds
that the shorter text was issued after the longer and
original text. His idea is that Luke himself revised and
issued the shorter text. In itself this is, of course,
possible, since the books are both addressed to an
individual, Theophilus. The other edition may have been
meant for others. Westcott and Hort, The New Testament in
Greek explain the omission in the Western text of the Gospel
as "Western non-interpolations," and often hold them to be
the true text. As samples one may note Lk 10:41; 12:19;
24:36,40,42, where the Western text is the shorter text.
This is not always true, however, for in 6:2 ff Codex Bezae
(D) has the famous passage about the man working on the
Sabbath, which the other documents do not give. In Lk 3:22,
D has the reading of Ps 2:7 (" Thou art my Son; this day I
have begotten thee") for the usual text. Zahn (Introduction,
III, 38) accepts this as the true text. There is no doubt of
the interest and value of the Western readings in Luke, but
it cannot be said that Blass has carried his point here. The
peculiar mutilation of the Gospel by Marcion has an interest
of its own...
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the third book of the Pentateuch; so called in the Vulgate,
after the LXX., because it treats chiefly of the
Levitical
service.
In the first section of the book (1-17), which
exhibits the
worship itself, there is, (1.) A series of laws (1-
7) regarding
sacrifices, burnt-offerings, meat-offerings, and
thank-offerings
(1-3), sin-offerings and trespass-offerings (4; 5),
followed by
the law of the priestly duties in connection with
the offering
of sacrifices (6; 7). (2.) An historical section (8-
10), giving
an account of the consecration of Aaron and his sons
(8);
Aaron's first offering for himself and the people
(9); Nadab and
Abihu's presumption in offering "strange fire before
Jehovah,"
and their punishment (10). (3.) Laws concerning
purity, and the
sacrifices and ordinances for putting away impurity
(11-16). An
interesting fact may be noted here. Canon Tristram,
speaking of
the remarkable discoveries regarding the flora and
fauna of the
Holy Land by the Israel Exploration officers, makes
the
following statement:, "Take these two catalogues of
the clean
and unclean animals in the books of Leviticus [11]
and
Deuteronomy [14]. There are eleven in Deuteronomy
which do not
occur in Leviticus, and these are nearly all animals
and birds
which are not found in Egypt or the Holy Land, but
which are
numerous in the Arabian desert. They are not named
in Leviticus
a few weeks after the departure from Egypt; but
after the people
were thirty-nine years in the desert they are named,
a strong
proof that the list in Deuteronomy was written at
the end of the
journey, and the list in Leviticus at the beginning.
It fixes
the writing of that catalogue to one time and period
only, viz.,
that when the children of Israel were familiar with
the fauna
and the flora of the desert" (Palest. Expl. Quart.,
Jan. 1887).
(4.) Laws marking the separation between Israel and
the heathen
(17-20). (5.) Laws about the personal purity of the
priests, and
their eating of the holy things (20; 21); about the
offerings of
Israel, that they were to be without blemish (22:17-
33); and
about the due celebration of the great festivals
(23; 25). (6.)
Then follow promises and warnings to the people
regarding
obedience to these commandments, closing with a
section on vows.
The various ordinances contained in this book were
all
delivered in the space of a month (comp. Ex. 40:17;
Num. 1:1),
the first month of the second year after the Exodus.
It is the
third book of Moses.
No book contains more of the very words of God. He
is almost
throughout the whole of it the direct speaker. This
book is a
prophecy of things to come, a shadow whereof the
substance is
Christ and his kingdom. The principles on which it
is to be
interpreted are laid down in the Epistle to the
Hebrews. It
contains in its complicated ceremonial the gospel of
the grace
of God.
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was written by Luke. He does not claim to have been an
eye-witness of our Lord's ministry, but to have gone
to the best
sources of information within his reach, and to have
written an
orderly narrative of the facts (Luke 1:1-4). The
authors of the
first three Gospels, the synoptics, wrote
independently of each
other. Each wrote his independent narrative under
the guidance
of the Holy Spirit.
Each writer has some things, both in matter and
style,
peculiar to himself, yet all the three have much in
common.
Luke's Gospel has been called "the Gospel of the
nations, full
of mercy and hope, assured to the world by the love
of a
suffering Saviour;" "the Gospel of the saintly
life;" "the
Gospel for the Greeks; the Gospel of the future; the
Gospel of
progressive Christianity, of the universality and
gratuitousness
of the gospel; the historic Gospel; the Gospel of
Jesus as the
good Physician and the Saviour of mankind;" the
"Gospel of the
Fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man;" "the
Gospel of
womanhood;" "the Gospel of the outcast, of the
Samaritan, the
publican, the harlot, and the prodigal;" "the Gospel
of
tolerance." The main characteristic of this Gospel,
as Farrar
(Cambridge Bible, Luke, Introd.) remarks, is fitly
expressed in
the motto, "Who went about doing good, and healing
all that were
oppressed of the devil" (Acts 10:38; comp. Luke
4:18). Luke
wrote for the "Hellenic world." This Gospel is
indeed "rich and
precious."
"Out of a total of 1151 verses, Luke has 389 in
common with
Matthew and Mark, 176 in common with Matthew alone,
41 in common
with Mark alone, leaving 544 peculiar to himself. In
many
instances all three use identical language." (See
MATTHEW
There are seventeen of our Lord's parables peculiar
to this
Gospel. (See List of Parables in Appendix.) Luke
also records
seven of our Lord's miracles which are omitted by
Matthew and
Mark. (See List of Miracles in Appendix.) The
synoptical Gospels
are related to each other after the following
scheme. If the
contents of each Gospel be represented by 100, then
when
compared this result is obtained:
Mark has 7 peculiarities, 93 coincidences.
Matthew 42 peculiarities, 58 coincidences.
Luke 59 peculiarities, 41 coincidences.
That is, thirteen-fourteenths of Mark, four-sevenths
of Matthew,
and two-fifths of Luke are taken up in describing
the same
things in very similar language.
Luke's style is more finished and classical than
that of
Matthew and Mark. There is less in it of the Hebrew
idiom. He
uses a few Latin words (Luke 12:6; 7:41; 8:30;
11:33; 19:20),
but no Syriac or Hebrew words except sikera, an
exciting drink
of the nature of wine, but not made of grapes (from
Heb. shakar,
"he is intoxicated", Lev. 10:9), probably palm wine.
This Gospel contains twenty-eight distinct
references to the
Old Testament.
The date of its composition is uncertain. It must
have been
written before the Acts, the date of the composition
of which is
generally fixed at about 63 or 64 A.D. This Gospel
was written,
therefore, probably about 60 or 63, when Luke may
have been at
Caesarea in attendance on Paul, who was then a
prisoner. Others
have conjectured that it was written at Rome during
Paul's
imprisonment there. But on this point no positive
certainty can
be attained.
It is commonly supposed that Luke wrote under the
direction,
if not at the dictation of Paul. Many words and
phrases are
common to both; e.g., compare:
Luke 4:22; with Col. 4:6.
Luke 4:32; with 1 Cor. 2:4.
Luke 6:36; with 2 Cor. 1:3.
Luke 6:39; with Rom. 2:19.
Luke 9:56; with 2 Cor. 10:8.
Luke 10:8; with 1 Cor. 10:27.
Luke 11:41; with Titus 1:15.
Luke 18:1; with 2 Thess. 1:11.
Luke 21:36; with Eph. 6:18.
Luke 22:19, 20; with 1 Cor. 11:23-29.
Luke 24:46; with Acts 17:3.
Luke 24:34; with 1 Cor. 15:5.
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the evangelist, was a Gentile. The date and circumstances
of his
conversion are unknown. According to his own
statement (Luke
1:2), he was not an "eye-witness and minister of the
word from
the beginning." It is probable that he was a
physician in Troas,
and was there converted by Paul, to whom he attached
himself. He
accompanied him to Philippi, but did not there share
his
imprisonment, nor did he accompany him further after
his release
in his missionary journey at this time (Acts 17:1).
On Paul's
third visit to Philippi (20:5, 6) we again meet with
Luke, who
probably had spent all the intervening time in that
city, a
period of seven or eight years. From this time Luke
was Paul's
constant companion during his journey to Jerusalem
(20:6-21:18).
He again disappears from view during Paul's
imprisonment at
Jerusalem and Caesarea, and only reappears when Paul
sets out
for Rome (27:1), whither he accompanies him (28:2,
12-16), and
where he remains with him till the close of his
first
imprisonment (Philemon 1:24; Col. 4:14). The last
notice of the
"beloved physician" is in 2 Tim. 4:11.
There are many passages in Paul's epistles, as well
as in the
writings of Luke, which show the extent and accuracy
of his
medical knowledge.
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In the preface to his Gospel Luke refers to "many" who
before him had written accounts of what the "eye witnesses"
and "ministers of the word" transmitted. This implies the
"many" were not themselves eye witnesses or ministers of the
word. Matthew's and Mark's Gospels therefore are not
referred to in the term "many." But as the phrase "they
delivered them to us" (paredosan) includes both written and
oral transmission (2 Thessalonians 2:15) Luke's words do not
oppose, as Alford thinks, but favor the opinion that those
two Gospels were among the sources of Luke's information,
especially as Matthew was an "eye-witness," and Mark a
"minister of the word." Luke himself applies" minister"
(Acts 13:5, hufretees) to John Mark. Luke differs from the
"many" in that his work is: (1) "in order," (2) with a"
perfect understanding of all things from the first"
(pareekoloutheekoti anoothen akriboos, "having traced all
things accurately from the remote beginning.")
Luke begins with earlier facts of John the Baptist's
and of our Lord's history than Matthew and Mark, he writes
methodically and in more chronological Order. Ancient
testimony assures us that Paul's teaching formed the
substratum of Luke's Gospel (the Muratorian Fragment;
Irenaeus, Haer. iii. 1,14; Tertullian, Marcion iv. 2;
Origen, Eusebius, H. E. vi. 25; Jerome, Vir. Illustr. 7).
Compare as to the special revelation to Paul 1 Corinthians
11:23; 1 Corinthians 15:3; Galatians 1:1; Galatians 1:11-12.
Paul was an "eye-witness" (1 Corinthians 9:1; Acts 22:14-
15); his expression "according to my gospel" implies the
independency of his witness; he quotes words of Christ
revealed to him, and not found in the four Gospels (Acts
20:35). Thus, besides Matthew and Mark, to whose Gospels the
"many" as well as Luke had access, Paul is the chief "eye
witness" to whom Luke refers in the preface. Luke and Paul
alone record Jesus' appearing to Peter first of the apostles
(Luke 24:34; 1 Corinthians 15:5)...
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front Contracted from Lucanus, as Silas is contracted from
Silvanus. A slave name. As Luke was a "physician," a
profession often exercised by slaves and freedmen, he may
have been a freedman. Eusebius (H.E. iii. 4) states that
Antioch was his native city. He was of Gentile parentage
before he became a Christian; as appears from Colossians
4:11,14: "Luke the beloved physician" (one of "my fellow
workers unto the kingdom of God which have been a comfort
unto me") is distinguished from those "of the circumcision."
That he was not of "the seventy" disciples, as
Epiphanius (Haer. i. 12) reports, is clear from his preface
in which he implies he was not an" eye witness"; the
tradition arose perhaps from his Gospel alone recording the
mission of the seventy. His history in Acts is first joined
with that of Paul at Troas (Acts 16:10), where the "we"
implies that the writer was then Paul's companion. He
accompanied the apostle in his journey to Jerusalem and
Rome, at Paul's first Roman imprisonment "Luke my fellow
labourer," Philemon (Philemon 1:24) written from Rome, as
also Colossians (Colossians 4:14); also in Paul's last
imprisonment there, when others forsook him Luke remained
faithful (2 Timothy 1:15; 2 Timothy 4:11 "only Luke is with
me".) His death by martyrdom between A.D. 75 and 100 is
generally reported.
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3. Contents:
The book, in the main, is composed of two extended polemics
against the priests (Mal 1:6 through 2:9) and the people
(Mal 2:10 through 4:3), opening with a clear, sharp
statement of the prophet's chief thesis that Yahweh still
loves Israel (Mal 1:2-5), and closing with an exhortation to
remember the Law of Moses (Mal 4:4-6). After the title or
superscription (Mal 1:1) the prophecy falls naturally into
seven divisions:
(1) Malachi 1:2-5, in which Malachi shows that Yahweh still
loves Israel because their lot stands in such marked
contrast to Edom's. They were temporarily disciplined; Edom
was forever punished.
(2) Malachi 1:6 through 2:9, a denunciation of the priests,
the Levites, who have become neglectful of their sacerdotal
office, indifferent to the Law, and unmindful of their
covenant relationship to Yahweh.
(3) Malachi 2:10-16, against idolatry and divorce. Some
interpret this section metaphorically of Judah as having
abandoned the religion of his youth (2:11). But idolatry and
divorce were closely related. The people are obviously
rebuked for literally putting away their own Jewish wives in
order to contract marriage with foreigners (2:15). Such
marriages, the prophet declares, are not only a form of
idolatry (2:11), but a violation of Yahweh's intention to
preserve to Himself a "godly seed" (2:15).
(4) Malachi 2:17 through 3:6, an announcement of coming
judgment. Men are beginning to doubt whether there is longer
a God of justice (2:17). Malachi replies that the Lord whom
the people seek will suddenly come, both to purify the sons
of Levi and to purge the land of sinners in general. The
nation, however, will not be utterly consumed (3:6).
(5) Malachi 3:7-12, in which the prophet pauses to give
another concrete example of the people's sins: they have
failed to pay their tithes and other dues. Accordingly,
drought, locusts, and famine have ensued. Let these be paid
and the nation will again prosper, and their land will
become "a delightsome land."
(6) Malachi 3:13 through 4:3, a second section addressed to
the doubters of the prophet's age. In 2:17, they had said,
"Where is the God of justice?" They now murmur: "It is vain
to serve God; and what profit is it that we have kept his
charge?" The wicked and the good alike prosper (3:14,15).
But, the prophet replies, Yahweh knows them that are His,
and a book of remembrance is being kept; for a day of
judgment is coming when the good and the evil will be
distinguished; those who work iniquity will be exterminated,
while those who do righteously will triumph.
(7) Malachi 4:4-6, a concluding exhortation to obey the
Mosaic Law; with a promise that Elijah the prophet will
first come to avert, if possible, the threatened judgment by
reconciling the hearts of the nation to one another, i.e. to
reconcile the ideals of the old to those of the young, and
vice versa...
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The contents of the book are comprised in four chapters. In
the
Hebrew text the third and fourth chapters (of the
A.V.) form but
one. The whole consists of three sections, preceded
by an
introduction (Mal. 1:1-5), in which the prophet
reminds Israel
of Jehovah's love to them. The first section (1:6-
2:9) contains
a stern rebuke addressed to the priests who had
despised the
name of Jehovah, and been leaders in a departure
from his
worship and from the covenant, and for their
partiality in
administering the law. In the second (2:9-16) the
people are
rebuked for their intermarriages with idolatrous
heathen. In the
third (2:17-4:6) he addresses the people as a whole,
and warns
them of the coming of the God of judgment, preceded
by the
advent of the Messiah.
This book is frequently referred to in the New
Testament
(Matt. 11:10; 17:12; Mark 1:2; 9:11, 12; Luke 1:17;
Rom. 9:13).
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messenger or angel, the last of the minor prophets, and the
writer of the last book of the Old Testament canon
(Mal. 4:4, 5,
6). Nothing is known of him beyond what is contained
in his book
of prophecies. Some have supposed that the name is
simply a
title descriptive of his character as a messenger of
Jehovah,
and not a proper name. There is reason, however, to
conclude
that Malachi was the ordinary name of the prophet.
He was contemporary with Nehemiah (comp. Mal. 2:8
with Neh.
13:15; Mal. 2:10-16 with Neh. 13:23). No allusion is
made to him
by Ezra, and he does not mention the restoration of
the temple,
and hence it is inferred that he prophesied after
Haggai and
Zechariah, and when the temple services were still
in existence
(Mal. 1:10; 3:1, 10). It is probable that he
delivered his
prophecies about B.C. 420, after the second return
of Nehemiah
from Persia (Neh. 13:6), or possibly before his
return.
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("messenger of Jah"), or Jehovah; contracted for Malachijah,
as Abi for Abijah (2 Kings 18:2; compare 2 Chronicles 29:1).
The name is that of an office rather than of a person; it
occurs in the sense "My (Jehovah's) messenger" (Malachi 3:1,
compare Haggai 1:13). Malachi was Jehovah's last inspired
messenger of Old Testament, announcing the advent of the
great Messenger of New Testament; the transition link
between the two dispensations, "the skirt and boundary of
Christianity," to which is due his abrupt earnestness. Not
identical with Ezra, as Chaldee paraphrase represents, for
Malachi is never called a scribe, always a prophet, but Ezra
always a scribe, never a prophet.
The analogy of the headings of the other prophets
favors the view that Malachi is a proper name. He supported
or followed up the governor Nehemiah in the restoration of
the national polity civil and religious, as Haggai and
Zechariah previously had supported Joshua the high priest
and Zerubbabel the civil governor in building the temple,
Malachi (Zechariah 1:10; Zechariah 3:1-10) presupposes the
temple already built. Like Nehemiah (Nehemiah 13:5; Nehemiah
13:15-22; Nehemiah 13:23-30) he censures the secular and
mercenary spirit of the priests (Malachi 1:10; Malachi 2:14-
16; Malachi 3:8-10); the people's marriages with foreigners;
the non-payment of the tithes (Nehemiah states the cause,
the high priest's alliance with Tobiah the Ammonite and
Sanballat); and the rich men's want of sympathy toward the
poor. Nehemiah (Nehemiah 6:7) implies that "prophets"
supported him, by his desire, in his reformation...
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("messenger of Jah"), or Jehovah; contracted for Malachijah,
as Abi for Abijah (2 Kings 18:2; compare 2 Chronicles 29:1).
The name is that of an office rather than of a person; it
occurs in the sense "My (Jehovah's) messenger" (Malachi 3:1,
compare Haggai 1:13). Malachi was Jehovah's last inspired
messenger of Old Testament, announcing the advent of the
great Messenger of New Testament; the transition link
between the two dispensations, "the skirt and boundary of
Christianity," to which is due his abrupt earnestness. Not
identical with Ezra, as Chaldee paraphrase represents, for
Malachi is never called a scribe, always a prophet, but Ezra
always a scribe, never a prophet.
The analogy of the headings of the other prophets
favors the view that Malachi is a proper name. He supported
or followed up the governor Nehemiah in the restoration of
the national polity civil and religious, as Haggai and
Zechariah previously had supported Joshua the high priest
and Zerubbabel the civil governor in building the temple,
Malachi (Zechariah 1:10; Zechariah 3:1-10) presupposes the
temple already built. Like Nehemiah (Nehemiah 13:5; Nehemiah
13:15-22; Nehemiah 13:23-30) he censures the secular and
mercenary spirit of the priests (Malachi 1:10; Malachi 2:14-
16; Malachi 3:8-10); the people's marriages with foreigners;
the non-payment of the tithes (Nehemiah states the cause,
the high priest's alliance with Tobiah the Ammonite and
Sanballat); and the rich men's want of sympathy toward the
poor. Nehemiah (Nehemiah 6:7) implies that "prophets"
supported him, by his desire, in his reformation...
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II. Contents and General Characteristics.
1. Scope:
The Gospel begins with the ministry of John the Baptist and
ends with the announcement of the Resurrection, if the last
12 verses be not included. These add post-resurrection
appearances, the Commission, the Ascension, and a brief
summary of apostolic activity. Thus its limits correspond
closely with those indicated by Peter in Acts 10:37-43.
Nothing is said of the early Judean ministry. The Galilean
ministry and Passion Week with the transition from the one
to the other (in Acts 10) practically make up the Gospel.
2. Material Peculiar to Mark:
Matter peculiar to Mark is found in 4:26-29 (the seed
growing secretly); 3:21 (his kindred's fear); 7:32-37 (the
deaf and dumb man); 8:22-26 (the blind man); 13:33-37 (the
householder and the exhortation to watch); 14:51 (the young
man who escaped). But, in addition to this, there are many
vivid word-touches with which the common material is lighted
up, and in not a few of the common incidents Mark's account
is very much fuller; e.g. 6:14-29 (death of John the
Baptist); Mk 7:1-23 (on eating with unwashen hands); 9:14-29
(the demoniac boy); 12:28-34 (the questioning scribe). There
is enough of this material to show clearly that the author
could not have been wholly dependent on the other
evangelists. Hawkins reckons the whole amount of peculiar
material at about fifty verses (Hor. Syn., 11)...
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VI. Sources and Integrity.
We have seen that, according to the testimony of the
Fathers, Peter's preaching and teaching are at least the
main source, and that many features of the Gospel support
that view. We have seen, also, subtle but weighty reasons
for believing that Mark added a little himself. Need we seek
further sources, or does inquiry resolve itself into an
analysis of Peter's teaching?
B. Weiss believes that Mark used a document now lost
containing mainly sayings of Jesus, called Logia (L) in the
earlier discussions, but now commonly known as Q (Quelle).
In that opinion he has recently been joined by Sanday and
Streeter. Harnack, Sir John Hawkins and Wellhausen have
sought to reconstruct Q on the basis of the non-Markan
matter in Matthew and Luke. Allen extracts it from Matthew
alone, thinking that Mark also may have drawn a few sayings
from it. Some assign a distinct source for Mark 13. Streeter
considers it a document written shortly after the fall of
Jerusalem, incorporating a few utterances by Jesus and
itself incorporated bodily by Mark. Other sources, oral or
written, are postulated by Bacon for smaller portions and
grouped under X. He calls the final redactor R--not Mark but
a Paulinist of a radical type.
In forming a judgment much depends upon one's conception of
the teaching method of Jesus and the apostles. Teaching and
preaching are not synonymous terms. Matthew sums up the
early ministry in Galilee under "teaching, preaching and
healing," and gives us the substance of that teaching as it
impressed itself upon him. Mark reports less of it, but
speaks of it more frequently than either Matthew or Luke.
Jesus evidently gave teaching a very large place, and a
large proportion of the time thus spent was devoted to the
special instruction of the inner circle of disciples. The
range of that instruction was not wide. It was intensive
rather than extensive. He held Himself to the vital topic of
the kingdom of God. He must have gone over it again and
again. He would not hesitate to repeat instructions which
even chosen men found it so difficult to understand.
Teaching by repetition was common then as it is now in the
East. The word "catechize" (katecheo) implies that, and that
word is used by Paul of Jewish (Rom 2:18) and by...
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1. By whom written. --The author of this Gospel has been
universally believed to be Mark or Marcus, designated in Ac
12:12,25; 15:37 as John Mark, and in ch. 5,13 as John.
2. When is was written. --Upon this point nothing
absolutely certain can be affirmed, and the Gospel itself
affords us no information. The most direct testimony is that
of Irenaeus, who says it was after the death of the apostles
Peter and Paul. We may conclude, therefore, that this Gospel
was not written before A.D. 63. Again we may as certainly
conclude that it was not written after the destruction of
Jerusalem, for it is not likely that he would have omitted
to record so remarkable a fulfillment of our Lord's
predictions. Hence A.D. 63-70 becomes our limit, but nearer
than this we cannot go. --Farrar.
3. Where it was written. --As to the place, the
weight of testimony is uniformly in favor of the belief that
the Gospel was written and published at Rome. In this
Clement, Eusebius, Jerome, Epiphanius, all agree.
Chrysostom, indeed, asserts that it was published at
Alexandria; but his statement receives no confirmation, as
otherwise it could not fail to have done, from any
Alexandrine writer. --Farrar.
4. In what language. --As to the language in which
it was written, there never has been any reasonable doubt
that it was written in Greek.
5. Sources of information. --Mark was not one of the
twelve; and there is no reason to believe that he was an eye
and ear witness of the events which he has recorded but an
almost unanimous testimony of the early fathers indicates
Peter as the source of his information. The most important
of these testimonies is that of Papias, who says, "He, the
Presbyter (John), said, Mark, being the Interpreter of
Peter, wrote exactly whatever he remembered but he did not
write in order the things which were spoken or done by
Christ. For he was neither a hearer nor a follower of the
Lord, but, as I said, afterward followed Peter, who made his
discourses to suit what was required, without the view of
giving a connected digest of the discourses of our Lord.
Mark, therefore, made no mistakes when he wrote down
circumstances as he recollected them; for he was very
careful of one thing, to omit nothing of what he heard, and
to say nothing false in what he related." Thus Papias writes
of Mark. This testimony is confirmed by other witnesses. --
Abbott.
6. For whom it was written. --The traditional
statement is that it was intended primarily for Gentiles,
and especially for those at Rome. A review of the Gospel
itself confirms this view.
7. Characteristics. -- (1) Mark's Gospel is occupied
almost entirely with the ministry in Galilee and the events
of the passion week. It is the shortest of the four Gospels,
and contains almost no incident or teaching which is not
contained in one of the other two synoptists; but (2) it is
by far the most vivid and dramatic in its narratives, and
their pictorial character indicates not only that they were
derived from an eye and ear witness, but also from one who
possessed the observation and the graphic artistic power of
a natural orator such as Peter emphatically was. (3) One
peculiarity strikes us the moment we open it, --the absence
of any genealogy of our Lord. This is the key to much that
follows. It is not the design of the evangelist to present
our Lord to us, like St. Matthew as the Messiah, "the son of
David and Abraham," ch. 1:1, or, like St. Luke, as the
universal Redeemer, "the son of Adam, which was the son of
God." ch. 3:38. (4) His design is to present him to us as
the incarnate and wonder-working Son of God, living and
acting among men; to portray him in the fullness of his
living energy. --Cambridge Bible for Schools.
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It is the current and apparently well-founded tradition that
Mark derived his information mainly from the
discourses of
Peter. In his mother's house he would have abundant
opportunities of obtaining information from the
other apostles
and their coadjutors, yet he was "the disciple and
interpreter
of Peter" specially.
As to the time when it was written, the Gospel
furnishes us
with no definite information. Mark makes no mention
of the
destruction of Jerusalem, hence it must have been
written before
that event, and probably about A.D. 63.
The place where it was written was probably Rome.
Some have
supposed Antioch (comp. Mark 15:21 with Acts 11:20).
It was intended primarily for Romans. This appears
probable
when it is considered that it makes no reference to
the Jewish
law, and that the writer takes care to interpret
words which a
Gentile would be likely to misunderstand, such as,
"Boanerges"
(3:17); "Talitha cumi" (5:41); "Corban" (7:11);
"Bartimaeus"
(10:46); "Abba" (14:36); "Eloi," etc. (15:34).
Jewish usages are
also explained (7:3; 14:3; 14:12; 15:42). Mark also
uses certain
Latin words not found in any of the other Gospels,
as
"speculator" (6:27, rendered, A.V., "executioner;"
R.V.,
"soldier of his guard"), "xestes" (a corruption of
sextarius,
rendered "pots," 7:4, 8), "quadrans" (12:42,
rendered "a
farthing"), "centurion" (15:39, 44, 45). He only
twice quotes
from the Old Testament (1:2; 15:28).
The characteristics of this Gospel are, (1) the
absence of the
genealogy of our Lord, (2) whom he represents as
clothed with
power, the "lion of the tribe of Judah." (3.) Mark
also records
with wonderful minuteness the very words (3:17;
5:41; 7:11, 34;
14:36) as well as the position (9:35) and gestures
(3:5, 34;
5:32; 9:36; 10:16) of our Lord. (4.) He is also
careful to
record particulars of person (1:29, 36; 3:6, 22,
etc.), number
(5:13; 6:7, etc.), place (2:13; 4:1; 7:31, etc.),
and time
(1:35; 2:1; 4:35, etc.), which the other evangelists
omit. (5.)
The phrase "and straightway" occurs nearly forty
times in this
Gospel; while in Luke's Gospel, which is much
longer, it is used
only seven times, and in John only four times.
"The Gospel of Mark," says Westcott, "is essentially
a
transcript from life. The course and issue of facts
are imaged
in it with the clearest outline." "In Mark we have
no attempt to
draw up a continuous narrative. His Gospel is a
rapid succession
of vivid pictures loosely strung together without
much attempt
to bind them into a whole or give the events in
their natural
sequence. This pictorial power is that which
specially
characterizes this evangelist, so that 'if any one
desires to
know an evangelical fact, not only in its main
features and
grand results, but also in its most minute and so to
speak more
graphic delineation, he must betake himself to
Mark.'" The
leading principle running through this Gospel may be
expressed
in the motto: "Jesus came...preaching the gospel of
the kingdom"
(Mark 1:14).
"Out of a total of 662 verses, Mark has 406 in
common with
Matthew and Luke, 145 with Matthew, 60 with Luke,
and at most 51
peculiar to itself." (See MATTHEW -T0002442.)
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frontACTS, THE BOOK OF; BARNABAS; GOSPELS.) "John (his
Hebrew name) whose surname was Mark" (his Roman name): Mark
12:12; Mark 12:25; Mark 13:5; Mark 13:13; Mark 15:39;
Colossians 4:10; 2 Timothy 4:11; Philemon 1:24. The Roman
supplanted the Jewish name, as Paul did Saul. The change
marks his entrance on a new and worldwide ministry. The
fathers unanimously testify that Mark was "interpreter"
(hermeneutees, Papias in Eusebius, H. E. iii. 39; Irenaeus,
Haer. iii. 1,10, sec. 6) to Peter; meaning one who expresses
and clothes in words the testimony of another. Papias, or
John Presbyter (in Eusebius, H. E. iii. 39), states that
Mark wrote "not in order," i.e. he wrote "some" leading
facts, not a complete history. He attests Mark's accuracy,
saying "he committed no error," but made it his aim "to omit
nought of what he heard and to state nothing untrue."
Peter's name and presence are mentioned on occasions
where apparently there is no reason for it; Mark herein
wished to bring the apostle forward as his authority (see
Mark 1:36; Mark 5:37; Mark 11:20-26; Mark 13:3). There are
indications of the author having been a Galilean, which
Peter was. Thus, Herod the tetrarch is styled "king"; the
"lake' (as Luke 8:22 calls it, for he knew larger sects) is
called "the sea of Galilee" (Mark 5:1). Only in Mark 6:30
the term of dignity, "apostle," is found; in Luke, as
writing later, it frequently occurs. Things to their
discredit are ingenuously stated by Matthew and Mark
(Peter), as we might expect from apostles writing about
themselves; but are sparingly introduced by Luke (Matthew
16:9; Mark 7:18; Mark 10:41; Mark 14:31; Mark 6:52; Mark
9:10; Mark 10:32, the last three not in Matthew)...
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LITERATURE
1. Name of Gospel--Unity and Integrity:
The "Gospel according to Matthew," i.e. the Gospel according
to the account of Matthew, stands, according to traditional,
but not entirely universal, arrangement, first among the
canonical Gospels. The Gospel, as will be seen below, was
unanimously ascribed by the testimony of the ancient church
to the apostle Matthew, though the title does not of itself
necessarily imply immediate authorship. The unity and
integrity of the Gospel were never in ancient times called
in question. Matthew 1; 2, particularly--the story of the
virgin birth and childhood of Jesus--are proved by the
consentient testimony of manuscripts, VSS, and patristic
references, to have been an integral part of the Gospel from
the beginning (see VIRGIN BIRTH). The omission of this
section from the heretical Gospel of the Ebionites, which
appears to have had some relation to our Gospel, is without
significance.
The theory of successive redactions of Mt, starting with an
Aramaic Gospel, elaborated by Eichhorn and Marsh (1801), and
the related theories of successive editions of the Gospel
put forth by the Tubingen school (Baur, Hilgenfeld, Kostlin,
etc.), and by Ewald (Bleek supposes a primitive Greek
Gospel), lack historical foundation, and are refuted by the
fact that manuscripts and versions know only the ultimate
redaction. Is it credible that the churches should quietly
accept redaction after redaction, and not a word be said, or
a vestige remain, of any of them?...
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math'-u: Matthew the apostle and evangelist is mentioned in
the 4 catalogues of the apostles in Mt 10:3; Mk 3:18; Lk
6:15; Acts 1:13, though his place is not constant in this
list, varying between the 7th and the 8th places and thus
exchanging positions with Thomas. The name occurring in the
two forms Matthaios, and Maththaios, is a Greek reproduction
of the Aramaic Mattathyah, i.e. "gift of Yahweh," and
equivalent to Theodore. Before his call to the apostolic
office, according to Mt 9:9, his name was Levi. The identity
of Matthew and Levi is practically beyond all doubt, as is
evident from the predicate in Mt 10:3; and from a comparison
of Mk 2:14; Lk 5:27 with Mt 9:9. Mark calls him "the son of
Alpheus" (Mk 2:14), although this cannot have been the
Alpheus who was the father of James the Less; for if this
James and Matthew had been brothers this fact would
doubtless have been mentioned, as is the case with Peter and
Andrew, and also with the sons of Zebedee. Whether Jesus, as
He did in the case of several others of His disciples, gave
him the additional name of Matthew is a matter of which we
are not informed. As he was a customs officer (ho telones,
Mt 10:3) in Capernaum, in the territory of Herod Antipas,
Matthew was not exactly a Roman official, but was in the
service of the tetrarch of Galilee, or possibly a
subordinate officer, belonging to the class called
portitores, serving under the publicani, or superior
officials who farmed the Roman taxes. As such he must have
had some education, and doubtless in addition to the native
Aramaic must have been acquainted with the Greek His ready
acceptance of the call of Jesus shows that he must have
belonged to that group of publicans and sinners, who in
Galilee and elsewhere looked longingly to Jesus (Mt 11:19;
Lk 7:34; 15:1). Just at what period of Christ's ministry he
was called does not appear with certainty, but evidently not
at once, as on the day when he was called (Mt 9:11,14,18; Mk
5:37), Peter, James and John are already trustworthy
disciples of Jesus. Unlike the first six among the apostles,
Matthew did not enter the group from among the pupils of
John the Baptist. These are practically all the data
furnished by the New Testament on the person of Matthew, and
what is found in post-Biblical and extra-Biblical sources is
chiefly the product of imagination and in part based on
mistaking the name of Matthew for Matthias (compare Zahn,
Introduction to the New Testament, chapter liv, note 3).
Tradition states that he preached for 15 years in Israel and
that after this he went to foreign nations, the Ethiopians,
Macedonians, Syrians, Persians, Parthians and Medea being
mentioned. He is said to have died a natural death either in
Ethiopia or in Macedonia. The stories of the Roman Catholic
church that he died the death of a martyr on September 21
and of the Greek church that this occurred on November 10
are without any historical basis. Clement of Alexandria
(Strom., iv.9) gives the explicit denial of Heracleon that
Matthew suffered martyrdom.
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1. Its authorship. --That this Gospel was written by the
apostle Matthew there is no reason to doubt. Seventeen
independent witnesses of the first four centuries attest its
genuineness.
2. Its original language. --The testimony of the
early Church is unanimous that Matthew wrote originally in
the Hebrew language. On the otherhand doubt is thrown over
this opinion, both statements of by an examination of the
fathers and by a consideration of peculiar forms of language
employed in the Gospel itself. The question is unsettled,
the best scholars not agreeing in their Judgment concerning
it. If there was a Hebrew original, it disappeared at a very
early age. The Greek Gospel which we now possess was it is
almost certain, written in Matthew's lifetime; and it is not
at all improbable that he wrote the Gospel in both the Greek
and Hebrew languages. --Lyman Abbolt. It is almost certain
that our Lord spoke in Greek with foreigners, but with his
disciples and the Jewish people in Aramaic (a form of
language closely allied to the Hebrew). --Schaff. The Jewish
historian Josephus furnishes an illustration of the fate of
the Hebrew original of Matthew. Josephus himself informs us
that he, wrote his great work "The History of the Jewish
Wars," originally in Hebrew, his native tongue, for the
benefit of his own nation, and he afterward translated it
into Greek. No notices of the Hebrew original now survive. -
-Professor D.S. Gregory.
3. The date.-- The testimony of the early Church is
unanimous that Matthew wrote first of the early Church is
among the evangelists. Irenieus relates that Matthew wrote
his Gospel while Peter and Paul were preaching, and founding
the Church at Rome, after A.D. 61. It was published before
the destruction of Jerusalem, A.D. 50.--Alford. We would
place our present Gospel between A.D. 60 and 66. If there
was an original Hebrew Gospel, an earlier date belongs to it
--Ellicott.
4. Its object.-- This Gospel was probably written in
Israel for Jewish Christians. It is an historical proof that
Jesus is the Messiah. Matthew is the Gospel for the Jew. It
is the Gospel of Jesus, the Messiah of the prophets. This
Gospel takes the life of Jesus as it was lived on earth, and
his character as it actually appeared, and places them
alongside the life and character of the Messiah as sketched
in the prophets, the historic by the side of the Prophetic,
that the two may appear in their marvellous unity and in
their perfect identity. --Professor Gregory.
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(gift of Jehovah). (A contraction, as is also Matthias, of
Mattathias. His original name was Levi, and his name Matthew
was probably adopted as his new apostolic name was a Jew.
His father's name was Alphaeus. His home was at Capernaum
His business was the collection of dues and customs from
persons and goods crossing the Sea of Galilee, or passing
along the great Damascus road which ran along the shore
between Bethsaida, Julius and Capernaum. Christ called him
from this work to he his disciple. He appears to have been a
man of wealth, for he made a great feast in his own house,
perhaps in order to introduce his former companions and
friends to Jesus. His business would tend to give him a
knowledge of human nature, and accurate business habits, and
of how to make a way to the hearts of many publicans and
sinners not otherwise easily reached. He is mentioned by
name, after the resurrection of Christ, only in Ac 1:15 but
he must have lived many years as an apostle, since he was
the author of the Gospel of Matthew which was written at
least twenty years later. There is reason to believe that he
remained for fifteen years at Jerusalem, after which he went
as missionary to the Persians, Parthians and Medes. There is
a legend that he died a martyr in Ethiopia. --ED.)
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The author of this book was beyond a doubt the Matthew, an
apostle of our Lord, whose name it bears. He wrote
the Gospel of
Christ according to his own plans and aims, and from
his own
point of view, as did also the other "evangelists."
As to the time of its composition, there is little
in the
Gospel itself to indicate. It was evidently written
before the
destruction of Jerusalem (Matt. 24), and some time
after the
events it records. The probability is that it was
written
between the years A.D. 60 and 65.
The cast of thought and the forms of expression
employed by
the writer show that this Gospel was written for
Jewish
Christians of Israel. His great object is to prove
that Jesus
of Nazareth was the promised Messiah, and that in
him the
ancient prophecies had their fulfilment. The Gospel
is full of
allusions to those passages of the Old Testament in
which Christ
is predicted and foreshadowed. The one aim prevading
the whole
book is to show that Jesus is he "of whom Moses in
the law and
the prophets did write." This Gospel contains no
fewer than
sixty-five references to the Old Testament, forty-
three of these
being direct verbal citations, thus greatly
outnumbering those
found in the other Gospels. The main feature of this
Gospel may
be expressed in the motto, "I am not come to
destroy, but to
fulfil."
As to the language in which this Gospel was written
there is
much controversy. Many hold, in accordance with old
tradition,
that it was originally written in Hebrew (i.e., the
Aramaic or
Syro-Chaldee dialect, then the vernacular of the
inhabitants of
Israel), and afterwards translated into Greek,
either by
Matthew himself or by some person unknown. This
theory, though
earnestly maintained by able critics, we cannot see
any ground
for adopting. From the first this Gospel in Greek
was received
as of authority in the Church. There is nothing in
it to show
that it is a translation. Though Matthew wrote
mainly for the
Jews, yet they were everywhere familiar with the
Greek language.
The same reasons which would have suggested the
necessity of a
translation into Greek would have led the evangelist
to write in
Greek at first. It is confessed that this Gospel has
never been
found in any other form than that in which we now
possess it.
The leading characteristic of this Gospel is that it
sets
forth the kingly glory of Christ, and shows him to
be the true
heir to David's throne. It is the Gospel of the
kingdom. Matthew
uses the expression "kingdom of heaven" (thirty-two
times),
while Luke uses the expression "kingdom of God"
(thirty-three
times). Some Latinized forms occur in this Gospel,
as kodrantes
(Matt. 5:26), for the Latin quadrans, and phragello
(27:26), for
the Latin flagello. It must be remembered that
Matthew was a
tax-gatherer for the Roman government, and hence in
contact with
those using the Latin language.
As to the relation of the Gospels to each other, we
must
maintain that each writer of the synoptics (the
first three)
wrote independently of the other two, Matthew being
probably
first in point of time.
"Out of a total of 1071 verses, Matthew has 387 in
common with
Mark and Luke, 130 with Mark, 184 with Luke; only
387 being
peculiar to itself." (See MARK -T0002419; LUKE
-T0002331;
GOSPELS -T0001532.)
The book is fitly divided into these four parts:
(1.)
Containing the genealogy, the birth, and the infancy
of Jesus
(1; 2).
(2.) The discourses and actions of John the Baptist
preparatory to Christ's public ministry (3; 4:11).
(3.) The discourses and actions of Christ in Galilee
(4:12-20:16).
(4.) The sufferings, death and resurrection of our
Lord
(20:17-28).
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gift of God, a common Jewish name after the Exile. He was
the
son of Alphaeus, and was a publican or tax-gatherer
at
Capernaum. On one occasion Jesus, coming up from the
side of the
lake, passed the custom-house where Matthew was
seated, and said
to him, "Follow me." Matthew arose and followed him,
and became
his disciple (Matt. 9:9). Formerly the name by which
he was
known was Levi (Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27); he now
changed it,
possibly in grateful memory of his call, to Matthew.
The same
day on which Jesus called him he made a "great
feast" (Luke
5:29), a farewell feast, to which he invited Jesus
and his
disciples, and probably also many of old associates.
He was
afterwards selected as one of the twelve (6:15). His
name does
not occur again in the Gospel history except in the
lists of the
apostles. The last notice of him is in Acts 1:13.
The time and
manner of his death are unknown.
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("the gift of Jehovah"), contracted from Mattathias. The
evangelist and apostle. Son of Alphaeus (not the father of
James the Less, for Matthew and James are never coupled as
brothers). Mark (Mark 2:14, compare Mark 3:18) and Luke
(Luke 5:27, compare with Luke 6:15) veil his former less
honorable occupation of a publican under his original name
Levi; but Matthew himself gives it, and humbly puts himself
after Thomas, an undesigned mark of genuineness; whereas
Mark (Mark 3:18) and Luke (Luke 6:15) put Matthew before
Thomas in the list of apostles. (See PUBLICAN.) As
subordinate to the head farmers of the Roman revenues he
collected dues at Capernaum on the sea of Galilee, the route
by which traffic passed between Damascus and the Phoenician
seaports. But Matthew is not ashamed to own his identity
with "the publican" in order to magnify Christ's grace
(Matthew 9:9), and in his catalogue of the apostles (Matthew
10:3).
Christ called him at "the receipt of custom," and he
immediately obeyed the call. Desiring to draw others of his
occupation with him to the Savior he made in His honor a
great feast (Matthew 9:9-13; Luke 5:29; Mark 2:14). "Many
publicans and sinners" thus had the opportunity of hearing
the word; and the murmuring of the Pharisee, and the reply
of our Lord "they that be whole need not a physician but
they that are sick ... I am not come to call the righteous
but sinners to repentance," imply that his effort was
crowned with success. With the undesigned propriety which
marks genuineness Matthew talks of Jesus' sitting down in
"the house" without telling whose house it was, whereas Mark
mentions it as Levi's. He was among those who met in the
upper room at Jerusalem after our Lord's ascension (Acts
1:13). Eustathius (H. E. iii. 24) says that after our Lord's
ascension Matthew preached in Judaea and then in foreign
nations (Ethiopia, according to Socrates Scholasticus, H. E.
i. 19).
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frontGOSPELS for its aspect of Christ compared with the
other evangelists.)
Time of writing. As our Lord's words divide Acts
(Acts 1:8) into its three parts, "ye shall be witnesses unto
Me in Jerusalem, and all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the
uttermost part of the earth":
(1) the period in which the church was Jewish, Acts
1-11;
(2) the period when it was Gentile with strong
Jewish admixture;
(3) the period when the Gentiles preponderated,
Matthew's Gospel answers to the first or Jewish period,
ending about A.D. 41, and was written probably in and for
Jerusalem and Judea.
The expression (Matthew 27:7-8; Matthew 28:15) "unto
this day" implies some interval after Christ's crucifixion.
Language. Ancient testimony is unanimous that Matthew wrote
in Hebrew Papias, a disciple of John (the Presbyter) and
companion of Polycarp (Eusebius, H. E. 3:3), says, "Matthew
wrote his oracles (logia) in Hebrew, and each interpreted
them in Greek as he could." Perhaps the Greek for "oracles,"
logia, expresses that the Hebrew Gospel of Matthew was a
collection of discourses (as logoi means) rather than a full
narrative. Matthew's Gospel is the one of the four which
gives most fully the discourses of our Lord. Papias' use of
the past tense (aorist) implies that "each interpreting"
Matthew's Hebrew was in Papias' time a thing of the past, so
that as early as the end of the first century or the
beginning of the second the need for each to translate the
Hebrew had ceased, for an authoritative Greek translation
existed...
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4. Contents of the Prophecies:
Micah combats in his discourses, as does Isaiah, the
heathenish abuses which had found their way into the cult,
not only in Samaria, but also in Judah and Jerusalem, and
which the reformation of Hezekiah could counteract only in
part and not at all permanently (compare Mic 1:5-7; 5:11-13;
6:7,16). Further, he rebukes them for the social injustice,
of which particularly the powerful and the great in the land
were guilty (Mic 2:1 ff; 3:2 f.10 f); and the dishonesty and
unfaithfulness in business and in conduct in general
(compare Mic 6:10 ff; 7:2 ff). At all times Micah, in doing
this, was compelled to defend himself against false
prophets, who slighted these charges as of little
importance, and threatened and antagonized the prophet in
his announcements of impending evil (compare 2:5 ff,11 ff).
In pronounced opposition to these babblers and their
predictions of good things, Micah announces the judgment
through the enemies that are approaching, and he even goes
beyond Isaiah in the open declaration that Jerusalem and the
temple are to be destroyed (Mic 3:12; 4:10; 5:1). The first-
mentioned passage is also confirmed by the event reported in
Jer 26:17 ff. The passage Mic 4:10, where in a surprising
way Babylon is mentioned as the place of the exile, is for
this reason regarded as unauthentic by the critics, but not
justly. Micah predicts also the deliverance from Babylon and
the reestablishment of Israel in Jerusalem, and declares
that this is to take place through a King who shall come
forth from the deepest humiliation of the house of David and
shall be born in Bethlehem, and who, like David, originally
a simple shepherd boy, shall later become the shepherd of
the people, and shall make his people happy in peace and
prosperity. Against this King the last great onslaught of
the Gentiles will avail nothing (4:11-13; 5:4 ff). As a
matter of course, he will purify the country of all heathen
abuses (5:9 ff). In the description of this ruler, Micah
again agrees with Isaiah, but without taking the details
from that prophet...
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Three sections of this work represent three natural
divisions of the prophecy --1, 2; 3-5; 6,7 --each commencing
with rebukes and threatening and closing with a promise. The
first section opens with a magnificent description of the
coming of Jehovah to judgment for the sins and idolatries of
Israel and Judah, ch. 1:2-4, and the sentence pronounced
upon Samaria, vs. 5-9, by the Judge himself. The sentence of
captivity is passed upon them. Mic 2:10 but is followed
instantly by a promise of restoration and triumphant return.
ch. Mic 2:12,13 The second section is addressed especially
to the princes and heads of the people: their avarice and
rapacity are rebuked in strong terms; but the threatening is
again succeeded by a promise of restoration. In the last
section, chs. 6,7, Jehovah, by a bold poetical figure, is
represented as holding a controversy with his people,
pleading with them in justification of his conduct toward
them and the reasonableness of his requirements. The whole
concludes with a triumphal song of joy at the great
deliverance, like that from Egypt, which jehovah will
achieve, and a full acknowledgment of his mercy and
faithfulness of his promises. vs. 16-20. The last verse is
reproduced in the song of Zacharias. Lu 1:72,73 Micah's
prophecies are distinct and clear. He it is who says that
the Ruler shall spring from Bethlehem. ch. Lu 5:2 His style
has been compared with that of Hosea and Isaiah. His diction
is vigorous and forcible, sometimes obscure from the
abruptness of its transitions, but varied and rich.
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(who is like God?), the same name as Micaiah. [MICAIAH]
1. An Israelite whose familiar story is preserved in
the 17th and 18th chapters of Judges. Micah is evidently a
devout believers in Jehovah, and yet so completely ignorant
is he of the law of Jehovah that the mode which he adopts of
honoring him is to make a molten and graven image, teraphim
or images of domestic gods, and to set up an unauthorized
priesthood, first in his own family, Jud 17:5 and then in
the person of a Levite not of the priestly line. ver. Jud
17:12 A body of 600 Danites break in upon and steal his
idols from him.
2. The sixth in order of the minor prophets. He is
called the Morasthite, that is, a native of Moresheth, a
small village near Eleutheropolis to the east, where
formerly the prophet's tomb was shown, though in the days of
Jerome it had been succeeded by a church. Micah exercised
the prophetical office during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz and
Hezekiah, kings of Judah, giving thus a maximum limit of 59
years, B.C. 756-697, from the accession of Jotham to the
death of Hezekiah, and a minimum limit of 16 years, B.C.
742-726, from the death of Jotham to the accession of
Hezekiah. He was contemporary with Hosea and Amos during the
part of their ministry in Israel, and with Isaiah in Judah.
3. A descendant of Joel the Reubenite. 1Ch 5:5
4. The son of Meribbaal or Mephibosheth, the son of
Jonathan. 1Ch 8:34,35; 9:40,41
5. A Kohathite levite, the eldest son of Uzziel the
brother of Amram. 1Ch 23:30
6. The father of Abdon, a man of high station in the
reign of Josiah. 2Ch 34:20
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the sixth in order of the so-called minor prophets. The
superscription to this book states that the prophet
exercised
his office in the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah. If we
reckon from the beginning of Jotham's reign to the
end of
Hezekiah's (B.C. 759-698), then he ministered for
about
fifty-nine years; but if we reckon from the death of
Jotham to
the accession of Hezekiah (B.C. 743-726), his
ministry lasted
only sixteen years. It has been noticed as
remarkable that this
book commences with the last words of another
prophet, "Micaiah
the son of Imlah" (1 Kings 22:28): "Hearken, O
people, every one
of you."
The book consists of three sections, each commencing
with a
rebuke, "Hear ye," etc., and closing with a promise,
(1) ch. 1;
2; (2) ch. 3-5, especially addressed to the princes
and heads of
the people; (3) ch. 6-7, in which Jehovah is
represented as
holding a controversy with his people: the whole
concluding with
a song of triumph at the great deliverance which the
Lord will
achieve for his people. The closing verse is quoted
in the song
of Zacharias (Luke 1:72, 73). The prediction
regarding the place
"where Christ should be born," one of the most
remarkable
Messianic prophecies (Micah 5:2), is quoted in Matt.
2:6.
There are the following references to this book in
the New
Testament:
5:2, with Matt. 2:6; John 7:42.
7:6, with Matt. 10:21,35,36.
7:20, with Luke 1:72,73.
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a shortened form of Micaiah, who is like Jehovah? (1.) A man
of
Mount Ephraim, whose history so far is introduced in
Judg. 17,
apparently for the purpose of leading to an account
of the
settlement of the tribe of Dan in Northern Israel,
and for
the purpose also of illustrating the lawlessness of
the times in
which he lived (Judg. 18; 19:1-29; 21:25).
(2.) The son of Merib-baal (Mephibosheth), 1 Chr.
8:34, 35.
(3.) The first in rank of the priests of the family
of
Kohathites (1 Chr. 23:20).
(4.) A descendant of Joel the Reubenite (1 Chr.
5:5).
(5.) "The Morasthite," so called to distinguish him
from
Micaiah, the son of Imlah (1 Kings 22:8). He was a
prophet of
Judah, a contemporary of Isaiah (Micah 1:1), a
native of
Moresheth of Gath (1:14, 15). Very little is known
of the
circumstances of his life (comp. Jer. 26:18, 19).
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1. Of Mount Ephraim. (See JONATHAN.) The date of the event
is implied as before Samson, for the origin of the name
Mahaneh Dan occurs in this narrative (Judges 18:12) and it
is mentioned as already so named in Samson's childhood
(Judges 13:25, margin). Josephus places the synchronous
narrative of the Levite and his concubine at the beginning
of the judges. Phinehas, Aaron's grandson, is mentioned
(Judges 20:28). The narrative was written after the monarchy
had begun (Judges 18:1; Judges 19:1), while the tabernacle
was still at Shiloh, not yet moved by David to Jerusalem
(Judges 18:81).
2. MICAH THE PROPHET. The oldest form of the name
was Mikaiahuw, "who is as Jah?" (compare MICHAEL.) In Micah
7:18 Micah alludes to the meaning of his name as embodying
the most precious truth to a guilty people such as he had
painted the Jews, "who is a God like unto Thee that pardon
iniquity," etc. Sixth of the minor prophets in the Hebrew
canon, third in the Septuagint. The Morasthite, i.e. of
Moresheth, or Moresheth Gath (near Gath in S.W. of Judaea),
where once was his tomb, but in Jerome's (Ep. Paulae 6) days
a church, not far from Eleutheropolis. Micah prophesied in
the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah somewhere between
756 and 697 B.C. Contemporary with Isaiah in Judah, with
whose prophecies his have a close connection (compare Micah
4:1-3 with Isaiah 2:2-4, the latter stamping the former as
inspired), and with Hosea and Amos during their later
ministry in Israel.
His earlier prophecies under Jotham and Ahaz were
collected and written out as one whole under Hezekiah.
Probably the book was read before the assembled king and
people on some fast or festival, as certain elders quoted to
the princes and people assembled against Jeremiah (Jeremiah
26:18) Micah 3:12, "Micah the Morasthite in the days of
Hezekiah, and spoke to all the people of Judah, Thus saith
the Lord of hosts, Zion shall be plowed like a field, and
Jerusalem shall become heaps, and the mountain of the house
as the high places of a forest. Did Hezekiah put him ... to
death? Did he not fear the Lord and besought the Lord, and
the Lord repented Him of the evil which He had pronounced
against them?" The idolatries of Ahaz' reign accord with
Micah 's denunciations. He prophesies partly against Israel
(Samaria), partly against Judah...
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LITERATURE
I. Authorship and Date.
1. The Name:
The name Nahum (nachum; Septuagint and New Testament Naoum;
Josephus, Naoumos) occurs nowhere else in the Old Testament;
in the New Testament it is found in Lk 3:25. It is not
uncommon in the Mishna, and it has been discovered in
Phoenician inscriptions. It means "consolation," or
"consoler," and is therefore, in a sense, symbolical of the
message of the book, which is intended to comfort the
oppressed and afflicted people of Judah.
2. Life and Home of Nahum:
Of the personal life of Nahum, practically nothing is known.
In Nah 1:1 he is called "the Elkoshite," that is, an
inhabitant of Elkosh. Unfortunately, the location of this
place is not known.
The Four Traditions
One tradition, which cannot be traced beyond the 16th
century AD, identifies the home of Nahum with a modern
village Elkush, or Alkosh, not far from the left bank of the
Tigris, two days' journey North of the site of ancient
Nineveh. A second tradition, which is at least as old as the
days of Jerome, the latter part of the 4th century, locates
Elkosh in Galilee, at a place identified by many with the
modern El-Kauze, near Ramieh. Others identify the home of
the prophet with Capernaum, the name of which means "Village
of Nahum." A fourth tradition, which is first found in a
collection of traditions entitled "Lives of the Prophets,"
says "Nahum was from Elkosh, beyond Bet Gabre, of the tribe
of Simeon." A place in the South is more in harmony with the
interest the prophet takes in the Southern Kingdom, so that
the last-mentioned tradition seems to have much in its
favor, but absolute certainty is not attainable...
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na'-hum (Naoum; the King James Version Naum): An ancestor of
Jesus in Luke's genealogy, the 9th before Joseph, the husband
of Mary (Lk 3:25).
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(consolation). Nahum, called "the Elkoshite," is the seventh
in order of the minor prophets. His personal history is
quite unknown. The site of Elkosh, his native place, is
disputed, some placing it in Galilee, others in Assyria.
Those who maintain the latter view assume that the prophet's
parents were carried into captivity by Tiglath-pileser and
that the prophet was born at the village of Alkush, on the
east bank of the Tigris, two miles north of Mosul. On the
other hand, the imagery of his prophecy is such lie would be
natural to an inhabitant of Israel, Na 1:4 to whom the rich
pastures of Bashan the vineyards of Carmel and the blossoms
of Lebanon were emblems of all that was luxuriant and
fertile. The language employed in ch. Na 1:15; 2:2 is
appropriate to one who wrote for his countrymen in their
native land. (McClintock and Strong come to the conclusion
that Nahum was a native of Galilee that at the captivity of
the ten tribes he escaped into Judah, and prophesied in the
reign of Hezekiah, 726-698.--ED.) Prophecy of Nahum. --The
date of Nahum a prophecy can be determined with as little
precision as his birthplace. It is, however, certain that
the prophecy was written before the final downfall of
Nineveh and its capture by the Medes and Chaldeans, cir.
B.C. 625. The allusions to the Assyrian power imply that it
was still unbroken. ch. Na 1:12; 2:8,13; 3:16-17 It is most
probable that Nahum flourished in the latter half of the
return of Hezekiah, and wrote his prophecy either in
Jerusalem or its neighborhood. The subject of the prophecy
is, in accordance with the superscription, "the burden of
Nineveh," the destruction of which he predicts. As a poet
Nahum occupies a high place in the first rank of Hebrew
literature. His style is clear and uninvolved, though
pregnant and forcible; his diction sonorous and rhythmical,
the words re-echoing to the sense. Comp. Na 2:4; 3:3
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Nahum prophesied, according to some, in the beginning of the
reign of Ahaz (B.C. 743). Others, however, think
that his
prophecies are to be referred to the latter half of
the reign of
Hezekiah (about B.C. 709). This is the more probable
opinion,
internal evidences leading to that conclusion.
Probably the book
was written in Jerusalem (soon after B.C. 709),
where he
witnessed the invasion of Sennacherib and the
destruction of his
host (2 Kings 19:35).
The subject of this prophecy is the approaching
complete and
final destruction of Nineveh, the capital of the
great and at
that time flourishing Assyrian empire. Assur-bani-
pal was at the
height of his glory. Nineveh was a city of vast
extent, and was
then the centre of the civilzation and commerce of
the world, a
"bloody city all full of lies and robbery" (Nah.
3:1), for it
had robbed and plundered all the neighbouring
nations. It was
strongly fortified on every side, bidding defiance
to every
enemy; yet it was to be utterly destroyed as a
punishment for
the great wickedness of its inhabitants.
Jonah had already uttered his message of warning,
and Nahum
was followed by Zephaniah, who also predicted (Zeph.
2:4-15) the
destruction of the city, predictions which were
remarkably
fulfilled (B.C. 625) when Nineveh was destroyed
apparently by
fire, and the Assyrian empire came to an end, an
event which
changed the face of Asia. (See NINEVEH -T0002735.)
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consolation, the seventh of the so-called minor prophets, an
Elkoshite. All we know of him is recorded in the book
of his
prophecies. He was probably a native of Galilee, and
after the
deportation of the ten tribes took up his residence in
Jerusalem. Others think that Elkosh was the name of a
place on
the east bank of the Tigris, and that Nahum dwelt
there.
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"consolation" and "vengeance", to Israel and Israel's foe
respectively. The two themes alternate in Nahum 1; as the
prophecy advances, vengeance on Assyria predominates.
Country. "The Elkoshite" (Nahum 1:1), from Elkosh or
Elkesi a village of Galilee pointed out to Jerome (Preface
in Nahum). Capernaum, "village of Nahum," seemingly takes
its name from Nahum having resided in the neighbourhood,
though born in Elkosh. The allusions in Nahum indicate local
acquaintance with Israel (Nahum 1:4; Nahum 1:15; Nahum 2:2)
and only general knowledge of Nineveh (Nahum 2:4-6; Nahum
3:2-3). This confutes the notion that the Alkush (resembling
the name Elkosh), E. of the Tigris and N. of Mosul, is
Nahum's place of birth and of burial, though Jewish pilgrims
visit it as such.
DATE. Hezekiah's time was that in which trust in
Jehovah and the observance of the temple feasts prevailed as
they did not before or after. So in Nahum 1:7; Nahum 1:15,
"Jehovah is a stronghold in the day of trouble; and He
knoweth (with approval) them that trust in Him ... O Judah,
keep thy solemn feasts." Moreover Nahum has none of the
reproofs for national apostasy which abound in the other
prophets. Nahum in Elkosh of Galilee was probably among
those of northern Israel, after the deportation of the ten
tribes, who accepted Hezekiah's earnest invitation to keep
the Passover at Jerusalem (2 Chronicles 30). His graphic
description of Sennacherib and his army (2 Chronicles 1:9-
12) makes it likely he was near or in Jerusalem at the time.
..
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LITERATURE
Nehemiah, the son of Hacaliah, is the Jewish patriot whose
life is recorded in the Biblical work named after him. All
that we know about him from contemporary sources is found in
this book; and so the readers of this article are referred
to the Book of Nehemiah for the best and fullest account of
his words and deeds.
See EZRA-NEHEMIAH.
1. Family:
All that is known of his family is that he was the son of
Hacaliah (Neh 1:1) and that one of his brothers was called
Hanani (Neh 1:2; 7:2); the latter a man of sufficient
character and importance to have been made a ruler of
Jerusalem.
From Neh 10:1-8 some have inferred that he was a priest,
since Nehemiah comes first in the list of names ending with
the phrase, "these were the priests." This view is supported
by the Syriac and Arabic versions of 10:1, which read:
"Nehemiah the elder, the son of Hananiah the chief of the
priests"; and by the Latin Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible,
390-405 A.D.) of 2 Macc 1:21, where he is called "Nehemiah
the priest," and possibly by 2 Macc 1:18, where it is said
that Nehemiah "offered sacrifices, after that he had builded
the temple and the altar."
The argument based upon Neh 10:1-8 will fall to the ground,
if we change the pointing of the "Seraiah" of the 3rd verse
and read "its princes," referring back to the princes of
10:1. In this case, Nehemiah and Zedekiah would be the
princes; then would come the priests and then the Levites.
Some have thought that he was of the royal line of Judah,
inasmuch as he refers to his "fathers' sepulchres" at
Jerusalem (Neh 2:3). This would be a good argument only if
it could be shown that none but kings had sepulchers at
Jerusalem...
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LITERATURE
1. Name:
The books of Ezra and Nehemiah, by whomsoever written, are
properly so named according to analogy from the principal
persons mentioned in them. In the Hebrew Bibles, the former
is headed simply, Ezra, and the latter, Nehemiah. The two
books are counted in the Talmud, in Josephus, and in the
Canon of Melito, 171 AD, as one, and are so treated also in
the subscription of the Massoretic Text, which reads: "The
totality of the verses of Ezra and Nehemiah is 688, and its
sign is `Remember, Yahweh, the reproach of thy servants,'
and its two parts (are at the sentence) `unto the ascent of
the corner' (Neh 3:31) and its chapters (sedharayw) are ten,
and its sign is `Upon a high mountain get thee up, O thou
that announcest good tidings to Zion.' " In the Septuagint,
Ezra-Nehemiah is called Esdras B, while an apocryphal Book
of Ezra is called Esdras A (see below). In the catalogues of
the Old Testament writings handed down to us by the Fathers
(Origen, Cyril, Melito, Jerome and the Council of Laodicea)
our Ezra is called 1 Ezra; Nehemiah, 2 Ezra; the apocryphal
Greek Ezra, 3 Ezra; and an apocalyptic book, falsely called
a book of Ezra, is denominated 4 Ezra.
2. Object:
The object of the books is to show that God fulfilled His
promise, or prophecy, to restore His exiled people to their
inheritance, through the instrumentality on the one hand of
the great heathen monarchs, Cyrus, Darius and Artaxerxes,
and on the other hand by stirring up the spirit of such
great men among the chosen people as Joshua and Zerubbabel,
Haggai and Zechariah, and Ezra and Nehemiah, through whom
the altar, the temple, the houses and walls of Jerusalem,
and finally the worship and ceremony of the Jewish people
were reestablished, the people being separated from foreign
admixtures, customs and idolatry, and their religious
observances purified and fixed for all time...
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like the preceding one of Ezra, is clearly and certainly not
all by the same hand. [EZRA, BOOK OF] By far the most
important portion, indeed is the work of Nehemiah but other
portions are either extracts from various chronicles and
registers or supplementary narratives and reflections, some
apparently by Ezra, others, perhaps the work of the same
person who inserted the latest, genealogical extracts from the
public chronicles. The main history contained in the book of
Nehemiah covers about twelve years, viz., from the twentieth
to the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes Langimanus i.e. from
B.C. 445 to 433. The whole narrative gives us a graphic and
interesting account of the state of Jerusalem and the returned
captives in the writer's times, and, incidentally, of the
nature of the Persian government and the condition of its
remote provinces, The book of Nehemiah has always had an
undisputed place in the Canon, being included by the Hebrews
under the general head of the book of Ezra, and, as Jerome
tells us in the Prolog. Gal., by the Greeks and Latins under
the name of the second book of Ezra.
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(consolation of the Lord).
1. Son of Hachaliah, and apparently of the tribe of
Judah. All that we know certainly concerning him is
contained in the book which bears his name. We first find
him at Shushan, the winter residence of the kings of Persia,
in high office as the cupbearer of King Artaxerxes
Longimanus. In the twentieth year of the king's reign, i.e.
B.C. 445, certain Jews arrived from Judea, and gave Nehemiah
a deplorable account of the state of Jerusalem. He
immediately conceived the idea of going to Jerusalem to
endeavor to better their state, and obtained the king's
consent to his mission. Having received his appointment as
governor of Judea, he started upon his journey, being under
promise to return to Persia within a given time. Nehemiah's
great work was rebuilding, for the first time since their
destruction by Nebuzar-adan, the walls of Jerusalem, and
restoring that city to its former state and dignity as a
fortified town. To this great object therefore Nehemiah
directed his whole energies without an hour's unnecessary
delay. In a wonderfully short time the walls seemed to
emerge from the heaps of burnt rubbish, end to encircle the
city as in the days of old. It soon became apparent how
wisely Nehemiah had acted in hastening on the work. On his
very first arrival, as governor, Sanballat and Tobiah had
given unequivocal proof of their mortification at his
appointment; but when the restoration was seen to be rapidly
progressing, their indignation knew no bounds. They made a
great conspiracy to fall upon the builders with an armed
force and put a stop to the undertaking. The project was
defeated by the vigilance and prudence of Nehemiah. Various
stratagems were then resorted to get Nehemiah away from
Jerusalem and if possible to take his life; but that which
most nearly succeeded was the attempt to bring him into
suspicion with the king of Persia, as if he intended to set
himself up as an independent king as soon as the walls were
completed. The artful letter of Sanballat so-far wrought
upon Artaxerxes that he issued a decree stopping the work
till further orders. If is probable that at the same time he
recalled Nehemiah, or perhaps his leave of absence had
previously expired. But after a delay, perhaps of several
years he was permitted to return to Jerusalem land to crown
his work by repairing the temple and dedicating the walls.
During his government Nehemiah firmly repressed the
exactions of the nobles and the usury of the rich, and
rescued the poor Jews from spoliation and slavery. He
refused to receive his lawful allowance as governor from the
people, in consideration of their poverty, during the whole
twelve years that he was in office but kept at his own
charge a table for 150 Jews, at which any who returned from
captivity were welcome. He made most careful provision for
the maintenance of the ministering priests and Levites and
for the due and constant celebration of divine worship. He
insisted upon the sanctity of the precincts of the temple
being preserved inviolable, and peremptorily ejected the
powerful Tobiah from one of the chambers which Eliashib had
assigned to him. With no less firmness and impartiality he
expelled from all sacred functions those of the high
priest's family who had contracted heathen marriages, and
rebuked and punished those of the common people who had
likewise intermarried with foreigners; and lastly, he
provided for keeping holy the Sabbath day, which was
shamefully profaned by many both Jews and foreign merchants,
and by his resolute conduct succeeded in repressing the
lawless traffic on the day of rest. Beyond the thirty-second
year of Artaxerxes, to which Nehemiah's own narrative leads
us, we have no account of him whatever.
2. One of the leaders of the first expedition from
Babylon to Jerusalem under Zerabbabel. Ezr 2:2; Ne 7:7
3. Son of Azbuk and ruler of the half part of Beth-
zur, who helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem. Ne 3:18
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The author of this book was no doubt Nehemiah himself. There
are
portions of the book written in the first person
(ch. 1-7;
12:27-47, and 13). But there are also portions of it
in which
Nehemiah is spoken of in the third person (ch. 8; 9;
10). It is
supposed that these portions may have been written
by Ezra; of
this, however, there is no distinct evidence. These
portions had
their place assigned them in the book, there can be
no doubt, by
Nehemiah. He was the responsible author of the whole
book, with
the exception of ch. 12:11, 22, 23.
The date at which the book was written was probably
about B.C.
431-430, when Nehemiah had returned the second time
to Jerusalem
after his visit to Persia.
The book, which may historically be regarded as a
continuation
of the book of Ezra, consists of four parts. (1.) An
account of
the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem, and of the
register
Nehemiah had found of those who had returned from
Babylon (ch.
1-7). (2.) An account of the state of religion among
the Jews
during this time (8-10). (3.) Increase of the
inhabitants of
Jerusalem; the census of the adult male population,
and names of
the chiefs, together with lists of priests and
Levites
(11-12:1-26). (4.) Dedication of the wall of
Jerusalem, the
arrangement of the temple officers, and the reforms
carried out
by Nehemiah (12:27-ch. 13).
This book closes the history of the Old Testament.
Malachi the
prophet was contemporary with Nehemiah.
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III. The Structure of the Individual Pericopes.
In this division of the article, there is always to be found
(under 1) a consideration of the unity of the Biblical text
and (under 2) the rejection of the customary division into
different sources.
The conviction of the unity of the text of Genesis and of
the impossibility of dividing it according to different
sources is strongly confirmed and strengthened by the
examination of the different pericopes. Here, too, we find
the division on the basis of the typical numbers 4,7,10,12.
It is true that in certain cases we should be able to divide
in a different way; but at times the intention of the author
to divide according to these numbers practically compels
acceptance on our part, so that it would be almost
impossible to ignore this matter without detriment,
especially since we were compelled to accept the same fact
in connection with the articles EXODUS (II); LEVITICUS (II,
2); DAY OF ATONEMENT (I, 2, 1), and aIso EZEKIEL (I, 2, 2).
But more important than these numbers, concerning the
importance or unimportance of which there could possibly be
some controversy, are the fundamental religious and ethical
ideas which run through and control the larger pericopes of
the [toledhoth] of Terah, Isaac and Jacob in such a way that
it is impossible to regard this as merely the work of a
redactor, and we are compelled to consider the book as the
product of a single writer.
1. The Structure of the Prooemium (Genesis 1 through 2:3):
The structure of the proemium (Gen 1:1 through 2:3) is
generally ascribed to P. Following the introduction (Gen
1:1,2; creation of chaos), we have the creation of the seven
days with the Sabbath as a conclusion. The first and the
second three days correspond to each other (1st day, the
light; 4th day, the lights; 2nd day, the air and water by
the separation of the waters above and the waters below; 5th
day, the animals of the air and of the water; 3rd day, the
dry land and the vegetation; 6th day, the land animals and
man; compare also in this connection that there are two
works on each day). We find Exodus also divided according to
the number seven (see EXODUS, II, 1; compare also Ex 24:18b
through 31:18; see EXODUS, II, 2, 5, where we have also the
sevenfold reference to the Sabbath idea in Ex, and that,
too, repeatedly at the close of different sections, just as
we find this here in Genesis); and in Lev compare chapters
23; 25; 27; see LEVITICUS, II, 2, 2; the VIII, IX, and
appendix; and in Gen 4:17 ff J; 5:1-24 P; 6:9 through 9:29;
36:1 through 37 I (see under 2, 1,2,3,1)...
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IV. The Historical Character.
1. History of the Patriarchs: (Genesis 12 through 50):
(1) Unfounded Attacks upon the History.
(a) From General Dogmatic Principles:
In order to disprove the historical character of the
patriarchs, the critics are accustomed to operate largely
with general dogmatic principles, such as this, that no
nation knows who its original founder was. In answer to this
it can be said that the history of Israel is and was from
the beginning to the end unique, and cannot be judged by the
average principles of historiography. But it is then claimed
that Abraham's entire life appears to be only one continuous
trial of faith, which was centered on the one promise of the
true heir, but that this is in reality a psychological
impossibility. Over against this claim we can in reply cite
contrary facts from the history of several thousands of
years; and that, too, in the experience of those very men
who were most prominent in religious development, such as
Paul and Luther.
(b) From Distance of Time:
Secondly, critics emphasize the long period of time that
elapsed between these events themselves and their first
records, especially if these records can be accredited to so
late a period as the 9th or the 8th century BC. In
consequence of this, it is claimed that much of the contents
of Genesis is myth or fable; and Gunkel even resolves the
whole book into a set of unconnected little myths and
fables. Over against this claim we can again appeal to the
universal feeling in this matter. I do not think that it can
be made plausible, that in any race fables and myths came in
the course of time more...
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(origin), the first book of the law or Pentateuch, so
called from its title ia the Septuagint, that is, Creation.
Its author was Moses. The date of writing was probably
during the forty-years wanderings in the wilderness, B.C.
1491-1451. Time. --The book of Genesis covered 2369 years,--
from the creation of Adam, A.M 1, to the death of Joseph,
A.M. 2369, or B.C. 1635. Character and purpose. --The book
of Genesis (with the first chapters of Exodus) describes the
steps which led to the establishment of the theocracy. It is
a part of the writer's plan to tell us what the divine
preparation of the world was in order to show, first, the
significance of the call of Abraham, and next, the true
nature of the Jewish theocracy. He begins with the creation
of the world, because the God who created the world and the
God who revealed himself to the fathers is the same God. The
book of Genesis has thus a character at once special and
universal. Construction. --It is clear that Moses must have
derived his knowledge of the events which he records in
Genesis either from immediate divine revelation or from oral
tradition or written documents. The nature of many of the
facts related, and the minuteness of the narration, render
it extremely improbable that immediate revelation was the
source from whence they were drawn. That his knowledge
should have been derived from oral tradition appears morally
impossible when we consider the great number of names, ages,
dates and minute events which are recorded. The conclusion
then, seems fair that he must have obtained his information
from written documents coeval, or nearly so, with the events
which they recorded, and composed by persons intimately
acquainted with the subjects to which they relate. He may
have collected these, with additions from authentic
tradition or existing monuments under the guidance of the
Holy Spirit, into a single book. Certain it is that several
of the first chapters of Genesis have the air of being made
up of selections from very ancient documents, written by
different authors at different periods. The variety which is
observable in the names and titles of the Supreme Being is
appealed to among the most striking proofs of this fact.
This is obvious in the English translation, but still more
so in the Hebrew original. In Gen 1 to 2:3, which is really
one piece of composition, as the title, v. 4, "These are the
generations," shows, the name of the Most High is uniformly
Elohim, God. In ch. Ge 2:4 to ch. 3, which may be considered
the second document, the title is uniformly Yehovah Elohim,
Lord God; and in the third, including ch. 4, it is Yehovah,
Lord, only; while in ch. 5 it is Elohim, God only, except in
v. 29, where a quotation is made, and Yehovah used. It is
hardly conceivable that all this should be the result of
mere accident. The changes of the name correspond exactly to
the changes in the narratives and the titles of the several
pieces." Now, do all these accurate quotations," says
Professor Stowe, "impair the credit of the Mosaic books, or
increase it? Is Marshall's Life of Washington to be regarded
as unworthy of credit because it contains copious extracts
from Washington's correspondence and literal quotations from
important public documents? Is not its value greatly
enhanced by this circumstance? The objection is altogether
futile. In the common editions of the Bible the Pentateuch
occupies about one hundred and fifty pages, of which perhaps
ten may be taken up with quotations. This surely is no very
large proportion for an historical work extending through so
long a period."--Bush. On the supposition that writing was
known to Adam, Gen. 1-4, containing the first two of these
documents, formed the Bible of Adam's descendants, or the
antediluvians. Gen 1 to 11:9, being the sum of these two and
the following three, constitutes the Bible of the
descendants of Noah. The whole of Genesis may be called the
Bible of the posterity of Jacob; and the five Books of the
Law were the first Bible of Israel as a nation.--Canon Cook.
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The five books of Moses were collectively called the
Pentateuch,
a word of Greek origin meaning "the five-fold book."
The Jews
called them the Torah, i.e., "the law." It is
probable that the
division of the Torah into five books proceeded from
the Greek
translators of the Old Testament. The names by which
these
several books are generally known are Greek.
The first book of the Pentateuch (q.v.) is called by
the Jews
Bereshith, i.e., "in the beginning", because this is
the first
word of the book. It is generally known among
Christians by the
name of Genesis, i.e., "creation" or "generation,"
being the
name given to it in the LXX. as designating its
character,
because it gives an account of the origin of all
things. It
contains, according to the usual computation, the
history of
about two thousand three hundred and sixty-nine
years.
Genesis is divided into two principal parts. The
first part
(1-11) gives a general history of mankind down to
the time of
the Dispersion. The second part presents the early
history of
Israel down to the death and burial of Joseph (12-
50).
There are five principal persons brought in
succession under
our notice in this book, and around these persons
the history of
the successive periods is grouped, viz., Adam (1-3),
Noah (4-9),
Abraham (10-25:18), Isaac (25:19-35:29), and Jacob
(36-50).
In this book we have several prophecies concerning
Christ
(3:15; 12:3; 18:18; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14; 49:10). The
author of
this book was Moses. Under divine guidance he may
indeed have
been led to make use of materials already existing
in primeval
documents, or even of traditions in a trustworthy
form that had
come down to his time, purifying them from all that
was
unworthy; but the hand of Moses is clearly seen
throughout in
its composition.
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The Hebrew name is Bereeshit, from its opening word "in the
beginning." Septuagint Genesis means generation, i.e.
creation and birth of the universe, man, and history. It is
a religious history, therefore it omits accounts in detail
of other nations, and concentrates attention on the origin
of that one from whom the promised Redeemer of man from the
deadly consequences of the fall (which is detailed at the
beginning) sprang. While a bare catalogue is given of whole
genealogies of nations, minute details are given of the
godly patriarchs in the line of the promised Savior, for
these details are of more everlasting moment to us than the
rise and fall of the mightiest empires. Again, the details
in the patriarchs' history selected for narration are not
the merely personal facts, but those illustrating religious
principles and furthering God's gracious purpose of
redemption.
Thus Adam's history before and in the fall is
minutely given, as affecting the whole race whom he
represented; but after the fall only a few brief notices,
but these of important bearing on mankind's spiritual
prospects (Genesis 3:20-24; Genesis 4:1; Genesis 5:1-5). So
the early development of the enmity between the serpent's
seed and the seed of the woman, and the separation of the
church from the world (Genesis 4:1-16; Genesis 4:25-26). The
divine prophetic germs in Genesis are the foundation of all
the subsequent prophecies throughout the Bible, and receive
their consummation in the restored tree of life, waters of
life, communion with God face to face in the world delivered
from the curse, at the close of Revelation. Astruc, a
Belgian physician (A.D. 1753), inferred from the varying use
of the names of God, Elohim (E) and Jehovah (J), the
existence of 12 documents or memoirs used by Moses in
compiling Genesis...
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II. The Book.
1. Interpretation of Habakkuk 1 and 2:
It is necessary to consider the interpretation of Hab 1 and
2 before giving the contents of the book, as a statement of
the contents of these chapters will be determined by their
interpretation. The different interpretations advocated may
be grouped under three heads: (1) According to the first
view: Hab 1:2-4: The corruption of Judah; the oppression of
the righteous Jews by the wicked Jews, which calls for the
Divine manifestation in judgment against the oppressors.
1:5-11: Yahweh announces that He is about to send the
Chaldeans to execute judgment. 1:12-17: The prophet is
perplexed. He cannot understand how a righteous God can use
these barbarians to execute judgment upon a people more
righteous than they. He considers even the wicked among the
Jews better than the Chaldeans. 2:1-4: Yahweh solves the
perplexing problem by announcing that the exaltation of the
Chaldeans will be but temporary; in the end they will meet
their doom, while the righteous will live. 2:5-20: Woes
against the Chaldeans.
(2) The second view finds it necessary to change the present
arrangement of Hab 1:5-11; in their present position, they
will not fit into the interpretation. For this reason
Wellhausen and others omit these verses as a later addition;
on the other hand, Giesebrecht would place them before 1:2,
as the opening verses of the prophecy. The transposition
would require a few other minor changes, so as to make the
verses a suitable beginning and establish a smooth
transition from 1:11 to 1:2. Omitting the troublesome
verses, the following outline of the two chapters may be
given: 1:2-4: The oppression of the righteous Jews by the
wicked Chaldeans. 1:12-17: Appeal to Yahweh on behalf of the
Jews against their oppressors. 2:1-4: Yahweh promises
deliverance (see above). 2:5-20: Woes against the Chaldeans.
(3) The third view also finds it necessary to alter the
present order of verses. Again Hab 1:5-11, in the present
position, interferes with theory; therefore, these verses
are given a more suitable place after 2:4. According to this
interpretation the outline is as follows: 1:2-4: Oppression
of the righteous Jews by the wicked Assyrians (Budde) or
Egyptians (G. A. Smith). 1:12-17: Appeal to Yahweh on behalf
of the oppressed against the oppressor. 2:1-4: Yahweh
promises deliverance (see above). 1:5-11: The Chaldeans will
be the instrument to execute judgment upon the oppressors
and to bring deliverance to the Jews. 2:5-20: Woes against
the Assyrians or Egyptians.
A full discussion of these views is not possible in this
article (see Eiselen, Minor Prophets, 466-68). It may be
sufficient to say that on the whole the first
interpretation, which requires no omission or transposition,
seems to satisfy most completely the facts in the case...
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(embrace), the eighth in order of the minor prophets. Of the
facts of the prophet's life we have no certain information. He
probably lived about the twelfth or thirteenth year of Josiah,
B.C. 630 or 629.
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consists of three chapters, in the first of which he
foreshadows the invasion of Judea by the Chaldeans, and in the
second he foretells the doom of the Chaldeans. The whole
concludes with the magnificent psalm in ch. 3, a composition
unrivalled for boldness of conception, sublimity of thought
and majesty of diction.
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embrace, the eighth of the twelve minor prophets. Of his
personal history we have no reliable information. He
was
probably a member of the Levitical choir. He was
contemporary
with Jeremiah and Zephaniah.
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were probably written about B.C. 650-627, or, as some think,
a
few years later. This book consists of three
chapters, the
contents of which are thus comprehensively
described: "When the
prophet in spirit saw the formidable power of the
Chaldeans
approaching and menacing his land, and saw the great
evils they
would cause in Judea, he bore his complaints and
doubts before
Jehovah, the just and the pure (1:2-17). And on this
occasion
the future punishment of the Chaldeans was revealed
to him (2).
In the third chapter a presentiment of the
destruction of his
country, in the inspired heart of the prophet,
contends with his
hope that the enemy would be chastised." The third
chapter is a
sublime song dedicated "to the chief musician," and
therefore
intended apparently to be used in the worship of
God. It is
"unequalled in majesty and splendour of language and
imagery."
The passage in 2:4, "The just shall live by his
faith," is
quoted by the apostle in Rom. 1:17. (Comp. Gal.
3:12; Heb.
10:37, 38.)
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"The cordially embraced one (favorite of God), or the
cordial embracer." "A man of heart, hearty toward another,
taking him into his arms. This Habakkuk does in his
prophecy; he comforts and lifts up his people, as one would
do with a weeping child, bidding him be quiet, because,
please God, it would yet be better with him" (Luther). The
psalm (Habakkuk 3) and title "Habakkuk the prophet" favor
the opinion that Habakkuk was a Levite. The closing words,
"to the chief singer on my stringed instruments," imply that
Habakkuk with his own instruments would accompany the song
he wrote under the Spirit; like the Levite seers and
singers, Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun (1 Chronicles 25:1-5). A
lyrical tone pervades his prophecies, so that he most
approaches David in his psalms.
The opening phrase (Habakkuk 1:1) describes his
prophecy as "the burden which," etc., i.e. the weighty,
solemn announcement. Habakkuk "saw" it with the inner eye
opened by the Spirit. He probably prophesied in the 12th or
13th year of Josiah (630 or 629 B.C.), for the words "in
your days" (Habakkuk 1:5) imply that the prophecy would come
to pass in the lifetime of the persons addressed. In
Jeremiah 16:9 the same phrase comprises 20 years, in Ezekiel
12:25 six years.
Zephaniah 1:7 is an imitation of Habakkuk 2:20; now
Zephaniah (Zephaniah 1:1) lived under Josiah, and prophesied
(compare Zephaniah 3:5; Zephaniah 3:15) after the
restoration of Jehovah's worship, i.e. after the 12th year
of Josiah's reign, about 624 B.C. So Habakkuk must have been
before this. Jeremiah moreover began prophesying in Josiah's
13th year; now Jeremiah borrows from Habakkuk (compare
Habakkuk 2:13 with Jeremiah 51:58); thus, it follows that
630 or 629 B.C. is Habakkuk's date of prophesying
(Delitzsch)...
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hag'-a-i, hag'-a-i (chaggay, an adjective formed from chagh,
"feast"):
1. Name:
The word "Haggai" may mean "festal," the prophet having been
born perhaps on a festival day; compare the Roman name
"Festus." Hebrew proper names were sometimes formed in this
manner, e.g. Barzillai, "a man of iron," from barzel,
"iron." Haggai may, however, be a shortened form of Haggiah
(1 Ch 6:30), meaning "festival of Yahweh," as Mattenai is an
abbreviation of Mattaniah (Ezr 10:33,16). In Greek Haggaios,
in Latin, Aggaeus or Aggeus, sometimes Haggaeus. Haggai is
the 10th in the order of the Twelve Prophets.
2. Personal History:
Little is really known of his personal history. But we do
know that he lived soon after the captivity, being the first
of the prophets of the Restoration. From Hag 2:3 of his
prophecies it is inferred by many that he had seen the first
temple, which, as we know, was destroyed in 586 BC. If so,
he must have prophesied when a comparatively old man, for we
know the exact date of his prophecies, 520 BC. According to
Ezr 5:1; 6:14, he was a contemporary of Zechariah, and was
associated with him in the work of rebuilding the temple;
besides, in the Greek and Latin and Syriac VSS, his name
stands with Zechariah's at the head of certain psalms, e.g.
Ps 111 (112), in the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405
A.D.) alone; Psalms 125; 126, in the Peshitta alone; Ps 137,
in the Septuagint alone; Psalms 146; 147; 148, in Septuagint
and Peshitta; and Ps 145, in Septuagint, Peshitta and
Vulgate; perhaps these psalms were introduced into the
temple-service on their recommendation. He was a prophet of
great faith (compare 2:1-5); it is possible that he was a
priest also (compare 2:10-19). Like Malachi he bears the
name of "Yahweh's messenger" (Heg 1:13; compare Mal 3:1).
According to Jewish tradition, he was a member of the Great
Synagogue...
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The style of Haggai is generally tame and prosaic, though at
times it rises to the dignity of severe invective when the
prophet rebukes his countrymen for their selfish indolence and
neglect of God's house. But the brevity of the prophecies is
so great, and the poverty of expression which characterizes
them so striking, as to give rise to a conjecture, not without
reason, that in their present form they are but the outline or
summary of the original discourses. They were delivered in the
second year of Darius Hystaspes (B.C. 620), at intervals from
the 1st day of the 6th month to the 24th day of the 9th month
in the same year.
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consists of two brief, comprehensive chapters. The object of
the
prophet was generally to urge the people to proceed
with the
rebuilding of the temple.
Chapter first comprehends the first address (2-11) and
its
effects (12-15). Chapter second contains,
(1.) The second prophecy (1-9), which was delivered a
month
after the first.
(2.) The third prophecy (10-19), delivered two months
and
three days after the second; and
(3.) The fourth prophecy (20-23), delivered on the
same day as
the third.
These discourses are referred to in Ezra 5:1; 6:14;
Heb.
12:26. (Comp. Hag. 2:7, 8, 22.)
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festive, one of the twelve so-called minor prophets. He was
the
first of the three (Zechariah, his contemporary, and
Malachi,
who was about one hundred years later, being the
other two)
whose ministry belonged to the period of Jewish
history which
began after the return from captivity in Babylon.
Scarcely
anything is known of his personal history. He may
have been one
of the captives taken to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar.
He began his
ministry about sixteen years after the Return. The
work of
rebuilding the temple had been put a stop to through
the
intrigues of the Samaritans. After having been
suspended for
fifteen years, the work was resumed through the
efforts of
Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 6:14), who by their
exhortations
roused the people from their lethargy, and induced
them to take
advantage of the favourable opportunity that had
arisen in a
change in the policy of the Persian government. (See
DARIUS
characterized:, "There is a ponderous and simple
dignity in the
emphatic reiteration addressed alike to every class
of the
community, prince, priest, and people, 'Be strong,
be strong, be
strong' (2:4). 'Cleave, stick fast, to the work you
have to do;'
or again, 'Consider your ways, consider, consider,
consider'
(1:5, 7;2:15, 18). It is the Hebrew phrase for the
endeavour,
characteristic of the gifted seers of all times, to
compel their
hearers to turn the inside of their hearts outwards
to their own
view, to take the mask from off their consciences,
to 'see life
steadily, and to see it wholly.'", Stanley's Jewish
Church. (See
SIGNET -T0003426.)
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("my feast".) A name given in anticipation of the joyous
return from exile. Perhaps a Levite, as the rabbis say he
was buried at Jerusalem among the priests. Tradition
represents him as returning with the first exiles from
Babylon his birthplace, under Zerubbabel 536 B.C., when
Cyrus, actuated by Isaiah's prophecies concerning himself
(Isaiah 44:28; Isaiah 45:1), decreed the Jews' restoration
and the rebuilding of the temple, for which he furnished all
necessaries. (See CYRUS; EZRA; AHASUERUS; ARTAXERXES;
DARIUS.) In spite of Samaritan opposition the temple
building went on under Cyrus and Cambyses (Ahasuerus Ezra
4:6); but under the Magian usurper Smerdis (Artaxerxes Ezra
4:7-23) the Samaritans procured a royal decree suspending
the work.
Hence, the Jews became so indifferent about it that
when Darius came to the throne (521 B.C.), whose accession
virtually nullified the usurper's prohibition, they
pretended that as the prophecy of the 70 years applied to
the temple as well as to the captivity in Babylon (Haggai
1:2), they were only in the 68th year, and that, the time
not yet having come, they might build splendid cieled
mansions for themselves. Haggai first, and Zechariah two
months later, were commissioned by Jehovah (Haggai 1:1) in
Darius' (Hystaspes) second year, 520 B.C., to rouse them
from their selfishness to resume the work which had been
suspended for 14 years. The dates of his four distinct
prophecies are given.
I. (Haggai 1). On the first day of the 6th month of
Darius' second year of reigning, 520 B.C. Reproves their
apathy in leaving the temple in ruins; reminds them of their
ill fortune because of their neglect of God's house. In
consequence, within 24 days they began building under
Zerubbabel (Haggai 1:12-15)...
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LITERATURE
I. Title.
In the King James Version and the English Revised Version
the title of this book describes it as "the Epistle of Paul
the Apostle to the Hebrews." Modern scholarship has disputed
the applicability of every word of this title. Neither does
it appear in the oldest manuscripts, where we find simply
"to Hebrews" (pros Hebraious). This, too, seems to have been
prefixed to the original writing by a collector or copyist.
It is too vague and general for the author to have used it.
And there is nothing in the body of the book which affirms
any part of either title. Even the shorter title was an
inference from the general character of the writing. Nowhere
is criticism less hampered by problems of authenticity and
inspiration. No question arises, at least directly, of
pseudonymity either of author or of readers, for both are
anonymous. For the purpose of tracing the history and
interpreting the meaning of the book, the absence of a
title, or of any definite historical data, is a
disadvantage. We are left to infer its historical context
from a few fragments of uncertain tradition, and from such
general references to historical conditions as the document
itself contains. Where no date, name or well-known event is
fixed, it becomes impossible to decide, among many
possibilities, what known historical conditions, if any, are
pre-supposed. Yet this very fact, of the book's detachment
from personal and historical incidents, renders it more
self-contained, and its exegesis less dependent upon
understanding the exact historical situation. But its
general relation to the thought of its time must be taken
into account if we are to understand it at all...
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LITERATURE
"The Gospel according to the Hebrews" was a work of early
Christian literature to which reference is frequently made
by the church Fathers in the first five centuries, and of
which some twenty or more fragments, preserved in their
writings, have come down to us. The book itself has long
disappeared. It has, however, been the subject of many
critical surmises and discussions in the course of the last
century. It has been regarded as the original record of the
life of Jesus, the Archimedespoint of the whole gospel
history. From it Justin Martyr has been represented as
deriving his knowledge of the works and words of Christ, and
to it have been referred the gospel quotations found in
Justin and other early writers when these deviate in any
measure from the text of the canonical gospels. Recent
discussions have thrown considerable light upon the problems
connected with this Gospel, and a large literature has grown
up around it of which the most important works will be noted
below.
1. References in Early Church History:
Speaking of Papias Eusebius mentions that he has related the
story of a woman who was accused of many sins before the
Lord, which is contained in the "Gospel according to the
Hebrews." This does not prove that Papias was acquainted
with this Gospel, for he might have obtained the story,
which cannot any longer be regarded as part of John's
Gospel, from oral tradition. But there is a certain
significance in Eusebius' mentioning it in this connection
(Euseb., HE, III, xxxix, 16). Eusebius, speaking of Ignatius
and his epp., takes notice of a saying of Jesus which he
quotes (Ep. ad Smyrn, iii; compare Lk 24:39), "Take, handle
me, and see that I am not an incorporeal spirit." The saying
differs materially from the saying in Luke's Gospel, and
Eusebius says he has no knowledge whence it had been taken
by Ignatius. Jerome, however, twice over attributes the
saying to the "Gospel according to the Hebrews," and Origen
quotes it from the "Teaching of Peter." Ignatius may have
got the saying from oral tradition, and we cannot,
therefore, be sure that he knew this Gospel...
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1. The author --There has been a wide difference of opinion
respecting the authorship of this epistle. For many years
Paul was considered the author; others think it may have
been Luke, Barnabas, or Apollos. Much of the theology and
the language are similar to Paul's, but the authorship of
the epistle ia still disputed.
2. To whom written. --The epistle was probably
addressed to the Jews in Jerusalem and Israel. The argument
of the epistle is such as could he used with most effect to
a church consisting exclusively of Jews by birth, personally
familiar with and attached to the temple service.
3. Date. --It was evidently written before the
destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70, probably about A.D. 62-
64.
4. Place. --It was probably written in Italy, while
Paul was a prisoner at Rome.
5. Contents. --With respect to the scope of the
epistle, it should be recollected that while the numerous
Christian churches scattered throughout Judea, Ac 9:31; Ga
1:22 were continually exposed to persecution from the Jews,
1Th 2:14 there was in Jerusalem one additional weapon in the
hands of the predominant oppressors of the Christians. The
magnificent national temple might be put against the Hebrew
Christian; and even if this affliction were not often laid
upon him, yet there was a secret burden which he bore within
him, the knowledge that the end of all the beauty and
awfulness of Zion was rapidly approaching. The writer of
this epistle meets the Hebrew Christians on their own
ground, showing that the new faith gave them Christ the Son
of God, more prevailing than the high priest as an
intercessor; that his Sabbath awaited them, his covenant,
his atonement, his city heavenly not made with hands. Having
him, believe in him with all your heart, with a faith in the
unseen future strong as that of the saints of old, patient
under present and prepared for coming woe, full of energy
and hope and holiness and love. Such was the teaching of the
Epistle to the Hebrews.
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(1.) Its canonicity. All the results of critical and
historical
research to which this epistle has been specially
subjected
abundantly vindicate its right to a place in the New
Testament
canon among the other inspired books.
(2.) Its authorship. A considerable variety of
opinions on
this subject has at different times been advanced.
Some have
maintained that its author was Silas, Paul's
companion. Others
have attributed it to Clement of Rome, or Luke, or
Barnabas, or
some unknown Alexandrian Christian, or Apollos; but
the
conclusion which we think is best supported, both
from internal
and external evidence, is that Paul was its author.
There are,
no doubt, many difficulties in the way of accepting
it as
Paul's; but we may at least argue with Calvin that
there can be
no difficulty in the way of "embracing it without
controversy as
one of the apostolical epistles."
(3.) Date and place of writing. It was in all
probability
written at Rome, near the close of Paul's two years'
imprisonment (Heb. 13:19,24). It was certainly
written before
the destruction of Jerusalem (13:10).
(4.) To whom addressed. Plainly it was intended for
Jewish
converts to the faith of the gospel, probably for
the church at
Jerusalem. The subscription of this epistle is, of
course,
without authority. In this case it is incorrect, for
obviously
Timothy could not be the bearer of it (13:23).
(5.) Its design was to show the true end and meaning
of the
Mosaic system, and its symbolical and transient
character. It
proves that the Levitical priesthood was a "shadow"
of that of
Christ, and that the legal sacrifices prefigured the
great and
all-perfect sacrifice he offered for us. It explains
that the
gospel was designed, not to modify the law of Moses,
but to
supersede and abolish it. Its teaching was fitted,
as it was
designed, to check that tendency to apostatize from
Christianity
and to return to Judaism which now showed itself
among certain
Jewish Christians. The supreme authority and the
transcendent
glory of the gospel are clearly set forth, and in
such a way as
to strengthen and confirm their allegiance to
Christ.
(6.) It consists of two parts: (a) doctrinal (1-
10:18), (b)
and practical (10:19-ch. 13). There are found in it
many
references to portions of the Old Testament. It may
be regarded
as a treatise supplementary to the Epistles to the
Romans and
Galatians, and as an inspired commentary on the book
of
Leviticus.
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Canonicity. - Clement of Rome (1st century A.D.) refers to
it oftener than any other canonical New Testament book,
adopting its words as on a level with the rest of the New
Testament. As the writer of this epistle claims authority
Clement virtually sanctions it, and this in the apostolic
age. Westcott (Canon, 22) observes, it seems transfused into
Clement's mind. Justin Martyr quotes its authority for
applying the titles "apostle" and "angel" to the Son of God.
Clement of Alexandria refers it to Paul, on the authority of
Pantaenus of Alexandria (in the middle of the second
century) saying that as Jesus is called the "apostle" to the
Hebrew, Paul does not in it call himself so, being apostle
to the Gentiles; also that Paul prudently omitted his name
at the beginning, because the Hebrew were prejudiced against
him; that it was originally written in Hebrew for the
Hebrew, and that Luke translated it into Greek for the
Greeks, whence the style resembles that of Acts.
He however quotes the Greek epistle as Paul's, so
also Origen; but in his Homilies he regards the style as
more Grecian than Paul's but the thoughts as his. "The
ancients who handed down the tradition of its Pauline
authorship must have had good reason for doing so, though
God alone knows the certainty who was the actual writer,"
i.e. probably the transcriber or else interpreter of Paul's
thoughts. The Peshito old Syriac version has it. Tertullian
in the beginning of the third century, in the African
church, ascribes it to Barnabas. Irenaeus in Eusebius quotes
it. About the same time Caius the presbyter of Rome mentions
only 13 epistles of Paul, whereas if epistle to Hebrew were
included there would be 14.
The Canon fragment of Muratori omits it, in the
beginning of the third century. frontCANON.) The Latin
church did not recognize it as Paul's for a long time
subsequently. So Victorinus, Novatian of Rome, and Cyprian
of Carthage. But in the fourth century Hilary of Poitiers
(A.D. 368), Lucifer of Cagliari (A.D. 371), Ambrose of Milan
(A.D. 397), and other Latins quote it as Paul's; the fifth
council of Carthage (A.D. 419) formally recognizes it among
his 14 epistles...
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LITERATURE
I. The Prophet.
1. Name:
The name (hoshea Septuagint Osee-; for other forms see note
in DB), probably meaning "help," seems to have been not
uncommon, being derived from the auspicious verb from which
we have the frequently recurring word "salvation." It may be
a contraction of a larger form of which the Divine name or
its abbreviation formed a part, so as to signify "God is
help," or "Help, God." according to Nu 13:8,16 that was the
original name of Joshua son of Nun, till Moses gave him the
longer name (compounded with the name of Yahweh) which he
continued to bear (yehoshua`), "Yahweh is salvation." The
last king of the Northern Kingdom was also named Hosea (2 Ki
15:30), and we find the same name borne by a chief of the
tribe of Ephraim under David (1 Ch 27:20) and by a chief
under Nehemiah (Neh 10:23).
2. Native Place:
Although it is not directly stated in the book, there can be
little doubt that he exercised his ministry in the kingdom
of the Ten Tribes. Whereas his references to Judah are of a
general kind, Ephraim or Samaria being sometimes mentioned
in the same connection or more frequently alone, the
situation implied throughout and the whole tone of the
addresses agree with what we know of the Northern Kingdom at
the time, and his references to places and events in that
kingdom are so numerous and minute as to lead to the
conclusion that he not only prophesied there, but that he
was a native of that part of the country. Gilead, e.g. a
district little named in the prophets, is twice mentioned in
Hos (6:8; 12:11) and in such a manner as to suggest that he
knew it by personal observation; and Mizpah (mentioned in
5:1) is no doubt the Mizpah in Gilead (Jdg 10:17). Then we
find Tabor (Hos 5:1), Shechem (Hos 6:9 the Revised Version
(British and American)), Gilgal and Bethel (Hos 4:15; 9:15;
10:5,8,15; 12:11). Even Lebanon in the distant North is
spoken of with a minuteness of detail which could be
expected only from one very familiar with Northern Israel
(Hos 14:5-8). In a stricter sense, therefore, than amos who,
though a native of Tekoah, had a prophetic mission to the
North, Hosea may be called the prophet of Northern Israel,
and his book, as Ewald has said, is the prophetic voice
wrung from the bosom of the kingdom itself...
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(salvation), son of Beeri, and first of the minor prophets.
Probably the life, or rather the prophetic career, of Hosea
extended from B.C. 784 to 723, a period of fifty-nine years.
The prophecies of Hosea were delivered in the kingdom of
Israel. Jeroboam II was on the throne, and Israel was at the
height of its earthly splendor. Nothing is known of the
prophet's life excepting what may be gained from his book.
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This book consists of fourteen chapters. It is easy to
recognize two great divisions in the book: (1) ch. 1 to 3; (2)
ch. 4 to end. The subdivision of these several parts is a work
of greater difficulty--
1. The first division should probably be subdivided
into three separate poems, each originating in a distinct aim,
and each after its own fashion attempting to express the
idolatry of Israel by imagery borrowed from the matrimonial
relation.
2. Attempts have been made to subdivide the second
part of the book. These divisions are made either according to
reigns of contemporary kings or according to the subject-
matter of the poem. The prophecies were probably collected by
Hosea himself toward the end of his career. Of his style
Eichhorn says, "His discourse is like a garland woven of a
multiplicity of flowers; images are woven upon images,
metaphor strung upon metaphor. Like a bee he flies from one
flower-bed to another, that he may suck his honey from the
most varied pieces....Often he is prone to approach to
allegory; often he sinks down in obscurity."
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salvation, the son of Beeri, and author of the book of
prophecies bearing his name. He belonged to the
kingdom of
Israel. "His Israelitish origin is attested by the
peculiar,
rough, Aramaizing diction, pointing to the northern
part of
Israel; by the intimate acquaintance he evinces with
the
localities of Ephraim (5:1; 6:8, 9; 12:12; 14:6,
etc.); by
passages like 1:2, where the kingdom is styled 'the
land', and
7:5, where the Israelitish king is designated as 'our'
king."
The period of his ministry (extending to some sixty
years) is
indicated in the superscription (Hos. 1:1, 2). He is
the only
prophet of Israel who has left any written prophecy.
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This book stands first in order among the "Minor Prophets."
"The
probable cause of the location of Hosea may be the
thoroughly
national character of his oracles, their length,
their earnest
tone, and vivid representations." This was the
longest of the
prophetic books written before the Captivity. Hosea
prophesied
in a dark and melancholy period of Israel's history,
the period
of Israel's decline and fall. Their sins had brought
upon them
great national disasters. "Their homicides and
fornication,
their perjury and theft, their idolatry and impiety,
are
censured and satirized with a faithful severity." He
was a
contemporary of Isaiah. The book may be divided into
two parts,
the first containing chapters 1-3, and symbolically
representing
the idolatry of Israel under imagery borrowed from
the
matrimonial relation. The figures of marriage and
adultery are
common in the Old Testament writings to represent
the spiritual
relations between Jehovah and the people of Israel.
Here we see
the apostasy of Israel and their punishment, with
their future
repentance, forgiveness, and restoration.
The second part, containing 4-14, is a summary of
Hosea's
discourses, filled with denunciations, threatenings,
exhortations, promises, and revelations of mercy.
Quotations from Hosea are found in Matt. 2:15; 9:15;
12:7;
Rom. 9:25, 26. There are, in addition, various
allusions to it
in other places (Luke 23:30; Rev. 6:16, comp. Hos.
10:8; Rom.
9:25, 26; 1 Pet. 2:10, comp. Hos. 1:10, etc.).
As regards the style of this writer, it has been
said that
"each verse forms a whole for itself, like one heavy
toll in a
funeral knell." "Inversions (7:8; 9:11, 13; 12: 8),
anacolutha
(9:6; 12:8, etc.), ellipses (9:4; 13:9, etc.),
paranomasias, and
plays upon words, are very characteristic of Hosea
(8:7; 9:15;
10:5; 11:5; 12:11)."
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Placed first of the minor prophets in the canon (one
collective whole "the book of the prophets," Acts 7:42),
probably because of the length, vivid earnestness, and
patriotism of his prophecies, as well as their resemblance
to those of the greater prophets, Chronologically Jonah was
before him, 862 B.C., Joel about 810 B.C., Amos 790 B.C.,
Hosea 784 to 722 B.C., more or less contemporary with Isaiah
and Amos. Began prophesying in the last years of Jeroboam
II, contemporary with Uzziah; ended at the beginning of
Hezekiah's reign. The prophecies of his extant are only
those portions of his public teachings which the Holy Spirit
preserved, as designed for the benefit of the uuiversal
church. His name means salvation. Son of Beeri, of Issachar;
born in Bethshemesh.
His pictures of Israelite life, the rival factions calling
in Egypt and Assyria, mostly apply to the interreign after
Jeroboam's death and to the succeeding reigns, rather than
to his able government. In Hosea 2:8 he makes no allusion to
Jehovah's restoration of Israel's coasts under Jeroboam
among Jehovah's mercies to Israel. He mentions in the
inscription, besides the reign of Jeroboam in Israel, the
reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of
Judah, though his prophecies are addressed primarily to
Israel and only incidentally to Judah; for all the prophets
whether in Judah or Israel regarded Israel's separation from
Judah, civil as well as religious, as an apostasy from God
who promised the kingship of the theocracy to the line of
David. Hence Elijah in Israel took twelve stones to
represent Judah as well as Israel (1 Kings 18:31). Eichhorn
sees a Samaritanism in the masculine suffix of the second
person (-ak)...
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LITERATURE
Of all Israel's celebrated prophets, Isaiah is the king. The
writings which bear his name are among the profoundest in
all literature. One great theme--salvation by faith--stamps
them all. Isaiah is the Paul of the Old Testament.
1. Name:
In Hebrew yesha`yahu, and yesha`yah; Greek Esaias; Latin
Esaias and Isaias. His name was symbolic of his message.
Like "Joshua," it means "Yahweh saves," or "Yahweh is
salvation," or "salvation of Yahweh."
2. Personal History:
Isaiah was the son of Amoz (not Amos). He seems to have
belonged to a family of some rank, as may be inferred from
his easy access to the king (Isa 7:3), and his close
intimacy with the priest (Isa 8:2). Tradition says he was
the cousin of King Uzziah. He lived in Jerusalem and became
court preacher. He was married and had two sons: Shear-
jashub, his name signifying "a remnant shall return" (Isa
7:3), and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, "hasting to the spoil,
hurrying to the prey," symbolic of Assyria's mad lust of
conquest (Isa 8:3). Jewish tradition, based upon a false
interpretation of Isa 7:14, declares he was twice married.
3. Call:
In the year that King Uzziah died, Isaiah, apparently while
worshipping in the temple, received a call to the prophetic
office (Isa 6). He responded with noteworthy alacrity, and
accepted his commission, though he knew from the outset that
his task was to be one of fruitless warning and exhortation
(6:9-13). Having been reared in Jerusalem, he was well
fitted to become the political and religious counselor of
the nation, but the experience which prepared him most for
his important work was the vision of the majestic and
thrice-holy God which he saw in the temple in the death-year
of King Uzziah. There is no good reason for doubting that
this was his inaugural vision, though some regard it as a
vision which came to him after years of experience in
preaching and as intended to deepen his spirituality. While
this is the only explicit "vision" Isaiah saw, yet his
entire book, from first to last, is, as the title (11)
suggests, a "vision." His horizon, both political and
spiritual, was practically unbounded. In a very true sense,
as Delitzsch says, he was "the universal prophet of
Israel."...
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8. Isaiah's Prophecies Chronologically Arranged:
The editorial arrangement of Isaiah's prophecies is very
suggestive. In the main they stand in chronological order.
That is to say, all the dates mentioned are in strict
historical sequence; e.g. Isa 6:1, "In the year that king
Uzziah died" (740 BC); 7:1, "In the days of Ahaz" (736 ff
BC); 14:28, "In the year that king Ahaz died" (727 BC);
20:1, "In the year that Tartan came unto Ashdod, when Sargon
the king of Assyria sent him" (711 BC); 36:1, "In the 14th
year of king Hezekiah" (701 BC). These points are all in
strict chronological order. Taken in groups, also, Isaiah's
great individual messages are likewise arranged in true
historical sequence; thus, Isa 1 through 6 for the most part
belong to the last years of Jotham's reign (740-736 BC); Isa
7 through 12 to the period of the Syro-Ephraimitic war (734
BC); Isa 20, to the year of Sargon's siege of Ashdod (711
BC); Isa 28 through 32, to the invasion of Judah by
Sennacherib (701 BC); while the distinctively promissory
portions (Isa 40 through 66), as is natural, conclude the
collection. In several minor instances, however, there are
notable departures from a rigid chronological order. For
example, Isa 6, which describes the prophet's initial call
to preach, follows the rebukes and denunciations of Isa 1
through 5; but this is probably due to its being used by the
prophet as an apologetic. Again, the oracles against foreign
nations in Isa 13 through 23 belong to various dates, being
grouped together, in part, at least, because of their
subject-matter. Likewise, Isa 38 through 39, which give an
account of Hezekiah's sickness and Merodach-baladan's
embassy to him upon his recovery (714-712 BC),
chronologically precede Isa 36 through 37, which describe
Sennacherib's investment of Jerusalem (701 BC). This
chiastic order, however, in the last instance, is due
probably to the desire to make Isa 36 through 37 (about
Sennacherib, king of Assyria) an appropriate conclusion to
Isa 1 through 35 (which say much about Assyria), and, on the
other hand, to make Isa 38 through 39 (about Merodach-
baladan of Babylon) a suitable introduction to Isa 40
through 66 (which speak of Babylon)...
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I. Chapters 1-5 contain Isaiah's prophecies in the reigns of
Uzziah and Jotham, foretelling that the present prosperity
of Judah should be destroyed, and that Israel should be
brought to desolation. In chs. 6, 7 he announces the birth
of the child Immanuel, which in ch. 9 is more positively
predicted. Chs. 9-12 contain additional prophecies against
Israel, chs. Isa 10:5-12 (6) being the most highly-wrought
passages in the whole book. Chs. 13-23 contain chiefly a
collection of utterances, each of which is styled a
"burden," fore-telling the doom of Babylon, Philistia, Moab,
Ethiopia, Egypt and Tyre. The ode of triumph in ch. Isa
14:3-23 is among the most poetical passages in all
literature. Chs. 24-27 form one prophecy, essentially
connected with the preceding ten "burdens," chs. 13-23, of
which it is in effect a general summary. Chs. 23-35 predict
the Assyrian invasion, and chs. 36-39 have reference to this
invasion; prophecies that were so soon fulfilled. 2Ki 19:35
II. The last 27 chapters form a separate prophecy, and are
supposed by many critics to have been written in the time of
the Babylonian captivity, and are therefore ascribed to a
"later Isaiah;" but the best reasons are in favor of but one
Isaiah. This second part falls into three sections, each
consisting of nine chapters:--
1. The first section, chs 40-48 has for its main
topic the comforting assurance of the deliverance from
Babylon by Koresh (Cyrus), who is even named twice. ch. Isa
41:2,3,25; 44:28; 45:1-4,13; 46:11; 48:14,15
2. The second section, chs. 49-56, is distinguished
from the first by several features. The person of Cyrus as
well as his name and the specification of Babylon, disappear
altogether. Return from exile is indeed spoken of repeatedly
and at length, ch. Isa 49:9-26; 51:9-52; 12; 55:12,13; 57:14
but in such general terms as admit of being applied to the
spiritual and Messianic as well as to the literal
restoration.
3. This section is mainly occupied with various
practical exhortations founded upon the views of the future
already set forth. In favor of the authenticity of the last
27 chapters the following reasons may be advanced:-- (a) The
unanimous testimony of Jewish and Christian tradition, comp.
Ecclus. 48:24, and the evidence of the New Testament
quotations. Mt 3:3; Lu 4:17; Ac 8:28; Ro 10:16,20 (b) The
unity of design which connects these last 27 chapters with
the preceding; the oneness of diction which pervades the
whole book; the peculiar elevation and grandeur of style
which characterize the second part as well as the first; the
absence of any other name than Isaiah's claiming the
authorship; lastly, the Messianic predictions which mark its
inspiration and remove the chief ground of objection against
its having been written by Isaiah. In point of style we can
find no difficulty in recognizing in the second part the
presence of the same plastic genius as we discover in the
first.
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the prophet, son of Amoz. The Hebrew name signifies Salvation
of Jahu (a shortened form of Jehovah), He prophesied
concerning Judah and Jerusalem in the days of Uzziah, Jotham,
Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, Isa 1:1 covering probably
758 to 698 B.C. He was married and had two sons. Rabbinical
tradition says that Isaiah, when 90 years old, was sawn
asunder in the trunk of a carob tree by order of Manasseh, to
which it is supposed that reference is made in Heb 11:37
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consists of prophecies delivered (Isa. 1) in the reign of
Uzziah
(1-5), (2) of Jotham (6), (3) Ahaz (7-14:28), (4)
the first half
of Hezekiah's reign (14:28-35), (5) the second half
of
Hezekiah's reign (36-66). Thus, counting from the
fourth year
before Uzziah's death (B.C. 762) to the last year of
Hezekiah
(B.C. 698), Isaiah's ministry extended over a period
of
sixty-four years. He may, however, have survived
Hezekiah, and
may have perished in the way indicated above.
The book, as a whole, has been divided into three
main parts:
(1.) The first thirty-five chapters, almost wholly
prophetic,
Israel's enemy Assyria, present the Messiah as a
mighty Ruler
and King. (2.) Four chapters are historical (36-39),
relating to
the times of Hezekiah. (3.) Prophetical (40-66),
Israel's enemy
Babylon, describing the Messiah as a suffering
victim, meek and
lowly.
The genuineness of the section Isa. 40-66 has been
keenly
opposed by able critics. They assert that it must be
the
production of a deutero-Isaiah, who lived toward the
close of
the Babylonian captivity. This theory was originated
by Koppe, a
German writer at the close of the last century.
There are other
portions of the book also (e.g., ch. 13; 24-27; and
certain
verses in ch. 14 and 21) which they attribute to
some other
prophet than Isaiah. Thus they say that some five or
seven, or
even more, unknown prophets had a hand in the
production of this
book. The considerations which have led to such a
result are
various: (1.) They cannot, as some say, conceive it
possible
that Isaiah, living in B.C. 700, could foretell the
appearance
and the exploits of a prince called Cyrus, who would
set the
Jews free from captivity one hundred and seventy
years after.
(2.) It is alleged that the prophet takes the time
of the
Captivity as his standpoint, and speaks of it as
then present;
and (3) that there is such a difference between the
style and
language of the closing section (40-66) and those of
the
preceding chapters as to necessitate a different
authorship, and
lead to the conclusion that there were at least two
Isaiahs. But
even granting the fact of a great diversity of style
and
language, this will not necessitate the conclusion
attempted to
be drawn from it. The diversity of subjects treated
of and the
peculiarities of the prophet's position at the time
the
prophecies were uttered will sufficiently account
for this.
The arguments in favour of the unity of the book are
quite
conclusive. When the LXX. version was made (about
B.C. 250) the
entire contents of the book were ascribed to Isaiah,
the son of
Amoz. It is not called in question, moreover, that
in the time
of our Lord the book existed in the form in which we
now have
it. Many prophecies in the disputed portions are
quoted in the
New Testament as the words of Isaiah (Matt. 3:3;
Luke 3:4-6;
4:16-41; John 12:38; Acts 8:28; Rom. 10:16-21).
Universal and
persistent tradition has ascribed the whole book to
one author.
Besides this, the internal evidence, the similarity
in the
language and style, in the thoughts and images and
rhetorical
ornaments, all points to the same conclusion; and
its local
colouring and allusions show that it is obviously of
Palestinian
origin. The theory therefore of a double authorship
of the book,
much less of a manifold authorship, cannot be
maintained. The
book, with all the diversity of its contents, is
one, and is, we
believe, the production of the great prophet whose
name it
bears.
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(Heb. Yesh'yahu, i.e., "the salvation of Jehovah"). (1.)
The son
of Amoz (Isa. 1:1; 2:1), who was apparently a man of
humble
rank. His wife was called "the prophetess" (8:3),
either because
she was endowed with the prophetic gift, like
Deborah (Judg.
4:4) and Huldah (2 Kings 22:14-20), or simply
because she was
the wife of "the prophet" (Isa. 38:1). He had two
sons, who bore
symbolical names.
He exercised the functions of his office during the
reigns of
Uzziah (or Azariah), Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah
(1:1). Uzziah
reigned fifty-two years (B.C. 810-759), and Isaiah
must have
begun his career a few years before Uzziah's death,
probably
B.C. 762. He lived till the fourteenth year of
Hezekiah, and in
all likelihood outlived that monarch (who died B.C.
698), and
may have been contemporary for some years with
Manasseh. Thus
Isaiah may have prophesied for the long period of at
least
sixty-four years.
His first call to the prophetical office is not
recorded. A
second call came to him "in the year that King
Uzziah died"
(Isa. 6:1). He exercised his ministry in a spirit of
uncompromising firmness and boldness in regard to
all that bore
on the interests of religion. He conceals nothing
and keeps
nothing back from fear of man. He was also noted for
his
spirituality and for his deep-toned reverence toward
"the holy
One of Israel."...
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Yeshayahu or Isaiahuw (?), Hebrew "the salvation of
Jehovah," his favorite expression, which means the same as
the name "Jesus", who is the grand subject of his
prophecies, and in whom in the New Testament the name
Jehovah merges, being never found in Scripture after the Old
Testament. The Yahu (or Jahu) in Yeshayahu shows that Yahweh
(or Jahveh) is the more correct form than Jehovah. Son of
Amoz (not Amos), a younger contemporary of Jonah, Amos, and
Hosea in Israel, and of Micah in Judah. His call to the full
exercise of the prophetic office (Isaiah 6:1) was in the
same year that king Uzziah died, probably before his death,
754 B.C., the time of the building of Rome, Judah's destined
scourge, whose kingdom was to stretch on to the Messianic
times which form the grand subject of Isaiah's prophecies.
Whatever prophecies were delivered by Isaiah previously were
oral, and not recorded because not designed for all ages.
(1) Isaiah 1-6, are all that were written for the
church universal of the prophecies of the first 20 years of
his ministry. New epochs in the relations of the church to
the world were fittingly marked by revelations to and
through prophets. God had given Judah abundant prosperity
during Uzziah's reign of 52 years, that His goodness might
lead the people to loving obedience, just as in northern
Israel He had restored prosperity daring the brilliant reign
of Jeroboam II with the same gracious design. Israel was
only hardened in pride by prosperity, so was soon given over
to ruin. Isaiah comes forward at this point to warn Judah of
a like danger. Moreover, in the reigns of Ahaz and Hezekiah
Israel and Judah came into conflict with the Asiatic
empires. (See AHAZ; HEZEKIAH.) The prophets were now needed
to interpret Jehovah's dealings, that the people might
recognize His righteous judgments as well as His merciful
longsuffering...
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jamz (Iacobos): English form of Jacob, and the name of 3 New
Testament men of note:
(1) The Son of Zebedee, one of the Twelve Apostles (ho tou
Zebedaiou):
A) The Son of Zebedee:
I. In the New Testament.
1. Family Relations, etc.:
To the Synoptists alone are we indebted for any account of
this James. He was the son of Zebedee and the brother of
John (Mt 4:21; Mk 1:19; Lk 5:10). As the Synoptists
generally place the name of James before that of John, and
allude to the latter as "the brother of James," it is
inferred that James was the elder of the two brothers. His
mother's name was probably Salome, the sister of the mother
of Jesus (compare Mt 27:56; Mk 15:40; Jn 19:25), but this is
disputed by some (compare BRETHREN OF THE LORD). James was a
fisherman by trade, and worked along with his father and
brother (Mt 4:21). According to Lk, these were partners with
Simon (5:10), and this is also implied in Mk (1:19). As they
owned several boats and employed hired servants (Lk 5:11; Mk
1:20), the establishment they possessed must have been
considerable.
2. First Call:
The call to James to follow Christ (Mt 4:18-22; Mk 1:16-20;
Lk 5:1-11) was given by Jesus as He was walking by the sea
of Galilee (Mt 4:18). There He saw "James the son of
Zebedee, and John his brother, in the boat with Zebedee
their father, mending their nets; and he called them. And
they straightway left the boat and their father, and
followed him" (Mt 4:21,22). The account of Luke varies in
part from those of Matthew and Mark, and contains the
additional detail of the miraculous draught of fishes, at
which James and John also were amazed. This version of Luke
is regarded by some as an amalgamation of the earlier
accounts with Jn 21:1-8...
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LITERATURE
I. Characteristics of the Epistle.
1. Jewish:
The Epistle of James is the most Jewish writing in the New
Testament. The Gospel according to Matthew was written for
the Jews. The Epistle to the Hebrews is addressed explicitly
to them. The Apocalypse is full of the spirit of the Old
Testament. The Epistle of Jude is Jewish too. Yet all of
these books have more of the distinctively Christian element
in them than we can find in the Epistle of James. If we
eliminate two or three passages containing references to
Christ, the whole epistle might find its place iust as
properly in the Canon of the Old Testament as in that of the
New Testament, as far as its substance of doctrine and
contents is concerned. That could not be said Of any other
book in the New Testament. There is no mention of the
incarnation or of the resurrection., the two fundamental
facts of the Christian faith. The word "gospel" does not
occur in the epistle There is no suggestion that the Messiah
has appeared and no presentation of the possibility of
redemption through Him. The teaching throughout is that of a
lofty morality which aims at the fulfillment of the
requirements of the Mosaic law. It is not strange therefore
that Spitta and others have thought that we have in the
Epistle of James a treatise written by an unconverted Jew
which has been adapted to Christian use by the interpolation
of the two phrases containing the name of Christ in 1:1 and
2:1. Spitta thinks that this can be the only explanation of
the fact that we have here an epistle practically ignoring
the life and work of Jesus and every distinctively Christian
doctrine, and without a trace of any of the great
controversies in the early Christian church or any of the
specific features of its propaganda. This judgment is a
superficial one, and rests upon superficial indications
rather than any appreciation of the underlying spirit and
principles of the book. The spirit of Christ is here, and
there is no need to label it. The principles of this epistle
are the principles of the Sermon on the Mount. There are
more parallels to that Sermon in this epistle than can be
found anywhere else in the New Testament in the same space.
The epistle represents the idealization of Jewish legalism
under the transforming influence of the Christian motive and
life. It is not a theological discussion. It is an ethical
appeal. It has to do with the outward life for the most
part, and the life it pictures is that of a Jew informed
with the spirit of Christ. The spirit is invisible in the
epistle as in the individual man. It is the body which
appears and the outward life with which that body has to do.
The body of the epistle is Jewish, and the outward life to
which it exhorts is that of a profoundly pious Jew. The Jews
familiar with the Old Testament would read this epistle and
find its language and tone that to which they were
accustomed in their sacred books. James is evidently written
by a Jew for Jews...
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(the Greek form of Jacob, supplanter).
1. James the son of Zebedee, one of the twelve
apostles. He was elder brother of the evangelist John. His
mother's name was Salome. We first hear of him in A.D. 27,
Mr 1:20 when at the call of the Master he left all, and
became, one and forever, his disciple, in the spring of 28.
Mt 10:2; Mr 3:14; Lu 6:13; Ac 1:13 It would seem to have
been at the time of the appointment of the twelve apostles
that the name of Boanerges was given to the sons of Zebedee.
The "sons of thunder" had a burning and impetuous spirit,
which twice exhibits itself. Mr 10:37; Lu 9:54 On the night
before the crucifixion James was present at the agony in the
garden. On the day of the ascension he is mentioned as
persevering with the rest of the apostles and disciples, in
prayer. Ac 1:13 Shortly before the day of the Passover, in
the year 44, he was put to death by Herod Agrippa I. Ac
12:1,2
2. James the son of Alpheus, one of the twelve
apostles. Mt 10:3 Whether or not this James is to be
identified with James the Less, the son of Alphaeus, the
brother of our Lord, is one of the most difficult questions
in the gospel history. By comparing Mt 27:56 and Mark 15:40
with John 19:25
we find that the Virgin Mary had a sister named,
like herself, Mary, who was the wife of Clopas or Alpheus
(varieties of the same name), and who had two sons, James
the Less and Joses. By referring to Mt 13:55 and Mark 6:3
we find that a James the Less and Joses, with two
other brethren called Jude and Simon, and at least three
sisters, were sisters with the Virgin Mary at Nazareth by
referring to Lu 6:16 and Acts 1:13
we find that there were two brethren named James and
Jude among the apostles. It would certainly be natural to
think that we had here but one family of four brothers and
three or more sisters, the children of Clopas and Mary,
nephews and nieces of the Virgin Mary. There are
difficulties however, in the way of this conclusion into
which we cannot here enter; but in reply to the objection
that the four brethren in Mt 13:55 are described as the
brothers of Jesus, not as his cousins, it must be
recollected that adelphoi, which is here translated
"brethren," may also signify cousins.
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The author of this epistle was in all probability James the
son of Alphaeus, and our Lord's brother It was written from
Jerusalem, which St. James does not seem to have ever left. It
was probably written about A.D. 62, during the interval
between Paul's two imprisonments. Its main object is not to
teach doctrine, but to improve morality. St. James is the
moral teacher of the New Testament. He wrote for the Jewish
Christians, whether in Jerusalem or abroad, to warn them
against the sins to which as Jews they were most liable, and
to console and exhort them under the sufferings to which as
Christians they were most exposed.
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(1.) The son of Zebedee and Salome; an elder brother of John
the
apostle. He was one of the twelve. He was by trade a
fisherman,
in partnership with Peter (Matt. 20:20; 27:56). With
John and
Peter he was present at the transfiguration (Matt.
17:1; Mark
9:2), at the raising of Jairus's daughter (Mark
5:37-43), and in
the garden with our Lord (14:33). Because, probably,
of their
boldness and energy, he and John were called
Boanerges, i.e.,
"sons of thunder." He was the first martyr among the
apostles,
having been beheaded by King Herod Agrippa (Acts
12:1, 2), A.D.
44. (Comp. Matt. 4:21; 20:20-23).
(2.) The son of Alphaeus, or Cleopas, "the brother"
or near
kinsman or cousin of our Lord (Gal. 1:18, 19),
called James "the
Less," or "the Little," probably because he was of
low stature.
He is mentioned along with the other apostles (Matt.
10:3; Mark
3:18; Luke 6:15). He had a separate interview with
our Lord
after his resurrection (1 Cor. 15:7), and is
mentioned as one of
the apostles of the circumcision (Acts 1:13). He
appears to have
occupied the position of head of the Church at
Jerusalem, where
he presided at the council held to consider the case
of the
Gentiles (Acts 12:17; 15:13-29: 21:18-24). This
James was the
author of the epistle which bears his name.
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(1.) Author of, was James the Less, the Lord's brother, one
of
the twelve apostles. He was one of the three pillars
of the
Church (Gal. 2:9).
(2.) It was addressed to the Jews of the dispersion,
"the
twelve tribes scattered abroad."
(3.) The place and time of the writing of the
epistle were
Jerusalem, where James was residing, and, from
internal
evidence, the period between Paul's two
imprisonments at Rome,
probably about A.D. 62.
(4.) The object of the writer was to enforce the
practical
duties of the Christian life. "The Jewish vices
against which he
warns them are, formalism, which made the service of
God consist
in washings and outward ceremonies, whereas he
reminds them
(1:27) that it consists rather in active love and
purity;
fanaticism, which, under the cloak of religious
zeal, was
tearing Jerusalem in pieces (1:20); fatalism, which
threw its
sins on God (1:13); meanness, which crouched before
the rich
(2:2); falsehood, which had made words and oaths
play-things
(3:2-12); partisanship (3:14); evil speaking (4:11);
boasting
(4:16); oppression (5:4). The great lesson which he
teaches them
as Christians is patience, patience in trial (1:2),
patience in
good works (1:22-25), patience under provocation
(3:17),
patience under oppression (5:7), patience under
persecution
(5:10); and the ground of their patience is that the
coming of
the Lord draweth nigh, which is to right all wrong
(5:8)."
"Justification by works," which James contends for,
is
justification before man, the justification of our
profession of
faith by a consistent life. Paul contends for the
doctrine of
"justification by faith;" but that is justification
before God,
a being regarded and accepted as just by virtue of
the
righteousness of Christ, which is received by faith.
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LITERATURE
1. Name:
In manuscripts Vaticanus and Alexandrinus the title is
simply "An Epistle of Jeremiah." But in Codex Vaticanus,
etc., there is a superscription introducing the letter:
"Copy of a letter which Jeremiah sent to the captives about
to be led to Babylon by (Peshitta adds Nebuchadnezzar) the
king of the Babylonians, to make known to them what had been
commanded him by God." What follows is a satirical exposure
of the folly of idolatry, and not a letter. The idea of
introducing this as a letter from Jeremiah was probably
suggested by Jer 29:1 ff.
2. Canonicity and Position:
The early Greek Fathers were on the whole favorably disposed
toward this tract, reckoning it to be a part of the Canon.
It is therefore included in the lists of Canonical writings
of Origen, Epiphanius, Cyril of Jerusalem and Athanasius,
and it was so authoritatively recognized by the Council of
Laodicea (360 AD).
In most Greek manuscripts of the Septuagint (Codices
Alexandrinus and Vaticanus. March, Chisl, in the Syriac
Hexateuch), it follows Lamentations as an independent piece,
closing the supposed writings of Jeremiah. In the bestknown
printed of the Septuagint (Tischendorf, Swete, etc.), the
order is Jeremiah, Baruch, Lain, Epistle of Jeremy. In
Fritzsche, Lib. Apocrypha VT Graece, Epistle Jeremiah stands
between Baruch and Tobit. But in Latin manuscripts,
including those of the Vulgate, it is appended to Baruch, of
which it forms chapter 6, though it really has nothing to do
with that book. This last is the case with Protestant
editions (English versions of the Bible, etc.) of the
Apocrypha, a more intelligible arrangement, since Jeremiah
and Lamentations do not occur in the Apocrypha, and the
Biblical Baruch was Jeremiah's amanuensis.
3. Contents:
In the so-called letter (see 1, above) the author shows the
absurdity and wickedness of heathen worship. The Jews, for
their sins, will be removed to Babylon, where they will
remain 7 generations. In that land they will be tempted to
worship the gods o f the people. The writer's aim is
ostensibly to warn them beforehand by showing how helpless
and useless the idols worshipped are, and how immoral as
well as silly the rites of the Bah religion are. For similar
polemics against idolatry, see Isa 44:9-19 (which in its
earnestness resembles the Epistle Jeremiah closely); Jer
10:3-9; Ps 115:4-8; 135:15-18; The Wisdom of Solomon 13:10-
19; 15:13-17...
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jer-e-mi'-a ((a) yirmeyahu, or (b) shorter form, yirmeyah,
both differently explained as "Yah establishes (so
Giesebrecht), whom Yahweh casts," i.e. possibly, as Gesenius
suggests, "appoints" (A. B. Davidson in HDB, II, 569a), and
"Yahweh looseneth" (the womb); see BDB): The form (b) is
used of Jeremiah the prophet only in Jer 27:1;
28:5,6,10,11,12b,15; 29:1; Ezr 1:1; Dan 9:2, while the other
is found 116 times in Jeremiah alone. In 1 Esdras
1:28,32,47,57; 2 Esdras 2:18, English Versions of the Bible
has "Jeremy," so the King James Version in 2 Macc 2:1,5,7;
Mt 2:17; 27:9; in Mt 16:14, the King James Version has
"Jeremias," but the Revised Version (British and American)
in 2 Maccabees and Matthew has "Jeremiah."
(1) The prophet. See special article. Of the following, (2),
(3) and (4) have form (a) above; the others the form (b).
(2) Father of Hamutal (Hamital), the mother of King Jehoahaz
and King Jehoiakim (2 Ki 23:31; 24:18 parallel Jer 52:1).
(3) A Rechabite (Jer 35:3).
(4) In 1 Ch 12:13 (Hebrew 14), a Gadite.
(5) In 1 Ch 12:10 (Hebrew 11), a Gadite.
(6) In 1 Ch 12:4 (Hebrew 5), a Benjamite(?) or Judean. (4),
(5) and (6) all joined David at Ziklag.
(7) Head of a Manassite family (1 Ch 5:24).
(8) A priest who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh
10:2), probably the same as he of 12:34 who took part in the
procession at the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem.
(9) A priest who went to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel from
exile and became head of a priestly family of that name (Neh
12:1).
David Francis Roberts
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LITERATURE
1. Name and Person:
The name of one of the greatest prophets of Israel. The
Hebrew yirmeyahu, abbreviated to yirmeyah, signifies either
"Yahweh hurls" or "Yahweh founds." Septuagint reads Iermias,
and the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.)
Jeremias. As this name also occurs not infrequently, the
prophet is called "the son of Hilkiah" (Jer 1:1), who is,
however, not the high priest mentioned in 2 Ki 22 and 23, as
it is merely stated that he was "of the priests that were in
Anathoth" in the land of Benjamin In Anathoth, now Anata, a
small village 3 miles Northeast of Jerusalem, lived a class
of priests who belonged to a side line, not to the line of
Zadok (compare 1 Ki 2:26).
2. Life of Jeremiah:
Jeremiah was called by the Lord to the office of a prophet
while still a youth (1:6) about 20 years of age, in the 13th
year of King Josiah (1:2; 25:3), in the year 627 BC, and was
active in this capacity from this time on to the destruction
of Jerusalem, 586 BC, under kings Josiah, Jehoahaz,
Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah. Even after the fall of
the capital city he prophesied in Egypt at least for several
years, so that his work extended over a period of about 50
years in all. At first he probably lived in Anathoth, and
put in his appearance publicly in Jerusalem only on the
occasion of the great festivals; later he lived in
Jerusalem, and was there during the terrible times of the
siege and the destruction of the city...
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(whom Jehovah has appointed) was "the son of Hilkiah of the
priests that were in Anathoth." Jer 1:1
1. History. --He was called very young (B.C. 626) to
the prophetic office, and prophesied forty-two years; but we
have hardly any mention of him during the eighteen years
between his call and Josiah's death, or during the short
reign of Jehoahaz. During the reigns of Jehoiakim and
Jehoiachin, B.C. 607-598, he opposed the Egyptian party,
then dominant in Jerusalem, and maintained that they only
way of safety lay in accepting the supremacy of the
Chaldeans. He was accordingly accused of treachery, and men
claiming to be prophets had the "word of Jehovah" to set
against his. Jer 14:13; 23:7 As the danger from the
Chaldeans became more threatening, the persecution against
Jeremiah grew hotter. ch. 18. The people sought his life;
then follows the scene in Jer 19:10-13 he was set, however,
"as a fenced brazen wall," ch. Jer 15:20 and went on with
his work, reproving king and nobles and people. The danger
which Jeremiah had so long foretold at last came near. First
Jehoiakim, and afterwards his successor Jehoiachin, were
carried into exile, 2Kin 24; but Zedekiah, B.C. 597-586, who
was appointed by Nebuchadnezzar, was more friendly to the
prophet, though powerless to help him. The approach of an
Egyptian army, and the consequent departure of the
Chaldeans, made the position of Jeremiah full of danger, and
he sought to effect his escape from the city; but he was
seized and finally thrown into a prison-pit to die, but was
rescued. On the return of the Chaldean army he showed his
faith in God's promises, and sought to encourage the people
by purchasing the field at Anathoth which his kinsman
Hanameel wished to get rid of. Jer 32:6-9 At last the blow
came. The city was taken, the temple burnt. The king and his
princes shared the fate of Jehoiachin. The prophet gave
utterance to his sorrow in the Lamentations. After the
capture of Jerusalem, B.C. 586, by the Chaldeans, we find
Jeremiah receiving better treatment; but after the death of
Gedaliah, the people, disregarding his warnings, took refuge
in Egypt, carrying the prophet with them. In captivity his
words were sharper and stronger than ever. He did not
shrink, even there, from speaking of the Chaldean king once
more as "the servant of Jehovah." Jer 43:10 After this all
is uncertain, but he probably died in Egypt...
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Seven other persons bearing the same name as the prophet are
mentioned in the Old Testament:--
1. Jeremiah of Libnah, father of Hamutal wife of
Josiah. 2Ki 23:31 (B.C. before 632.)
2,3,4. Three warriors --two of the tribe of Gad-- in
David's army. 1Ch 12:4,10,13 (B.C. 1061-53.)
5. One of the "mighty men of valor" of the
transjordanic half-tribe of Manasseh. 1Ch 5:24 (B.C. 782.)
6. A priest of high rank, head of the second or third
of the twenty-one courses which are apparently enumerated in
Ne 10:2-8; 12:1,12 (B.C. 446-410).
7. The father of Jazaniah the Rechabite. Jer 35:3
(B.C. before 606.)
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"There can be little doubt that the book of Jeremiah grew
out of the roll which Baruch wrote down at the prophet's
mouth in the fourth year of Jehoiakim. ch. Jer 36:2
Apparently the prophets kept written records of their
predictions, and collected into larger volumes such of them
as were intended for permanent use." --Canon Cook. In the
present order we have two great divisions:-- I. Chs. 1-45.
Prophecies delivered at various times, directed mainly to
Judah, or connected with Jeremiah's personal history. II.
Chs. 46-51. Prophecies connected with other nations. Looking
more closely into each of these divisions, we have the
following sections:
1. Chs. 1-21, including prophecies from the
thirteenth year of Josiah to the fourth of Jehoiakim; ch.
21; belongs to the later period.
2. Chs. 22-25. Shorter prophecies, delivered at
different times, against the kings of Judah and the false
prophets. Ch. Jer 25:13,14 evidently marks the conclusion of
a series of prophecies; and that which follows, ch. Jer
25:15-38 the germ of the fuller predictions in chs. 46-49,
has been placed here as a kind of completion to the prophecy
of the seventy years and the subsequent fall of Babylon.
3. Chs. 26-28. The two great prophecies of the fall
of Jerusalem, and the history connected with them.
4. Chs. 29-31. The message of comfort for the exiles
in Babylon.
5. Chs. 32-44. The history of the last two years
before the capture of Jerusalem, and of Jeremiah's work int
hem and in the period that followed.
6. Chs. 46-51. The prophecies against foreign
nations, ending with the great prediction against Babylon.
7. The supplementary narrative of ch. 52.
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consists of twenty-three separate and independent sections,
arranged in five books. I. The introduction, ch. 1.
II. Reproofs
of the sins of the Jews, consisting of seven
sections, (1.) ch.
2; (2.) ch. 3-6; (3.) ch. 7-10; (4.) ch. 11-13; (5.)
ch.
14-17:18; (6.) ch. 17:19-ch. 20; (7.) ch. 21-24.
III. A general
review of all nations, in two sections, (1.) ch. 46-
49; (2.) ch.
25; with an historical appendix of three sections,
(1.) ch. 26;
(2.) ch. 27; (3.) ch. 28, 29. IV. Two sections
picturing the
hopes of better times, (1.) ch. 30, 31; (2.) ch.
32,33; to which
is added an historical appendix in three sections,
(1.) ch.
34:1-7; (2.) ch. 34:8-22; (3.) ch. 35. V. The
conclusion, in two
sections, (1.) ch. 36; (2.) ch. 45.
In Egypt, after an interval, Jeremiah is supposed to
have
added three sections, viz., ch. 37-39; 40-43; and
44.
The principal Messianic prophecies are found in
23:1-8;
31:31-40; and 33:14-26.
Jeremiah's prophecies are noted for the frequent
repetitions
found in them of the same words and phrases and
imagery. They
cover the period of about 30 years. They are not
recorded in the
order of time. When and under what circumstances
this book
assumed its present form we know not.
The LXX. Version of this book is, in its arrangement
and in
other particulars, singularly at variance with the
original. The
LXX. omits 10:6-8; 27:19-22; 29:16-20; 33:14-26;
39:4-13; 52:2,
3, 15, 28-30, etc. About 2,700 words in all of the
original are
omitted. These omissions, etc., are capricious and
arbitrary,
and render the version unreliable.
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job ('iyobh, meaning of name doubtful; some conjecturing
"object of enmity," others "he who turns," etc., to God;
both uncertain guesses; Iob): The titular hero of the Book
of Job, represented as a wealthy and pious land-holder who
lived in patriarchal times, or at least conditions, in the
land of Uz, on the borders of Idumea. Outside of the Book of
Job he is mentioned by Ezekiel (Ezek 14:14,20) as one of 3
great personages whose representative righteousness would
presumably avail, if that of any individuals could, to
redeem the nation; the other two being Noah, an ancient
patriarch, and Daniel, a contemporary of the prophet. It is
difficult to determine whether Job was an actual personage
or not. If known through legend, it must have been on
account of some such experience as is narrated in the book,
an experience unique enough to have become a potent
household word; still, the power and influence of it is due
to the masterly vigor and exposition of the story. It was
the Job of literature, rather than the Job of legend, who
lived in the hearts of men; a character so commanding that,
albeit fictitious, it could be referred to as real, just as
we refer to Hamlet or Othello. It is not the way of Hebrew
writers, however, to evolve literary heroes from pure
imagination; they crave an authentic basis of fact. It is
probable that such a basis, in its essential outlines,
existed under the story of Job. It is not necessary to
suppose, however, that the legend or the name was known to
Israel from ancient times. Job is introduced (Job 1:1) as if
he had not been known before. The writer, who throughout the
book shows a wide acquaintance with the world, doubtless
found the legend somewhere, and drew its meanings together
for an undying message to his and all times.
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LITERATURE
I. Introductory.
1. Place in the Canon:
The greatest production of the Hebrew Wisdom literature, and
one of the supreme literary creations of the world. Its
place in the Hebrew Canon corresponds to the high estimation
in which it was held; it stands in the 3rd section, the
"writings" (kethubhim) or Hagiographa, next after the two
great anthologies Psalms and Proverbs; apparently put thus
near the head of the list for weighty reading and
meditation. In the Greek Canon (which ours follows), it is
put with the poetical books, standing at their head. It is
one of 3 Scripture books, the others being Psalms and
Proverbs, for which the later Hebrew scholars (the
Massoretes) employed a special system of punctuation to mark
its poetic character.
2. Rank and Readers:
The Book of Job was not one of the books designated for
public reading in the synagogues, as were the Pentateuch and
the Prophets, or for occasional reading at feast seasons, as
were the 5 megilloth or rolls. It was rather a book for
private reading, and one whose subject-matter would appeal
especially to the more cultivated and thoughtful classes.
Doubtless it was all the more intimately valued for this
detachment from sanctuary associations; it was, like
Proverbs, a people's book; and especially among the
cultivators of Wisdom it must have been from its first
publication a cherished classic. At any rate, the patriarch
Job (though whether from the legend or from the finished
book is not clear; see JOB) is mentioned as a well-known
national type by Ezek 14:14,20; and James, writing to Jewish
Christians (5:11), refers to the character of patriarch as
familiar to his readers. It was as one of the great classic
stories of their literature, rather than as embodying a
ritual or prophetic standard, that it was so universally
known and cherished...
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This book has given rise to much discussion and criticism,
some believing the book to be strictly historical; others a
religious fiction; others a composition based upon facts. By
some the authorship of the work was attributed to Moses, but
it is very uncertain. Luther first suggested the theory
which, in some form or other, is now most generally
received. He says, "I look upon the book of Job as a true
history, yet I do not believe that all took place just as it
is written, but that an ingenious, pious and learned man
brought it into its present form." The date of the book is
doubtful, and there have been many theories upon the
subject. It may be regarded as a settled point that the book
was written long before the exile, probably between the
birth of Abraham and the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt
--B.C. 2000-1800. If by Moses, it was probably written
during his sojourn in Midian. "The book of Job is not only
one of the most remarkable in the Bible, but in literature.
As was said of Goliath's sword, 'There is none like it;'
none in ancient or in modern literature." --Kitto. "A book
which will one day, perhaps, be seen towering up alone far
above all the poetry of the world." --J.A. Froude. "The book
of Job is a drama, and yet subjectively true. The two ideas
are perfectly consistent. It may have the dramatic form, the
dramatic interest, the dramatic emotion, and yet be
substantially a truthful narrative. The author may have
received it in one of three ways: the writer may have been
an eyewitness; or have received it from near contemporary
testimony; or it may have reached him through a tradition of
whose substantial truthfulness he has no doubt. There is
abundant internal evidence that the scenes and events
recorded were real scenes and real events to the writer. He
gives the discussions either as he had heard them or as they
had been repeated over and over in many an ancient
consensus. The very modes of transmission show the deep
impression it had made in all the East, as a veritable as
well as marvellous event." --Tayler Lewis. the design of the
book. --Stanley says that "The whole book is a discussion of
that great problem of human life: what is the intention of
Divine Providence in allowing the good to suffer?" "The
direct object is to show that, although goodness has a
natural tendency to secure a full measure of temporal
happiness, yet that in its essence it is independent of such
a result. Selfishness in some form is declared to be the
basis on which all apparent goodness rests. That question is
tried in the case of Job." --Cook. Structure of the book.-
The book consists of five parts: -- I. Chs. 1-3. The
historical facts. II. Chs. 4-31. The discussions between Job
and his three friends. III. Chs. 32-37. Job's discussion
with Elihu. IV. Chs. 38-41. The theophany --God speaking out
of the storm. V. Ch. 42. The successful termination of the
trial. It is all in poetry except the introduction and the
close...
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A great diversity of opinion exists as to the authorship of
this
book. From internal evidence, such as the similarity
of
sentiment and language to those in the Psalms and
Proverbs (see
Ps. 88 and 89), the prevalence of the idea of
"wisdom," and the
style and character of the composition, it is
supposed by some
to have been written in the time of David and
Solomon. Others
argue that it was written by Job himself, or by
Elihu, or
Isaiah, or perhaps more probably by Moses, who was
"learned in
all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and mighty in words
and deeds"
(Acts 7:22). He had opportunities in Midian for
obtaining the
knowledge of the facts related. But the authorship
is altogether
uncertain.
As to the character of the book, it is a historical
poem, one
of the greatest and sublimest poems in all
literature. Job was a
historical person, and the localities and names were
real and
not fictious. It is "one of the grandest portions of
the
inspired Scriptures, a heavenly-repleished
storehouse of comfort
and instruction, the patriarchal Bible, and a
precious monument
of primitive theology. It is to the Old Testament
what the
Epistle to the Romans is to the New." It is a
didactic narrative
in a dramatic form.
This book was apparently well known in the days of
Ezekiel,
B.C. 600 (Ezek. 14:14). It formed a part of the
sacred
Scriptures used by our Lord and his apostles, and is
referred to
as a part of the inspired Word (Heb. 12:5; 1 Cor.
3:19).
The subject of the book is the trial of Job, its
occasion,
nature, endurance, and issue. It exhibits the
harmony of the
truths of revelation and the dealings of Providence,
which are
seen to be at once inscrutable, just, and merciful.
It shows the
blessedness of the truly pious, even amid sore
afflictions, and
thus ministers comfort and hope to tried believers
of every age.
It is a book of manifold instruction, and is
profitable for
doctrine, for reproof, for correction, and for
instruction in
righteousness (2 Tim. 3:16).
It consists of,
(1.) An historical introduction in prose (ch. 1,2).
(2.) The controversy and its solution, in poetry
(ch. 3-42:6).
Job's desponding lamentation (ch. 3) is the occasion
of the
controversy which is carried on in three courses of
dialogues
between Job and his three friends. The first course
gives the
commencement of the controversy (ch. 4-14); the
second the
growth of the controversy (15-21); and the third the
height of
the controversy (22-27). This is followed by the
solution of the
controversy in the speeches of Elihu and the address
of Jehovah,
followed by Job's humble confession (42:1-6) of his
own fault
and folly.
(3.) The third division is the historical
conclusion, in prose
(42:7-15).
Sir J. W. Dawson in "The Expositor" says: "It would
now seem
that the language and theology of the book of Job
can be better
explained by supposing it to be a portion of Minean
[Southern
Arabia] literature obtained by Moses in Midian than
in any other
way. This view also agrees better than any other
with its
references to natural objects, the art of mining,
and other
matters."
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persecuted, an Arabian patriarch who resided in the land of Uz
(q.v.). While living in the midst of great prosperity,
he was
suddenly overwhelmed by a series of sore trials that
fell upon
him. Amid all his sufferings he maintained his
integrity. Once
more God visited him with the rich tokens of his
goodness and
even greater prosperity than he had enjoyed before. He
survived
the period of trial for one hundred and forty years,
and died in
a good old age, an example to succeeding generations
of
integrity (Ezek. 14:14, 20) and of submissive patience
under the
sorest calamities (James 5:11). His history, so far as
it is
known, is recorded in his book.
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LITERATURE
I. The Prophet.
The Book of Joel stands second in the collection of the
twelve Prophets in the Hebrew Canon. The name (yo'el),
meaning "Yahweh is God," seems to have been common, as we
find a dozen other persons bearing it at various periods of
the Biblical history. Beyond the fact that he was the son of
Pethuel, there is no intimation in the book as to his native
place, date, or personal history; nor is he mentioned in any
other part of the Old Testament; so that any information on
these points must be matter of inference, and the
consideration of them must follow some examination of the
book itself.
II. The Book.
1. Literary Form:
This takes largely the form of addresses, the occasion and
scope of which have to be gathered from the contents. There
is no narrative, properly so called, except at one place
(Joel 2:18), "Then was Yahweh jealous for his land," etc.,
and even there the narrative form is not continued. Yet,
though the earlier portions at least may be the transcript
of actual addresses in which the speaker had his audience
before him, this would not apply to the later portions, in
which also the direct address is still maintained (e.g. Joel
3:11, "Haste ye, and come, all ye nations round about").
This form of direct address is, indeed, characteristic of
the style throughout (e.g. Joel 2:21; 3:4,9,13). There is
this also to be said of its literary character, that "the
style of Joel is bright and flowing," his "imagery and
language are fine" (Driver, LOT); "his book is a
description, clear, well arranged, and carried out with
taste and vivacity, of the present distress and of the ideal
future. Joel may be reckoned among the classics of Hebrew
literature. The need of a commentary for details, as is the
case with Amos and Hosea, is here hardly felt" (Reuss, Das
Altes Testament).
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(to whom Jehovah is God).
1. Eldest son of Samuel the prophet, 1Sa 8:2; 1Ch
6:33; 15:17 and father of Heman the singer. (B.C. 1094.)
2. In 1Ch 6:36 Authorized Version, Joel seems to be
merely a corruption of Shaul in ver. 24.
3. A Simeonite chief. 1Ch 4:35
4. A descendant of Reuben. Junius and Tremellius
make him the son of Hanoeh, while others trace his descent
through Carmi. 1Ch 5:4 (B.C. before 1092.)
5. Chief of the Gadites, who dwelt in the land of
Bashan. 1Ch 5:12 (B.C. 782.)
6. The son of Izrahiah, of the tribe of Issachar.
1Ch 7:3
7. The brother of Nathan of Zobah, 1Ch 11:38 and one
of David's guard.
8. The chief of the Gershomites in the reign of
David. 1Ch 15:7,11
9. A Gershonite Levite in the reign of David, son of
Jehiel, a descendant of Laadan, and probably the same as the
preceding. 1Ch 23:8; 26:22 (B.C. 1014.)
10. The son of Pedaiah, and a chief of the half-
tribe of Manasseh west of Jordan, in the reign of David. 1Ch
27:20 (B.C. 1014.)
11. A Kohathite Levite in the reign of Hezekiah. 2Ch
29:12 (B.C. 726.)
12. One of the sons of Nebo, who returned with Ezra,
and had married a foreign wife. Ezr 10:43 (B.C. 459.)
13. The son of Zichri, a Benjamite. Ne 11:9
14. The second of the twelve minor prophets, the son
of Pethuel, probably prophesied in Judah in the reign of
Uzziah, about B.C. 800. The book of Joel contains a grand
outline of the whole terrible scene, which was to be
depicted more and more in detail by subsequent prophets. The
proximate event to which the prophecy related was a public
calamity, then impending on Judah, of a two-plague of
locusts --and continuing for several years. The prophet
exhorts the people to turn to God with penitence, fasting
and prayer; and then, he says, the plague shall cease, and
the rain descendent in its season, and the land yield her
accustomed fruit. Nay, the time will be a most joyful one;
for God, by the outpouring of his Spirit, will extend the
blessings of true religion to heathen lands. The prophecy is
referred to in Acts 2.
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Joel was probably a resident in Judah, as his commission
was to
that people. He makes frequent mention of Judah and
Jerusalem
(1:14; 2:1, 15, 32; 3:1, 12, 17, 20, 21).
He probably flourished in the reign of Uzziah (about
B.C.
800), and was contemporary with Amos and Isaiah.
The contents of this book are, (1.) A prophecy of a
great
public calamity then impending over the land,
consisting of a
want of water and an extraordinary plague of locusts
(1:1-2:11).
(2.) The prophet then calls on his countrymen to
repent and to
turn to God, assuring them of his readiness to
forgive
(2:12-17), and foretelling the restoration of the
land to its
accustomed fruitfulness (18-26). (3.) Then follows a
Messianic
prophecy, quoted by Peter (Acts 2:39). (4.) Finally,
the prophet
foretells portents and judgments as destined to fall
on the
enemies of God (ch. 3, but in the Hebrew text 4).
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Jehovah is his God. (1.) The oldest of Samuel's two sons
appointed by him as judges in Beersheba (1 Sam. 8:2).
(See
VASHNI -(n/a).) (2.) A descendant of Reuben (1 Chr.
5:4,8). (3.)
One of David's famous warriors (1 Chr. 11:38). (4.) A
Levite of
the family of Gershom (1 Chr. 15:7, 11). (5.) 1 Chr.
7:3. (6.) 1
Chr. 27:20. (7.) The second of the twelve minor
prophets. He was
the son of Pethuel. His personal history is only known
from his
book.
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LITERATURE
I. Introductory.
1. Scope of Gospel:
The Fourth Gospel has a form peculiar to itself, as well as
a characteristic style and attitude, which mark it as a
unique document among the books of the New Testament. (1)
There is a prologue, consisting of Jn 1:1-18, of which
something will be said later on. (2) There is a series of
scenes and discourses from the life of Jesus, descriptive of
Himself and His work, and marking the gradual development of
faith and unbelief in His hearers and in the nation (1:19
through 12:50). (3) There is a more detailed account of the
closing events of the Passion Week--of His farewell
intercourse with His disciples (Jn 13 through 17), of His
arrest, trials, crucifixion, death, and burial (Jn 18
through 19). (4) There are the resurrection, and the
manifestations of the risen Lord to His disciples on the
resurrection day, and on another occasion eight days after
(20:1-29). This is followed by a paragraph which describes
the purpose of the Gospel, and the reason why it was written
(Jn 20:30,31). (5) Finally, there is a supplementary chapter
(21), which has all the characteristic marks of the Gospel
as a whole, and which probably, therefore, proceeds from the
same pen (thus Lightfoot, Meyer, Alford, etc.; some, as
Zahn, prefer to take the chapter as the work of a disciple
of John). The concluding verses (21:24,25) read: "This is
the disciple that beareth witness of these things, and wrote
these things: and we know that his witness is true. And
there are also many other things which Jesus did," etc. "We
know that his witness is true" seems to be a testimony on
the part of those who knew as to the identity of the
disciple, and the trustworthiness of his witness. Nor has
this earliest testimony been discredited by the attacks made
on it, and the natural meaning has been vindicated by many
competent writers. The present tense, "beareth witness,"
indicates that the " disciple" who wrote the Gospel was
still alive when the testimony was given...
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JOHN, THE APOSTLE
Sources of the Life of John:
The sources for the life of the apostle John are of various
kinds, and of different degrees of trustworthiness. There
are the references in the Synoptic Gospels, which may be
used simply and easily without any preliminary critical
inquiry into their worth as sources; for these Gospels
contain the common tradition of the early church, and for
the present purpose may be accepted as trustworthy. Further,
there are the statements in Acts and in Galatians, which we
may use without discussion as a source for the life of John.
There is next the universal tradition of the 2nd century,
which we may use, if we can show that the John of Ephesus,
who bulks so largely in the Christian literature of the 2nd
and 3rd centuries, is identical with the son of Zebedee.
Further, on the supposition that the son of Zebedee is the
author of the Johannine writings of the New Testament, there
is another source of unequaled value for the estimate of the
life and character of the son of Zebedee in these writings.
Finally, there is the considerable volume of tradition which
gathered around the name of John of Ephesus, of which,
picturesque and interesting though the traditions be, only
sparing use can be made.
I. Witness of the New Testament.
Addressing ourselves first to the Synoptic Gospels, to Acts
and to Galatians, we ask, What, from these sources, can we
know of the apostle John? A glance only need be taken at the
Johannine writings, more fully discussed elsewhere in
relation to their author...
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This Gospel was probably written at Ephesus about A.D. 78.
(Canon Cook places it toward the close of John's life, A.D.
90-100. --ED.) The Gospel was obviously addressed primarily
to Christians, not to heathen. There can be little doubt
that the main object of St. John, who wrote after the other
evangelists, is to supplement their narratives, which were
almost confined to our Lord's life in Galilee. (It was the
Gospel for the Church, to cultivate and cherish the
spiritual life of Christians, and bring them into the
closest relations to the divine Saviour. It gives the inner
life and teachings of Christ as revealed to his disciples.
Nearly two-thirds of the whole book belong to the last six
months of our Lord's life, and one-third is the record of
the last week. --ED.) The following is an abridgment of its
contents: A. The Prologue. ch. Joh 1:1-18 B. The History,
ch. Joh 1:19 ... Joh 20:29 (a) Various events relating to
our Lord's ministry, narrated in connection with seven
journeys, ch. Joh 1:19 ... Joh 12:50
1. First journey, into Judea, and beginning of his
ministry, ch. Joh 1:19 ... Joh 2:12
2. Second journey, at the passover in the first year
of his ministry, ch. Joh 2:13 ... Joh 4:1
3. Third journey, in the second year of his
ministry, about the passover, ch. (5:1).
4. Fourth journey, about the passover, in the third
year of his ministry, beyond Jordan, ch. Joh 6:1
5. Fifth journey, six months before his death, begun
at the feast of tabernacles, chs. Joh 7:1 ... Joh 10:21
6. Sixth journey, about the feast of dedication, ch.
Joh 10:22-42
7. Seventh journey, in Judea towards Bethany, ch.
Joh 11:1-54
8. Eighth journey, before his last passover, chs.
Joh 11:55 ... Joh 12:1 (b) History of the death of Christ,
chs. Joh 12:1 ... Joh 20:29
1. Preparation for his passion, chs. John 13:1 ...
John 17:1
2. The circumstances of his passion and death, chs.
Joh 18:1; 19:1
3. His resurrection, and the proofs of it, ch. Joh
20:1-29 C. The Conclusion, ch. Joh 20:30 ... 21:1
1. Scope of the foregoing history, ch. Joh 20:30,31
2. Confirmation of the authority of the evangelist
by additional historical facts, and by the testimony of the
elders of the Church, ch. Joh 21:1-24
3. Reason of the termination of the history, ch. Joh
21:25
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was the son of Zebedee, a fisherman on the Lake of Galilee,
and of Salome, and brother of James, also an apostle. Peter
and James and John come within the innermost circle of their
Lord's friends; but to John belongs the distinction of being
the disciple whom Jesus loved. He hardly sustains the
popular notion, fostered by the received types of Christian
art, of a nature gentle, yielding, feminine. The name
Boanerges, Mr 3:17 implies a vehemence, zeal, intensity,
which gave to those who had it the might of sons of thunder.
[JAMES] The three are with our Lord when none else are, in
the chamber of death,
Mr 5:37 in the glory of the transfiguration, Mt 17:1
when he forewarns them of the destruction of the holy city,
Mr 13:3 in the agony of Gethsemane. When the betrayal is
accomplished, Peter and John follow afar off. Joh 18:15 The
personal acquaintance which exited between John and Caiaphas
enables him to gain access to the council chamber,
praetorium of the Roman procurator. Joh 18:16,19,28 Thence
he follows to the place of crucifixion, and the Teacher
leaves to him the duty of becoming a son to the mother who
is left desolate. Joh 19:26,27 It is to Peter and John that
Mary Magdalene first runs with the tidings of the emptied
sepulchre, Joh 20:2 they are the first to go together to see
what the strange words meant, John running on most eagerly
to the rock-tomb; Peter, the least restrained by awe, the
first to enter in and look. Joh 20:4-6 For at least eight
days they continue in Jerusalem. Joh 20:26 Later, on the Sea
of Galilee, John is the first to recognize in the dim form
seen in the morning twilight the presence of his risen Lord;
Peter the first to plunge into the water and swim toward the
shore where he stood calling to them. Joh 21:7 The last
words of John's Gospel reveal to us the deep affection which
united the two friends. The history of the Acts shows the
same union. They are together at the ascension on the day of
Pentecost. Together they enter the temple as worshippers, Ac
3:1 and protest against the threats of the Sanhedrin. ch Ac
4:13 The persecution which was pushed on by Saul of Tarsus
did not drive John from his post. ch. Ac 8:1 Fifteen years
after St. Paul's first visit he was still at Jerusalem, and
helped to take part in the settlement of the great
controversy between the Jewish and the Gentile Christians.
Ac 15:6 His subsequent history we know only by tradition.
There can be no doubt that he removed from jerusalem and
settled at Ephesus, though at what time is uncertain.
Tradition goes on to relate that in the persecution under
Domitian he is taken to Rome, and there, by his boldness,
though not by death, gains the crown of martyrdom. The
boiling oil into which he is thrown has no power to hurt
him. He is then sent to labor in the mines, and Patmost is
the place of his exile. The accession of Nerva frees him
from danger, and he returns to Ephesus. Heresies continue to
show themselves, but he meets them with the strongest
possible protest. The very time of his death lies within the
region of conjecture rather than of history, and the dates
that have been assigned for it range from A.D. 89 to A.D.
120.
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The genuineness of this Gospel, i.e., the fact that the
apostle
John was its author, is beyond all reasonable doubt.
In recent
times, from about 1820, many attempts have been made
to impugn
its genuineness, but without success.
The design of John in writing this Gospel is stated
by himself
(John 20:31). It was at one time supposed that he
wrote for the
purpose of supplying the omissions of the
synoptical, i.e., of
the first three, Gospels, but there is no evidence
for this.
"There is here no history of Jesus and his teaching
after the
manner of the other evangelists. But there is in
historical form
a representation of the Christian faith in relation
to the
person of Christ as its central point; and in this
representation there is a picture on the one hand of
the
antagonism of the world to the truth revealed in
him, and on the
other of the spiritual blessedness of the few who
yield
themselves to him as the Light of life" (Reuss).
After the prologue (1:1-5), the historical part of
the book
begins with verse 6, and consists of two parts. The
first part
(1:6-ch. 12) contains the history of our Lord's
public ministry
from the time of his introduction to it by John the
Baptist to
its close. The second part (ch. 13-21) presents our
Lord in the
retirement of private life and in his intercourse
with his
immediate followers (13-17), and gives an account of
his
sufferings and of his appearances to the disciples
after his
resurrection (18-21).
The peculiarities of this Gospel are the place it
gives (1) to
the mystical relation of the Son to the Father, and
(2) of the
Redeemer to believers; (3) the announcement of the
Holy Ghost as
the Comforter; (4) the prominence given to love as
an element in
the Christian character. It was obviously addressed
primarily to
Christians.
It was probably written at Ephesus, which, after the
destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70), became the
centre of
Christian life and activity in the East, about A.D.
90.
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This little roll of four short chapters has given rise to
almost as much discussion and difference of opinion as the
first four chapters of Genesis. It would be presumptuous to
think that one could, in a brief article, speak the final
word on the questions in debate.
I. Contents of the Book.
The story is too well known to need retelling. Moreover, it
would be difficult to give the events in fewer words than
the author employs in his classic narrative. One event grows
out of another, so that the interest of the reader never
flags.
1. Jonah Disobedient, Jonah 1:1-3:
When the call came to Jonah to preach in Nineveh, he fled in
the opposite direction, hoping thus to escape from his
unpleasant task. He was afraid that the merciful God would
forgive the oppressing heathen city, if it should repent at
his preaching. Jonah was a narrow-minded patriot, who feared
that Assyria would one day swallow up his own little nation;
and so he wished to do nothing that might lead to the
preservation of wicked Nineveh. Jonah was willing to
prophesy to Israel; he at first flatly refused to become a
foreign missionary.
2. Jonah Punished, Jonah 1:4-16:
The vessel in which the prophet had taken passage was
arrested by a great storm. The heathen sailors inferred that
some god must be angry with some person on board, and cast
lots to discover the culprit. When the lot fell upon Jonah,
he made a complete confession, and bravely suggested that
they cast him overboard. The heathen mariners rowed
desperately to get back to land, but made no progress
against the storm. They then prayed Yahweh not to bring
innocent blood upon them, and cast Jonah into the sea. As
the storm promptly subsided, the heathen sailors offered a
sacrifice to Yahweh and made vows. In this part of the story
the mariners give an example of the capacity of the Gentiles
to perform noble deeds and to offer acceptable worship to
Yahweh...
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jo'-na (yonah, "dove"; 'Ionas):
(1) According to 2 Ki 14:25, Jonah, the son of Amittai, of
Gath-hepher, a prophet and servant of Yahweh, predicted the
restoration of the land of Israel to its ancient boundaries
through the efforts of Jeroboam II. The prophet lived and
labored either in the early part of the reign of Jeroboam
(790-750 BC), or during the preceding generation. He may
with great probability be placed at 800-780 BC. His early
ministry must have made him popular in Israel; for he
prophesied of victory and expansion of territory. His native
village of Gath-hepher was located in the territory of
Zebulun (Josh 19:13).
(2) According to the book bearing his name, Jonah the son of
Amittai received a command to preach to Nineveh; but he fled
in the opposite direction to escape from the task of
proclaiming Yahweh's message to the great heathen city; was
arrested by a storm, and at his own request was hurled into
the sea, where he was swallowed by a great fish, remaining
alive in the belly of the fish for three days. When on his
release from the body of the fish the command to go to
Nineveh was renewed, Jonah obeyed and announced the
overthrow of the wicked city. When the men of Nineveh
repented at the preaching of the prophet, God repented of
the evil He had threatened to bring upon them. Jonah was
grieved that the oppressing city should be spared, and
waited in the vicinity to see what would be the final
outcome. An intense patriot, Jonah wished for the
destruction of the people that threatened to swallow up
Israel. He thought that Yahweh was too merciful to the
heathen oppressors. By the lesson of the gourd he was taught
the value of the heathen in the sight of Yahweh.
It is the fashion now in scholarly circles to treat the Book
of Jonah as fiction. The story is said to be an allegory or
a parable or a symbolic narrative. Why then did the author
fasten upon a true and worthy prophet of Yahweh the stigma
of rebellion and narrowness? On theory that the narrative is
an allegory, J. Kennedy well says that "the man who wrote it
was guilty of a gratuitous insult to the memory of a
prophet, and could not have been inspired by the prophet's
Master thus to dishonor a faithful servant."
(3) our Lord referred on two different occasions to the sign
of Jonah the prophet (Mt 12:38-41; Lk 11:29-32; Mt 16:4). He
speaks of Jonah's experience in the belly of the fish as
parallel with His own approaching entombment for three days,
and cites the repentance of the Ninevites as a rebuke to the
unbelieving men of his own generation. Our Lord thus speaks
both of the physical miracle of the preservation of Jonah in
the body of the fish and of the moral miracle of the
repentance of the Ninevites, and without the slightest hint
that He regarded the story as an allegory.
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(dove), the fifth of the minor prophets, was the son of
Amittai, and a native of Gath-hepher. 2Ki 14:25 He
flourished in or before the reign of Jeroboam II., about
B.C. 820. Having already, as it seems, prophesied to Israel,
he was sent to Nineveh. The time was one of political
revival in Israel; but ere long the Assyrians were to be
employed by God as a scourge upon them. The prophet shrank
from a commission which he felt sure would result, Jon 4:2
in the sparing of a hostile city. He attempted therefore to
escape to Tarshish. The providence of God, however, watched
over him, first in a storm, and then in his being swallowed
by a large fish (a sea monster, probably the white shark)
for the space of three days and three nights. [On this
subject see article WHALE] After his deliverance, Jonah
executed his commission; and the king, "believing him to be
a minister form the supreme deity of the nation," and having
heard of his miraculous deliverance, ordered a general fast,
and averted the threatened judgment. But the prophet, not
from personal but national feelings, grudged the mercy shown
to a heathen nation. He was therefore taught by the
significant lesson of the "gourd," whose growth and decay
brought the truth at once home to him, that he was sent to
testify by deed, as other prophets would afterward testify
by word, the capacity of Gentiles for salvation, and the
design of God to make them partakers of it. This was "the
sign of the prophet Jonas."
Lu 11:29,30 But the resurrection of Christ itself
was also shadowed forth in the history of the prophet. Mt
12:39,41; 16:4 The mission of Jonah was highly symbolical.
The facts contained a concealed prophecy. The old tradition
made the burial-place of Jonah to be Gath-hepher; the modern
tradition places it at Nebi-Yunus, opposite Mosul.
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This book professes to give an account of what actually took
place in the experience of the prophet. Some critics
have sought
to interpret the book as a parable or allegory, and
not as a
history. They have done so for various reasons. Thus
(1) some
reject it on the ground that the miraculous element
enters so
largely into it, and that it is not prophetical but
narrative in
its form; (2) others, denying the possibility of
miracles
altogether, hold that therefore it cannot be true
history.
Jonah and his story is referred to by our Lord
(Matt. 12:39,
40; Luke 11:29), a fact to which the greatest weight
must be
attached. It is impossible to interpret this
reference on any
other theory. This one argument is of sufficient
importance to
settle the whole question. No theories devised for
the purpose
of getting rid of difficulties can stand against
such a proof
that the book is a veritable history.
There is every reason to believe that this book was
written by
Jonah himself. It gives an account of (1) his divine
commission
to go to Nineveh, his disobedience, and the
punishment following
(1:1-17); (2) his prayer and miraculous deliverance
(1:17-2:10);
(3) the second commission given to him, and his
prompt obedience
in delivering the message from God, and its results
in the
repentance of the Ninevites, and God's long-sparing
mercy toward
them (ch. 3); (4) Jonah's displeasure at God's
merciful
decision, and the rebuke tendered to the impatient
prophet (ch.
4). Nineveh was spared after Jonah's mission for
more than a
century. The history of Jonah may well be regarded
"as a part of
that great onward movement which was before the Law
and under
the Law; which gained strength and volume as the
fulness of the
times drew near.", Perowne's Jonah.
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a dove, the son of Amittai of Gath-hepher. He was a prophet of
Israel, and predicted the restoration of the ancient
boundaries
(2 Kings 14:25-27) of the kingdom. He exercised his
ministry
very early in the reign of Jeroboam II., and thus was
contemporary with Hosea and Amos; or possibly he
preceded them,
and consequently may have been the very oldest of all
the
prophets whose writings we possess. His personal
history is
mainly to be gathered from the book which bears his
name. It is
chiefly interesting from the two-fold character in
which he
appears, (1) as a missionary to heathen Nineveh, and
(2) as a
type of the "Son of man."
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The first epistle to the Thessalonians was the first of all
Paul's epistles. It was in all probability written
from Corinth,
where he abode a "long time" (Acts 18:11, 18), early
in the
period of his residence there, about the end of A.D.
52.
The occasion of its being written was the return of
Timotheus
from Macedonia, bearing tidings from Thessalonica
regarding the
state of the church there (Acts 18:1-5; 1 Thess.
3:6). While, on
the whole, the report of Timothy was encouraging, it
also showed
that divers errors and misunderstandings regarding
the tenor of
Paul's teaching had crept in amongst them. He
addresses them in
this letter with the view of correcting these
errors, and
especially for the purpose of exhorting them to
purity of life,
reminding them that their sanctification was the
great end
desired by God regarding them.
The subscription erroneously states that this
epistle was
written from Athens.
The second epistle to the Thessalonians was probably
also
written from Corinth, and not many months after the
first.
The occasion of the writing of this epistle was the
arrival of
tidings that the tenor of the first epistle had been
misunderstood, especially with reference to the
second advent of
Christ. The Thessalonians had embraced the idea that
Paul had
taught that "the day of Christ was at hand", that
Christ's
coming was just about to happen. This error is
corrected
(2:1-12), and the apostle prophetically announces
what first
must take place. "The apostasy" was first to arise.
Various
explanations of this expression have been given, but
that which
is most satisfactory refers it to the Church of
Rome.
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SECOND EPISTLE. Genuineness. Polycarp (Ep. ad Philipp. 11)
alludes to 1 Thessalonians 1:4; 1 Thessalonians 3:15, and so
attests it. Justin Martyr (Dial.Trypho, 193, sec. 32)
alludes to 2 Thessalonians 2:3. Irenaeus (iii. 7, section 2)
quotes 2 Thessalonians 2:8. Clement of Alexandria quotes 2
Thessalonians 3:2 as Paul's words (Strom. i. 5, section 554;
Paedag. i. 17). Tertullian (de Resurr. Carnis, chap. 24)
quotes 2 Thessalonians 2:1-2 as part of Paul's epistles.
DESIGN. The report from Thessalonica after the first
epistle represented the faith and love of the church there
as on the increase, and their constancy amidst persecutions
unshaken. Their only error needing correction was that
Paul's description of Christ's sudden second coming (1
Thessalonians 4:13; 1 Thessalonians 5:2), possibly at any
moment, led them to believe it actually imminent. Some
professed to know by "the Spirit" (2 Thessalonians 2:2) it
was so, others declared Paul when with them had said so; a
letter purporting to be from him to that effect was
circulated among them (2 Thessalonians 2:2, in 2
Thessalonians 3:17 he marks his autograph salutation as the
test whereby to know his genuine letters). Hence some ceased
to mind their daily work, and cast themselves on the charity
of others as if their only duty was to look for Christ's
immediate coming. Paul therefore tells them (2 Thessalonians
2) that before the Lord shall come there must first be a
great apostasy, and the man of sin be revealed; and that to
neglect daily business would only bring scandal on the
church, and was contrary to his own practice among them (2
Thessalonians 3:7-9), and that believers must withdraw from
such disorderly walkers (2 Thessalonians 3:6; 2
Thessalonians 3:10-15).
DIVISIONS.
(1) 2 Thessalonians 1:1-12; he commends the...
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The Epistles to Timothy and Titus are called the Pastoral
Epistles, because they are principally devoted to directions
about the work of the pastor of a church. The First Epistle
was probably written from Macedonia, A.D. 65, in the
interval between St. Paul's first and second imprisonments
at Rome. The absence of any local reference but that in 1Ti
1:3 suggests Macedonia or some neighboring district. In some
MSS. and versions Laodicea is named in the inscription as
the place from which it was sent. The Second Epistle appears
to have been written A.D. 67 or 68, and in all probability
at Rome. The following are the characteristic features of
these epistles:-- (1) The ever-deepening sense in St. Paul's
heart of the divine mercy of which he was the object, as
shown in the insertion of the "mercy" in the salutations of
both epistles, and in the "obtained mercy" of 1Ti 1:13 (2)
The greater abruptness of the Second Epistle. From first to
last there is no plan, no treatment of subjects carefully
thought out. All speaks of strong overflowing emotion
memories of the past, anxieties about the future. (3) The
absence, as compared with St. Paul other epistles, of Old
Testament references. This may connect itself with the fact
just noticed, that these epistles are not argumentative,
possibly also with the request for the "books and
parchments" which had been left behind. 2Ti 4:13 (4) The
conspicuous position of the "faithful sayings" as taking the
place occupied in other epistles by the Old Testament
Scriptures. The way in which these are cited as
authoritative, the variety of subjects which they cover,
suggests the thought that in them we have specimens of the
prophecies of the apostolic Church which had most impressed
themselves on the mind of the apostle and of the disciples
generally. 1Co 14:1 ... shows how deep a reverence he was
likely to feel for spiritual utterances. In 1Ti 4:1 we have
a distinct reference to them. (5) The tendency of the
apostle's mind to dwell more on the universality of the
redemptive work of Christ, 1Ti 2:3-6; 4:10 and his strong
desire that all the teaching of his disciples should be
"sound." (6) The importance attached by him to the practical
details of administration. The gathered experience of a long
life had taught him that the life and well being of the
Church required these for its safeguards. (7) The recurrence
of doxologies, 1Ti 1:17; 6:15,16; 2Ti 4:18 as from one
living perpetually in the presence of God, to whom the
language of adoration was as his natural speech.
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was probably written a year or so after the first, and from
Rome, where Paul was for a second time a prisoner, and
was sent
to Timothy by the hands of Tychicus. In it he entreats
Timothy
to come to him before winter, and to bring Mark with
him (comp.
Phil. 2:22). He was anticipating that "the time of his
departure
was at hand" (2 Tim. 4:6), and he exhorts his "son
Timothy" to
all diligence and steadfastness, and to patience under
persecution (1:6-15), and to a faithful discharge of
all the
duties of his office (4:1-5), with all the solemnity
of one who
was about to appear before the Judge of quick and
dead.
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TIME AND PLACE OF WRITING. In Paul's prison at Rome, just
before his martyrdom. Timothy was possibly still at Ephesus,
for Priscilla and Aquila whom Paul salutes generally resided
there (2 Timothy 4:19); also Onesiphorus, who ministered to
Paul at Ephesus and therefore it is presumable resided there
(2 Timothy 1:16-18). The Hymenaeus of 2 Timothy 2:17 is
probably the Hymenaeus at Ephesus (1 Timothy 1:20); also
"Alexander the coppersmith" (2 Timothy 4:14) seems to be the
Alexander put forward by the Jews to clear themselves, not
to befriend Paul, in the riot at Ephesus (Acts 19:33-34).
Still, if Timothy was at Ephesus, why did he need to be told
that Paul had sent Tychicus to Ephesus, or that Paul had
left Trophimus, himself an Ephesian (Acts 21:29), sick at
Miletus which was only 30 miles from Ephesus?
Probably Timothy's overseership extended beyond
Ephesus to all the Pauline churches in Asia Minor; he
combined with it the office of "evangelist," or itinerant
missionary Ephesus was only his head quarters; and 2 Timothy
4:13 will accord with the theory of Ephesus or any other
place in the N.W. of Asia Minor being Timothy's place of
sojourn at the time. Paul at his first imprisonment lodged
in his own hired house, guarded by a single soldier, and
having liberty to receive all comers; but now he was so
closely confined that Onesiphorus with difficulty found him;
he was chained, forsaken by friends, and had narrowly
escaped execution by the Roman emperor. The access however
of Onesiphorus, Linus, Pudens, and Claudia to him proves he
was not in the Mamertine or Tullianum prison, with Peter, as
tradition represents; but under military custody, of a
severer kind than at his first imprisonment (2 Timothy 1:16-
18; 2 Timothy 2:9; 2 Timothy 4:6-8; 2 Timothy 4:16-17). (See
PETER.) He was probably arraigned before the "rulers"
(Clemens Rom., 1 Ep. Corinth. 5, epi ton heegoumenon), i.e.
Helius the city prefect, on a double charge:
(1) of having conspired with the Christians, as
Nero's partisans alleged, to set fire to Rome, A.D. 64; that
event took place the year after his liberation from the
first imprisonment, A.D. 63; some Christians were crucified,
some arrayed in wild beasts' skins, and hunted to death by
dogs, wrapped in pitch robes some were set on fire by night
to illuminate the Vatican circus and Nero's gardens while
that monster played the charioteer. (See PAUL.) But now
three years had elapsed; and Paul as a Roman citizen was
treated with greater respect for legal forms, and was
acquitted on the...
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LITERATURE Among the 7 New Testament epistles which from
ancient times have been called "catholic" (universal) there
is a smaller group of three in which the style alike of
thought and language points to a common authorship, and
which are traditionally associated with the name of the
apostle John. Of these, again, the first differs widely from
the other two in respect not only of intrinsic importance,
but of its early reception in the church and unquestioned
canonicity. THE FIRST EPISTLE I. General Character. 1. A
True Letter: Not only is the Epistle an anonymous writing;
one of its unique features among the books of the New
Testament is that it does not contain a single proper name
(except our Lord's), or a single definite allusion,
personal, historical, or geographical. It is a composition,
however, which a person calling himself "I" sends to certain
other persons whom he calls "you," and is, in form at least,
a letter. The criticism which has denied that it is more
than formally so is unwarranted. It does not fall under
either of Deissmann's categories--the true letter, intended
only for the perusal of the person or persons to whom it is
addressed, and the epistle, written with literary art and
with an eye to the public. But it does possess that
character of the New Testament epistles in general which is
well described by Sir William Ramsay (Letters to the Seven
Churches of Asia, 24): "They spring from the heart of the
writer and speak direct to the heart of the readers. They
were often called forth by some special crisis in the
history of the persons addressed, so that they rise out of
the actual situation in which the writer conceives the
readers to be placed; they express the writer's keen and
living sympathy with and participation in the fortunes of
the whole class addressed, and are not affected by any
thought of a wider public. .... On the other hand, the
letters of this class express general principles of life and
conduct, religion and ethics, applicable to a wider range of
circumstances than those which called them forth; and they
appeal as emphatically and intimately to all Christians in
all time as they did to those addressed in the first
instance." The 1st Epistle of John could not be more exactly
characterized than by these words. Though its main features
are didactic and controversial, the personal note is
frequently struck, and with much tenderness and depth of
feeling. Under special stress of emotion, the writer's
paternal love, sympathy and solicitude break out in the
affectionate appellation, "little children," or, yet more
endearingly, "my little children." Elsewhere the prefatory
"beloved" shows how deeply he is stirred by the sublimity of
his theme and the sense of its supreme importance to his
readers. He shows himself intimately acquainted with their
religious environment (1 Jn 2:19; 4:1), dangers (1 Jn 2:26;
3:7; 5:21), attainments (1 Jn 2:12-14,21), achievements (1
Jn 4:4) and needs (1 Jn 3:19; 5:13). Further, the Epistle is
addressed primarily to the circle of those among whom the
author has habitually exercised his ministry as evangelist
and teacher. He has been wont to announce to them the things
concerning the Word of Life (1 Jn 1:1,2), that they might
have fellowship with him (1 Jn 1:3), and now, that his (or
their) joy may be full, he writes these things unto them (1
Jn 1:4). He writes as light shines. Love makes the task a
necessity, but also a delight...
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IV. Canonicity and Authorship. 1. Traditional View: As to
the reception of the Epistle in the church, it is needless
to cite any later witness than Eusebius (circa 325), who
classes it among the books (homologoumena) whose canonical
rank was undisputed. It is quoted by Dionysius, bishop of
Alexandria (247-265), by the Muratorian Canon, Cyprian,
Origen, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, and Irenaeus.
Papias (who is described by Irenaeus as a "hearer of John
and a companion of Polycarp") is stated by Eusebius to have
"used some testimonies from John's former epistle"; and
Polycarp's Epistle to the Philippians (circa 115) contains
an almost verbal reproduction of 1 Jn 4:3. Reminiscences of
it are traced in Athenagoras (circa 180), the Epistle to
Diognetus, the Epistle of Barnabas, more distinctly in
Justin (Dial. 123) and in the Didache; but it is possible
that the earliest of these indicate the currency of
Johannine expressions in certain Christian circles rather
than acquaintance with the Epistle itself. The evidence,
however, is indisputable that this Epistle, one of the
latest of the New Testament books, took immediately and
permanently an unchallenged position as a writing of
inspired authority. It is no material qualification of this
statement to add that, in common with the other Johannine
writings, it was rejected, for dogmatic reasons, by Marcion
and the so-called Alogi; and that, like all the catholic
epistles, it was unknown to the Canon of the ancient Syrian
church, and is stated to have been "abrogated" by Theodore
(Bishop of Mopsuestia, 393-428 AD). 2. Critical Views: The
verdict of tradition is equally unanimous that the Fourth
Gospel and the First Epistle are both the legacy of the
apostle John in his old age to the church. All the Fathers
already mentioned as quoting the Epistle (excepting
Polycarp, but including Irenaeus) quote it as the work of
John; and, until the end of the 16th century, this opinion
was held as unquestionable. The first of modern scholars to
challenge it was Joseph Scaliger (1540-1609), who rejected
the entire trio of Johannine Epistles as unapostolic; and in
later times a dual authorship of the Gospel and the First
Epistle has been maintained by Baur, H.J. Holtzmann,
Pfleiderer, von Soden, and others; although on this
particular point other adherents of the critical school like
Julicher, Wrede and Wernle, accept the traditional view. 3.
Internal Evidence: Thus two questions are raised: first,
what light does the Epistle shed upon the personality of its
own author? And second, whether or not, the Gospel and the
Epistle are from the same hand. Now, while the Epistle
furnishes no clue by which we can identify the writer, it
enables us very distinctly to class him. His relation to his
readers, as we have seen, is intimate. The absence of
explicit reference to either writer or readers only shows
how intimate it was. For the writer to declare his identity
was superfluous. Thought, language, tone--all were too
familiar to be mistaken. The Epistle bore its author's
signature in every line. His position toward his readers
was, moreover, authoritative. As has already been said, the
natural interpretation of 1 Jn 1:2,3 is that the relation
between them was that of teacher and taught. (By this fact
we may account for the enigmatic brevity of such a passage
as that on the "three witnesses." The writer intended
only...
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LITERATURE
I. Title.
It is possible, indeed probable, that the book originally
had no title. The manuscripts give the title in several
forms. Aleph (in the inscription) has merely "Acts"
(Praxeis). So Tischendorf, while Origen, Didymus, Eusebius
quote from "The Acts." But BD Aleph (in subscription) have
"Acts of Apostles" or "The Acts of the Apostles" (Praxeis
Apostolon). So Westcott and Hort, Nestle (compare Athanasius
and Euthalius). Only slightly different is the title in
31,61, and many other cursives (Praxeis ton Apostolon, "Acts
of the Apostles"). So Griesbach, Scholz. Several fathers
(Clement of Alex, Origen, Dionysius of Alex, Cyril of
Jerusalem, Chrysostom) quote it as "The Acts of the
Apostles" (Hai Praxeis ton Apostolon). Finally A2 EGH give
it in the form "Acts of the Holy Apostles" (Praxeis ton
Hagion Apostolon). The Memphitic version has "The Acts of
the Holy Apostles." Clearly, then, there was no single title
that commanded general acceptance.
II. Text.
(1) The chief documents. These are the Primary Uncials
(Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Alexandrinus, Codex Vaticanus,
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, Codex Bezae), Codex Laudianus (E)
which is a bilingual Uncial confined to Acts, later Uncials
like Codex Modena, Codex Regius, Codex the Priestly Code
(P), the Cursives, the Vulgate, the Peshitta and the
Harclean Syriac and quotations from the Fathers. We miss the
Curetonian and Syriac Sinaiticus, and have only fragmentary
testimony from the Old Latin.
(2) The modern editions of Acts present the types of text
(Textus Receptus; the Revised Version (British and
American); the critical text like that of Westcott and Hort,
The New Testament in Greek or Nestle or Weiss or von Soden).
These three types do not correspond with the four classes of
text (Syrian, Western, Alexandrian, Neutral) outlined by
Hort in his Introduction to the New Testament in Greek
(1882). These four classes are broadly represented in the
documents which give us Acts. But no modern editor of the
Greek New Testament has given us the Western or the
Alexandrian type of text, though Bornemann, as will
presently be shown, argues for the originality of the
Western type in Acts. But the Textus Receptus of the New
Testament (Stephanus' 3rd edition in 1550) was the basis of
the King James Version of 1611. This edition of the Greek
New Testament made use of a very few manuscripts, and all of
them late, except Codex Bezae, which was considered...
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The third epistle is addressed to Caius or Gaius. He was
probably a convert of St. John, Epist. 3Jo 1:4 and a layman of
wealth and distinction, Epits. 3Jo 1:5 in some city near
Ephesus. The object of St. John in writing the second epistle
was to warn the lady to whom he wrote against abetting the
teaching known as that of Basilides and his followers, by
perhaps an undue kindness displayed by her toward the
preachers of the false doctrine. The third epistle was written
for the purpose of commending to the kindness and hospitality
of Caius some Christians who were strangers in the place where
he lived. It is probably that these Christians carried this
letter with them to Caius as their introduction.
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VIII. The Speeches in Acts.
This matter is important enough to receive separate
treatment. Are the numerous speeches reported in Acts free
compositions of Luke made to order a la Thucydides? Are they
verbatim reports from notes taken at the times and literally
copied into the narrative? Are they substantial reports
incorporated with more or less freedom with marks of Luke's
own style? In the abstract either of these methods was
possible. The example of Thucydides, Xenophon, Livy and
Josephus shows that ancient historians did not scruple to
invent speeches of which no report was available. There are
not wanting those who accuse Luke of this very thing in
Acts. The matter can only be settled by an appeal to the
facts so far as they can be determined. It cannot be denied
that to a certain extent the hand of Luke is apparent in the
addresses reported by him in Acts. But this fact must not be
pressed too far. It is not true that the addresses are all
alike in style. It is possible to distinguish very clearly
the speeches of Peter from those of Paul. Not merely is this
true, but we are able to compare the addresses of both Paul
and Peter with their epistles. It is not probable that Luke
had seen these epistles, as will presently be shown. It is
crediting remarkable literary skill to Luke to suppose that
he made up "Petrine" speeches and "Pauline" speeches with
such success that they harmonize beautifully with the
teachings and general style of each of these apostles. The
address of Stephen differs also sharply from those of Peter
and Paul, though we are not able to compare this report with
any original work by Stephen himself. Another thing is true
also, particularly of Paul's sermons. They are wonderfully
stated to time, place and audience. They all have a distract
Pauline flavor, and yet a difference in local color that
corresponds, to some extent, with the variations in the
style of Paul's epistles. Professor Percy Gardner (The
Speeches of Paul in Acts, in Cambridge Biblical Essays,
1909) recognizes these differences, but seeks to explain
them on the ground of varying accuracy in the sources used
by Luke, counting the speech at Miletus as the most historic
of all. But he admits the use of sources by Luke for these
addresses. The theory of pure invention by Luke is quite
discredited by appeal to the facts. On the other hand, in
view of the apparent presence of Luke's style to some extent
in the speeches, it can hardly be claimed that he has made
verbatim reports. Besides, the report of the addresses of
Jesus in Luke's Gospel (as in the other gospels) shows the
same freedom in giving the substance exact reproduction of
the words that is found in Acts. Again, it seems clear that
some, if not all, the reports in Acts are condensed, mere
outlines in the case of some of Peter's addresses. The
ancients knew how to make shorthand reports of such
addresses. The oral tradition was probably active in
preserving the early speeches of Peter and even of Stephen,
though Paul himself heard Stephen. The speeches...
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XIII. Analysis.
1. The connection between the work of the apostles and that
of Jesus (Acts 1:1-11).
2. The equipment of the early disciples for their task (Acts
1:12 through 2:47).
(a) The disciples obeying Christ's parting command (Acts
1:12-44).
(b) The place of Judas filled (Acts 1:15-26).
(c) Miraculous manifestations of the presence of the Holy
Spirit (Acts 2:1-13).
(d) Peter's interpretation of the situation (Acts 2:14-36).
(e) The immediate effect of the sermon (Acts 2:37-41).
(f) The new spirit in the Christian community (Acts 2:42-
47).
3. The development of the work in Jerusalem (Acts 3:1
through 8:1a).
(a) An incident in the work of Peter and John with Peter's
apologetic (Acts 3).
(b) Opposition of the Sadducees aroused by the preaching of
the resurrection of Jesus (Acts 4:1-31).
(c) An internal difficulty, the problem of poverty (Acts
4:32 through 5:11).
(d) Great progress of the cause in the city (Acts 5:12-16).
(e) Renewed hostility of the Sadducees and Gamaliel's retort
to the Pharisees (Acts 5:17-42).
(f) A crisis in church life and the choice of the seven
Hellenists (Acts 6:1-7).
(g) Stephen's spiritual interpretation of Christianity stirs
the antagonism of the Pharisees and leads to his violent
death (Acts 6:8 through 8:1a).
4. The compulsory extension of the gospel to Judea, Samaria
and the neighboring regions (Acts 8:1b-40).
(a) The great persecution, with Saul as leader (Acts 8:1b-
4).
(b) Philip's work as a notable example of the work of the
scattered disciples (Acts 8:5-40).
5. The conversion of Saul changes the whole situation for
Christianity (Acts 9:1-31).
(a) Saul's mission to Damascus (Acts 9:1-3)...
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the fifth book in the New testament and the second treatise
by the author of the third Gospel, traditionally known as
Luke. The book commences with an inscription to one
Theophilus, who was probably a man of birth and station. The
readers were evidently intended to be the members of the
Christian Church, whether Jews or Gentiles; for its contents
are such as are of the utmost consequence to the whole
Church. They are the fulfillment of the promise of the
Father by the descent of the Holy Spirit, and the results of
that outpouring by the dispersion of the gospel among the
Jews and Gentiles. Under these leading heads all the
personal and subordinate details may be arranged. First St.
Peter becomes the prime actor under God int he founding of
the Church. He is the centre of the first group of sayings
and doings. The opening of the door to Jews, ch. 2, and
Gentiles, ch. 10, is his office, and by him, in good time,
is accomplished. Then the preparation of Saul of Tarsus for
the work to be done, the progress, in his hand, of that
work, his journeyings, preachings and perils, his stripes
and imprisonments, his testifying in Jerusalem and being
brought to testify in Rome, --these are the subjects of the
latter half of the book, of which the great central figure
is the apostle Paul. The history given in the Acts occupies
about 33 years, and the reigns of the Roman emperors
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. It seems most
probable that the place of writing was Roma, and the time
about two years from the date of St. Paul's arrival there,
as related in Ac 28:30 This would give us fro the
publication about 63 A.D.
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the title now given to the fifth and last of the historical
books of the New Testament. The author styles it a
"treatise"
(1:1). It was early called "The Acts," "The Gospel
of the Holy
Ghost," and "The Gospel of the Resurrection." It
contains
properly no account of any of the apostles except
Peter and
Paul. John is noticed only three times; and all that
is recorded
of James, the son of Zebedee, is his execution by
Herod. It is
properly therefore not the history of the "Acts of
the
Apostles," a title which was given to the book at a
later date,
but of "Acts of Apostles," or more correctly, of
"Some Acts of
Certain Apostles."
As regards its authorship, it was certainly the work
of Luke,
the "beloved physician" (comp. Luke 1:1-4; Acts
1:1). This is
the uniform tradition of antiquity, although the
writer nowhere
makes mention of himself by name. The style and
idiom of the
Gospel of Luke and of the Acts, and the usage of
words and
phrases common to both, strengthen this opinion. The
writer
first appears in the narrative in 16:11, and then
disappears
till Paul's return to Philippi two years afterwards,
when he and
Paul left that place together (20:6), and the two
seem
henceforth to have been constant companions to the
end. He was
certainly with Paul at Rome (28; Col. 4:14). Thus he
wrote a
great portion of that history from personal
observation. For
what lay beyond his own experience he had the
instruction of
Paul. If, as is very probable, 2 Tim. was written
during Paul's
second imprisonment at Rome, Luke was with him then
as his
faithful companion to the last (2 Tim. 4:11). Of his
subsequent
history we have no certain information.
The design of Luke's Gospel was to give an
exhibition of the
character and work of Christ as seen in his history
till he was
taken up from his disciples into heaven; and of the
Acts, as its
sequel, to give an illustration of the power and
working of the
gospel when preached among all nations...
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EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS: written by Paul during his first
captivity at Rome (Acts 28:16), in that part of it when as
yet it had not become so severe as it did when the epistle
to the Philippians (Philemon 1:20-21; Philemon 1:30) was
written (probably after the death of Burrhus, A.D. 62, to
whom Tigellinus succeeded as praetorian prefect). Its
genuineness is attested by Justin Martyr (contra Tryphon, p.
311 b.), Theophilus of Antioch (Autol., 2:10), Irenaeus
(3:14, section 1), Clement of Alexandria (Stromata, 1:325),
Tertullian (Praescr. Haeret., 7), Origen (c. Celsus, 5:8).
Object: to counteract the Jewish false teaching there, of
which Paul had heard from Epaphras (Colossians 4:12), by
setting before them their standing in CHRIST ALONE,
exclusive of angels. the majesty of His person (Colossians
1:15), and the completeness of redemption by Him.
Hence, they ought to be conformed to their risen
Lord (Colossians 3:1-5), and exhibit that conformity in all
relations of life. The false teaching opposed in this
epistle (Colossians 2:16; Colossians 2:18, "new moon ...
sabbath days") is that of Judaizing Christians, mixed up
with eastern theosophy, angel worship, and the asceticism of
the Essenes (Colossians 2:8-9; Colossians 2:16-23). The
theosophists professed a deeper insight into the world of
spirits and a greater subjugation of the flesh than the
simple gospel affords. Some Alexandrian Jews may have
visited Colosse and taught Philo's Greek philosophy,
combined with the rabbinical angelology and mysticism,
afterward embodied in the Cabbala. Alexander the Great had
garrisoned Phrygia with Babylonian Jews.
The Phrygians' original tendency had been to a
mystic worship, namely, that of Cybele; so, when
Christianized, they readily gave heed to the incipient
gnosticism of Judaizers. Later, when the pastoral epistles
were written, the evil had reached a more deadly phase,
openly immoral teachings (1 Timothy 4:1-3; 1 Timothy 6:5).
The place of writing was Rome. The three epistles,
Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon, were sent at the same
time. The epistle to Colossians, though carried by the same
bearer, Tychicus, who bore that to the Ephesians, was
written earlier, for the similar phrases in Ephesians appear
more expanded than those in Colossians. The "ye also" (as
well as the Colossians) may imply the same fact (Ephesians
6:21).
The similarity between the three epistles written
about the same date to two neighboring cities (whereas those
written at distant dates and under different circumstances
have little mutual resemblance) is an undesigned coincidence
and proof of genuineness. Compare Ephesians 1:7 with
Colossians 1:14; Ephesians 1:10 with Colossians 1:20;
Ephesians 3:2 with Colossians 1:25; Ephesians 5:19 with
Colossians 3:16; Ephesians 6:22 with Colossians 4:8;
Ephesians 1:19; Ephesians 2:5 with Colossians 2:12-13;
Ephesians 4:2-4 with Colossians 3:12-15; Ephesians 4:16 with
Colossians 2:19; Ephesians 4:32 with Colossians 3:13;
Ephesians 4:22-24 with Colossians 3:9-10; Ephesians 5:6-8
with Colossians 3:6-8; Ephesians 5:15-16 with Colossians
4:5; Ephesians 6:19-20 with Colossians 4:3-4; Ephesians
5:22-23; Ephesians 6:1-9 with Colossians 3:18; Ephesians
4:24-25 with Colossians 3:9; Ephesians 5:20-22 with
Colossians 3:17-18.
Onesimus traveled with Tychicus, bearing the letter
to Philemon. The persons sending salutations are the same as
in epistle to Philemon, except Jesus Justus (Colossians
4:11). Archippus is addressed in both. Paul and Timothy head
both. Paul appears in both a prisoner. The style has a lofty
elaboration corresponding to the theme, Christ's majestic
person and office, in contrast to the Judaizers' beggarly
system. In the epistle to the Ephesians, which did not
require to be so controversial, he dilates on these truths
so congenial to him, with a fuller outpouring of spirit and
less antithetical phraseology.
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LITERATURE
I. Name.
The Book of Daniel is rightly so called, whether we consider
Daniel as the author of it, or as the principal person
mentioned in it.
II. Place in the Canon.
In the English Bible, Daniel is placed among the Major
Prophets, immediately after Ezk, thus following the order of
the Septuagint and of the Latin Vulgate (Jerome's Bible,
390-405 A.D.) In the Hebrew Bible, however, it is placed in
the third division of the Canon, called the Kethuvim or
writings, by the Hebrews, and the hagiographa, or holy
writings, by the Seventy. It has been claimed, that Daniel
was placed by the Jews in the third part of the Canon,
either because they thought the inspiration of its author to
be of a lower kind than was that of the other prophets, or
because the book was written after the second or prophetical
part of the Canon had been closed. It is more probable, that
the book was placed in this part of the Hebrew Canon,
because Daniel is not called a nabhi' ("prophet"), but was
rather a chozeh ("seer") and a chakham ("wise man"). None
but the works of the nebhi'im were put in the second part of
the Jewish Canon, the third being reserved for the
heterogeneous works of seers, wise men, and priests, or for
those that do not mention the name or work of a prophet, or
that are poetical in form. A confusion has arisen, because
the Greek word prophet is used to render the two Hebrew
words nabhi' and chozeh. In the Scriptures, God is said to
speak to the former, whereas the latter see visions and
dream dreams. Some have attempted to explain the position of
Daniel by assuming that he had the prophetic gift without
holding the prophetic office. It must be kept in mind that
all reasons given to account for the order and place of many
of the books in the Canon are purely conjectural, since we
have no historical evidence bearing upon the subject earlier
than the time of Jesus ben Sirach, who wrote probably about
180 BC.
III. Divisions of the Book.
According to its subject-matter, the book falls naturally
into two great divisions, each consisting of six chapters,
the first portion containing the historical sections, and
the second the apocalyptic, or predictive, portions; though
the former is not devoid of predictions, nor the latter of
historical statements. More specifically, the first chapter
is introductory to the whole book; Dan 2 through 6 describe
some...
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stands at the head of a series of writings in which the
deepest thoughts of the Jewish people found expression after
their close of the prophetic era. Daniel is composed partly
in the vernacular Aramaic (Chaldee) and partly in the sacred
Hebrew. The introduction, Dan. 1-2:4 a, is written in
Hebrew. On the occasion of the "Syriac" (i.e. Aramaic)
answer of the Chaldeans, the language changes to Aramaic,
and this is retained till the close of the seventh chapter
(2:4 b-7). The personal introduction of Daniel as the writer
of the text, 8:1, is marked by the resumption of the Hebrew,
which continues to the close of the book. ch. 8-12. The book
may be divided into three parts. The first chapter forms an
introduction. The next six chapters, 2-7, give a general
view of the progressive history of the powers of the world,
and of the principles of the divine government as seen in
the events of the life of Daniel. The remainder of the book,
chs. 8-12, traces in minuter detail the fortunes of the
people of God, as typical of the fortunes of the Church in
all ages. In the first seven chapters Daniel is spoken of
historically; int he last five he appears personally as the
writer. The cause of the difference of person is commonly
supposed to lie int he nature of the case. It is, however,
more probable that the peculiarity arose from the manner in
which the book assumed its final shape. The book exercised a
great influence upon the Christian Church. The New Testament
incidentally acknowledges each of the characteristic
elements of the book, its miracles, Heb 11:33,34 its
predictions, Mt 24:15 and its doctrine of angels. Lu 1:19,26
The authenticity of the book has been attacked in modern
times. (But the evidence, both external and internal, is
conclusive as to its genuineness. Rawlinson, in his
"Historical Evidences," shows how some historical
difficulties that had been brought against the book are
solved by the inscription on a cylinder lately found among
the ruins of Ur in Chaldea. --ED.)
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is ranked by the Jews in that division of their Bible called
the
Hagiographa (Heb. Khethubim). (See BIBLE -T0000580.)
It consists
of two distinct parts. The first part, consisting of
the first
six chapters, is chiefly historical; and the second
part,
consisting of the remaining six chapters, is chiefly
prophetical.
The historical part of the book treats of the period
of the
Captivity. Daniel is "the historian of the
Captivity, the writer
who alone furnishes any series of events for that
dark and
dismal period during which the harp of Israel hung
on the trees
that grew by the Euphrates. His narrative may be
said in general
to intervene between Kings and Chronicles on the one
hand and
Ezra on the other, or (more strictly) to fill out
the sketch
which the author of the Chronicles gives in a single
verse in
his last chapter: 'And them that had escaped from
the sword
carried he [i.e., Nebuchadnezzar] away to Babylon;
where they
were servants to him and his sons until the reign of
the kingdom
of Persia'" (2 Chr. 36:20).
The prophetical part consists of three visions and
one
lengthened prophetical communication.
The genuineness of this book has been much disputed,
but the
arguments in its favour fully establish its claims.
(1.) We have
the testimony of Christ (Matt. 24:15; 25:31; 26:64)
and his
apostles (1 Cor. 6:2; 2 Thess. 2:3) for its
authority; and (2)
the important testimony of Ezekiel (14:14, 20;
28:3). (3.) The
character and records of the book are also entirely
in harmony
with the times and circumstances in which the author
lived. (4.)
The linguistic character of the book is, moreover,
just such as
might be expected. Certain portions (Dan. 2:4; 7)
are written in
the Chaldee language; and the portions written in
Hebrew are in
a style and form having a close affinity with the
later books of
the Old Testament, especially with that of Ezra. The
writer is
familiar both with the Hebrew and the Chaldee,
passing from the
one to the other just as his subject required. This
is in strict
accordance with the position of the author and of
the people for
whom his book was written. That Daniel is the writer
of this
book is also testified to in the book itself (7:1,
28; 8:2; 9:2;
10:1, 2; 12:4, 5). (See BELSHAZZAR -T0000519.)
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AUTHENTICITY. That Daniel composed it is testified by Daniel
7:1-28; Daniel 8:2; Daniel 9:2; Daniel 10:1-2; Daniel 12:4-
5. In the first six chapters, which are historical, he does
not mention himself in the first person, for in these the
events, not the person, are prominent (compare Isaiah 7:3;
Isaiah 20:2). In the last six, which are prophetical,
wherein his divine commission needed to be shown, he comes
forward personally as the writer. Being a "seer," having the
gift and spirit, not the theocratical office and work, of a
prophet, his book stands in the third rank in the Hebrew
canon, namely, in the Hagiographa (Kethubim) between Esther
and Ezra, the three relating to the captivity. Its position
there, not among the prophets as one would expect, shows it
was not an interpolation of later times, but deliberately
placed where it is by Ezra and the establishers of the
Jewish canon. Daniel was "the politician, chronologer, and
historian among the prophets" (Bengel).
Similarly, the Psalms, though largely prophetic, are
ranked with the Hagiographa, not the prophets. He does not,
as they writing amidst the covenant people do, make God's
people the foreground; but writing in a pagan court he makes
the world kingdoms the foreground, behind which he places
the kingdom of God, destined ultimately to be all in all.
His book written amidst pagan isolation is the Old Testament
Apocalypse, as the Revelation of John written in the lonely
Patmos is the New Testament Apocalypse; the two respectively
stand apart, his from the prophets, John's from the
epistles. Porphyry in the third century A.D. assailed the
Book of Daniel as a forgery in the time of the Maccabees,
170-164 B.C. But the forgery of a prophecy, if Daniel were
spurious, would never have been received by the Jews from an
age when confessedly there were no prophets. Antiochus
Epiphanes' history and attack on the holy people are so
accurately detailed (Daniel 11) that Porphyry thought they
must have been written after the event.
But Zechariah, Ezra, and Nehemiah allude to it;
Jesus in His peculiar...
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LITERATURE
1. Name:
In Hebrew 'elleh ha-debharim, "these are the words"; in
Greek, Deuteronomion, "second law"; whence the Latin
deuteronomii, and the English Deuteronomy. The Greek title
is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of the clause
in Dt 17:18 rendered, "and he shall write for himself this
repetition of the law." The Hebrew really means "and he
shall write out for himself a copy of this law." However,
the error on which the English title rests is not serious,
as Deuteronomy is in a very true sense a repetition of the
law.
2. What Deuteronomy Is:
Deuteronomy is the last of the five books of the Pentateuch,
or "five-fifths of the Law." It possesses an individuality
and impressiveness of its own. In Exodus--Numbers Yahweh is
represented as speaking unto Moses, whereas in Deuteronomy,
Moses is represented as speaking at Yahweh's command to
Israel (1:1-4; 5:1; 29:1). It is a hortatory recapitulation
of various addresses delivered at various times and places
in the desert wanderings--a sort of homily on the
constitution, the essence or gist of Moses' instructions to
Israel during the forty years of their desert experience. It
is "a Book of Reviews"; a translation of Israel's redemptive
history into living principles; not so much a history as a
commentary. There is much of retrospect in it, but its main
outlook is forward. The rabbins speak of it as "the Book of
Reproofs." It is the text of all prophecy; a manual of
evangelical oratory; possessing "all the warmth of a
Bernard, the flaming zeal of a Savonarola, and the tender,
gracious sympathy of a Francis of Assisi." The author's
interest is entirely moral. His one supreme purpose is to
arouse Israel's loyalty to Yahweh and to His revealed law.
Taken as a whole the book is an exposition of the great
commandment, "Thou shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thy
heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might." It
was from Deuteronomy that Jesus summarized the whole of the
Old Covenant in a single sentence (Mt 22:37; compare Dt
6:5), and from it He drew His weapons with which to vanquish
the tempter (Mt 4:4,7,10; compare Dt 8:3; 6:16,13)...
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--which means "the repetition of the law" --consists chiefly
of three discourses delivered by Moses shortly before his
death. Subjoined to these discourses are the Song of Moses
the Blessing of Moses, and the story of his death.
1. The first discourse. De 1:1 ... 4:40 After a
brief historical introduction the speaker recapitulates the
chief events of the last forty years in the wilderness. To
this discourse is appended a brief notice of the severing of
the three cities of refuge on the east side of the Jordan.
De 4:41-43
2. The second discourse is introduced like the first
by an explanation of the circumstances under which it was
delivered. De 4:44-49 It extends from chap. De 5:1-26
19 and contains a recapitulation, with some
modifications and additions of the law already given on
Mount Sinai.
3. In the third discourse, De 27:1-30
20 the elders of Israel are associated with Moses.
The people are commanded to set up stones upon Mount Ebal,
and on them to write "all the words of this law." Then
follow the several curses to be pronounced by the Levites on
Ebal, De 27:14-26 and the blessings on Gerizim. De 28:1-14
4. The delivery of the law as written by Moses (for
its still further preservation) to the custody of the
Levites, and a charge to the people to hear it read once
every seven years, Deut. 31; the Song of Moses spoken in the
ears of the people, De 31:30 ... 32:44 and the blessing of
the twelve tribes. De 33:5 The book closes, Deut 34, with an
account of the death of Moses, which is first announced to
him ch. De 32:48-52 The book bears witness to its own
authorship, De 31:19 and is expressly cited in the New
Testament as the work of Moses. Mt 19:7,8; Mr 10:3; Ac 3:22;
7:37 The last chapter, containing an account of the death of
Moses, was of course added by a later hand, and probably
formed originally the beginning of the book of Joshua.
[PENTATEUCH]
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In all the Hebrew manuscripts the Pentateuch (q.v.) forms
one
roll or volume divided into larger and smaller
sections called
_parshioth_ and _sedarim_. It is not easy to say
when it was
divided into five books. This was probably first
done by the
Greek translators of the book, whom the Vulgate
follows. The
fifth of these books was called by the Greeks
Deuteronomion,
i.e., the second law, hence our name Deuteronomy, or
a second
statement of the laws already promulgated. The Jews
designated
the book by the two first Hebrew words that occur,
_'Elle
haddabharim_, i.e., "These are the words." They
divided it into
eleven _parshioth_. In the English Bible it contains
thirty-four
chapters.
It consists chiefly of three discourses delivered by
Moses a
short time before his death. They were spoken to all
Israel in
the plains of Moab, in the eleventh month of the
last year of
their wanderings.
The first discourse (1-4:40) recapitulates the chief
events of
the last forty years in the wilderness, with earnest
exhortations to obedience to the divine ordinances,
and warnings
against the danger of forsaking the God of their
fathers.
The seond discourse (5-26:19) is in effect the body
of the
whole book. The first address is introductory to it.
It contains
practically a recapitulation of the law already
given by God at
Mount Sinai, together with many admonitions and
injunctions as
to the course of conduct they were to follow when
they were
settled in Canaan.
The concluding discourse (ch. 27-30) relates almost
wholly to
the solemn sanctions of the law, the blessings to
the obedient,
and the curse that would fall on the rebellious. He
solemnly
adjures them to adhere faithfully to the covenant
God had made
with them, and so secure for themselves and their
posterity the
promised blessings.
These addresses to the people are followed by what
may be
called three appendices, namely (1), a song which
God had
commanded Moses to write (32:1-47); (2) the
blessings he
pronounced on the separate tribes (ch. 33); and (3)
the story of
his death (32:48-52) and burial (ch. 34), written by
some other
hand, probably that of Joshua...
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("repetition of the law".) Containing Moses' three last
discourses before his death, addressed to all Israel in the
Moabite plains E. of Jordan, in the eleventh month of the
last year of their wanderings, the fortieth after their
departure from Egypt; with the solemn appointment of his
successor Joshua, Moses' song, blessing, and the account of
his death subjoined by Joshua or some prophet (Deuteronomy
1:1 - 4:40; Deuteronomy 5:1 - 26:19; Deuteronomy 27:1 -
29:29). The first is introductory, reminding Israel of God's
protection and of their ungrateful rebellion, punished by
the long wandering; and warning them henceforth to obey and
not lose the blessing. The second discourse begins with the
Ten Commandments, the basis of the law, and develops and
applies the first table; next declares special statutes as
to:
(1) religion,
(2) administration of justice and public officers,
(3) private and social duties.
The third discourse renews the covenant, reciting
the blessings and curses. The discourses must have been all
spoken in the eleventh month; for on the tenth day of the
41st year Jordan was crossed (Joshua 4:19). Joshua 1:11;
Joshua 2:22, three days previous were spent in preparations
and waiting for the spies; so the encampment at Shittim was
on the seventh day (Joshua 2:1). Thirty days before were
spent in mourning for Moses (Deuteronomy 34:8); so that
Moses' death would be on the seventh day of the twelfth
month, and Moses began his address the first day of the
eleventh month, fortieth year (Deuteronomy 1:3). Hence, the
discourses, being delivered about the same time, exhibit
marked unity of style, inconsistent with their being
composed at distant intervals. The style throughout is
hortatory, rhetorical, and impressive.
A different generation had sprung up from that to
which the law at Sinai had been addressed. Parts of it had
been unavoidably in abeyance in the wilderness. Circumcision
itself had been omitted (Joshua 5:2). Now when Israel was to
enter Canaan, their permanent abode, they needed to be
reminded of much of the law which they but partially knew or
applied, and to have under divine sanction, besides the
religious ordinances of the previous books, supplementary
enactments, civil and political, for their settled
organization. Thus, Deuteronomy is not a mere summary
recapitulation, for large parts of the previous code are
unnoticed, but Moses' inspired elucidation of the spirit and
end of the law. In it he appears as "the prophet," as in the
previous books he was the historian and legislator. Two
passages especially exhibit him in this character...
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LITERATURE
1. Structure of the Book:
Reading this book one soon becomes aware that it is a
discussion of certain difficult problems of human life. It
begins with a title Eccl (1:1), followed by a preface (1:2-
11). It has a formal conclusion (12:8-13). Between the
preface and the conclusion the body of the book is made up
of materials of two kinds--first a series of "I" sections,
sections uttered in the 1st person singular, a record of a
personal experience; and second, an alternating series of
gnomic sections, sections made up of proverbs (say 4:5,6,9-
12; 5:1-12; 7:1-14,16-22; 8:1-8; 9:7-10; 10:1-4; 10:8
through 12:7). These may be called the "thou" sections, as
most of them have the pronoun of the 2nd person singular.
The idea of the vanity of all things characterizes the
record of experience, but it also appears in the "thou"
sections (e.g. 9:9). On the other hand the proverb element
is not wholly lacking in the "I" sections (e.g. 4:1-3).
2. The Contents:
In the preface the speaker lays down the proposition that
all things are unreal, and that the results of human effort
are illusive Eccl (1:2,3). Human generations, day and night,
the wind, the streams, are alike the repetition of an
unending round (1:4-7). The same holds in regard to all
human study and thinking (1:8-11). The speaker shows
familiarity with the phenomena which we think of as those of
natural law, of the persistence of force, but he thinks of
them in the main as monotonously limiting human experience.
Nothing is new. All effort of Nature or of man is the doing
again of something which has already been done.
After the preface the speaker introduces himself, and
recounts his experiences. At the outset he had a noble
ambition for wisdom and discipline, but all he attained to
was unreality and perplexity of mind (Eccl 1:12-18). This is
equally the meaning of the text, whether we translate
"vanity and vexation of spirit" or "vanity and a striving
after wind," ("emptiness, and struggling for breath"),
though the first of these two translations is the better
grounded.
Finding no adequate satisfaction in the pursuits of the
scholar and thinker, taken by themselves, he seeks to
combine these with the pursuit of agreeable sensations--
alike those which come from luxury and those which come from
activity and enterprise and achievement Eccl (2:1-12). No
one could be in better shape than he for making this
experiment, but again he only attains to unreality and
perplexity of spirit. He says to himself that at least it is
in itself profitable to be a wise man rather than a fool,
but his comfort is impaired by the fact that both alike are
mortal (2:13-17). He finds little reassurance in the idea of
laboring for the benefit of posterity; posterity is often
not worthy (2:18-21). One may toil unremittingly, but what
is the use (2:22,23)?...
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(the preacher). The title of this book is in Hebrew Koheleth,
signifying one who speaks publicly in an assembly. Koheleth is
the name by which Solomon, probably the author, speaks of
himself throughout the book. The book is that which it
professes to be, --the confession of a man of wide experience
looking back upon his past life and looking out upon the
disorders and calamities which surround him. The writer is a
man who has sinned in giving way to selfishness and
sensuality, who has paid the penalty of that sin in satiety
and weariness of life, but who has through all this been under
the discipline of a divine education, and has learned from it
the lesson which God meant to teach him.
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the Greek rendering of the Hebrew _Koheleth_, which means
"Preacher." The old and traditional view of the
authorship of
this book attributes it to Solomon. This view can be
satisfactorily maintained, though others date it
from the
Captivity. The writer represents himself implicitly
as Solomon
(1:12). It has been appropriately styled The
Confession of King
Solomon. "The writer is a man who has sinned in
giving way to
selfishness and sensuality, who has paid the penalty
of that sin
in satiety and weariness of life, but who has
through all this
been under the discipline of a divine education, and
has learned
from it the lesson which God meant to teach him."
"The writer
concludes by pointing out that the secret of a true
life is that
a man should consecrate the vigour of his youth to
God." The
key-note of the book is sounded in ch. 1:2,
"Vanity of vanities! saith the Preacher,
Vanity of vanities! all is vanity!"
i.e., all man's efforts to find happiness apart from
God are
without result.
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The speaker so entitles himself, Hebrew: Qoheleth, Greek
Ecclesiastes, "the convener of, and preacher to,
assemblies," namely, church assemblies. The feminine form,
and its construction once with a feminine verb (Ecclesiastes
7:27), show that divine Wisdom herself speaks through the
inspired king Solomon. God had especially endowed him with
this wisdom (1 Kings 3:5-14; 1 Kings 6:11-12; 1 Kings 9:1,
etc.; 1 Kings 11:9-11). "The preacher taught the people (and
inquirers) knowledge" in a divan assembled for the purpose
(1 Kings 4:34; 1 Kings 10:2; 1 Kings 10:8; 1 Kings 10:24; 2
Chronicles 9:1; 2 Chronicles 9:7; 2 Chronicles 9:23).
"Spake," thrice in 1 Kings 4:32-33, refers not to written
compositions, but to addresses spoken in assemblies.
Solomon's authorship is supported by Ecclesiastes 1:12;
Ecclesiastes 1:16; Ecclesiastes 2:1-15; Ecclesiastes 12:9.
But in the book are found words:
(1) rarely employed in the earlier, frequently in
the later books of Scripture.
(2) Words never found in Hebrew writings until the
Babylonian captivity; as zimaan, "set time," for moed;
Ecclesiastes 3:1, namely, in Nehemiah 2:6; Esther 9:27;
Esther 9:31. So pithgam, "sentence" (Ecclesiastes 8:11);
"thought," madang; 'illuw "though" (Ecclesiastes 6:6);
bikeen, "so" (Ecclesiastes 8:10): thus, Esther approximates
most to Ecclesiastes in idioms.
(3) Words not found in the late Hebrew, but only in
the Aramaic sections of Daniel and Ezra: yithron, "profit ";
compare yuthran in the Aramaic targums; kibaar, "already,"
"long ago"; taaqam, "make straight" (Ecclesiastes 1:15;
Ecclesiastes 7:13; Daniel 4:33) (Daniel 4:36 "established");
ruwth, "desire," found also in the Aramaic parts of Ezra.
(4) The grammatical constructions agree with the
transition period from Hebrew to Aramaic; frequent
participles, the uses of the relative, Vav ( ? ) or waw-
conversive rare. Probably, since the book...
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LITERATURE
I. Authenticity.
1. External Evidence:
None of the epistles which are ascribed to Paul have a
stronger chain of evidence to their early and continued use
than that which we know as the Epistle to the Ephesians.
Leaving for the moment the question of the relation of Eph
to other New Testament writings, we find that it not only
colors the phraseology of the Apostolic Fathers, but is
actually quoted. In Clement of Rome (circa 95 AD) the
connection with Ephesians might be due to some common
liturgical form in xlvi.6 (compare Eph 4:6); though the
resemblance is so close that we must feel that our epistle
was known to Clement both here and in lxiv (compare Eph 1:3-
4); xxxviii (compare Eph 5:21); xxxvi (compare Eph 4:18);
lix (compare Eph 1:18; 4:18). Ignatius (died 115) shows
numerous points of contact with Ephesians, especially in his
Epistle to the Ephesians. In chap. xii we read: "Ye are
associates and fellow students of the mysteries with Paul,
who in every letter makes mention of you in Christ Jesus."
It is difficult to decide the exact meaning of the phrase
"every letter," but in spite of the opinion of many scholars
that it must be rendered "in all his epistle," i.e. in every
part of his epistle, it is safer to take it as an
exaggeration, "in all his epistles," justified to some
extent in the fact that besides Ephesians, Paul does mention
the Ephesian Christians in Rom (16:5); 1 Cor (15:32;
16:8,19); 2 Cor (1:8 f); 1 Tim (1:3) and 2 Tim (1:18). In
the opening address the connection with Eph 1:3-6 is too
close to be accidental. There are echoes of our epistle in
chap. i (Eph 6:1); ix (Eph 2:20-22); xviii (oikonomia, Eph
1:10); xx (Eph 2:18; 4:24); and in Ignat. ad Polyc. v we
have close identity with Eph 5:25 and less certain
connection with Eph 4:2, and in vi with Eph 6:13-17. The
Epistle of Polycarp in two passages shows verbal agreement
with Eph: in chap. i with Eph 1:8, and in xii with Eph 4:26,
where we have (the Greek is missing here) ut his scripturis
dictum est. Hermas speaks of the grief of the Holy Spirit in
such a way as to suggest Ephesians (Mand. X, ii; compare Eph
4:30). Sim. IX, xiii, shows a knowledge of Eph 4:3-6, and
possibly of 5:26 and 1:13. In the Didache (4) we find a
parallel to Eph 6:5: "Servants submit yourselves to your
masters." In Barnabas there are two or three turns of phrase
that are possibly due to Ephesians. There is a slightly
stronger connection between II Clement and Ephesians,
especially in chap. xiv, where we have the Ephesian figure
of the church as the body of Christ, and the relation
between them referred to in terms of husband and wife...
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was written by the apostle St. Paul during his first captivity
at Rome, Ac 28:16 apparently immediately after he had written
the Epistle to the Colossians [COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO], and
during that period (perhaps the early part of A.D. 62) when
his imprisonment had not assumed the severer character which
seems to have marked its close. This epistle was addressed to
the Christian church at Ephesus. [EPHESUS] Its contents may be
divided into two portions, the first mainly doctrinal, ch. 1-
3, the second hortatory and practical.
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was written by Paul at Rome about the same time as that to
the
Colossians, which in many points it resembles.
Contents of. The Epistle to the Colossians is mainly
polemical, designed to refute certain theosophic
errors that had
crept into the church there. That to the Ephesians
does not seem
to have originated in any special circumstances, but
is simply a
letter springing from Paul's love to the church
there, and
indicative of his earnest desire that they should be
fully
instructed in the profound doctrines of the gospel.
It contains
(1) the salutation (1:1, 2); (2) a general
description of the
blessings the gospel reveals, as to their source,
means by which
they are attained, purpose for which they are
bestowed, and
their final result, with a fervent prayer for the
further
spiritual enrichment of the Ephesians (1:3-2:10);
(3) "a record
of that marked change in spiritual position which
the Gentile
believers now possessed, ending with an account of
the writer's
selection to and qualification for the apostolate of
heathendom,
a fact so considered as to keep them from being
dispirited, and
to lead him to pray for enlarged spiritual
benefactions on his
absent sympathizers" (2:12-3:21); (4) a chapter on
unity as
undisturbed by diversity of gifts (4:1-16); (5)
special
injunctions bearing on ordinary life (4:17-6:10);
(6) the
imagery of a spiritual warfare, mission of Tychicus,
and
valedictory blessing (6:11-24).
Planting of the church at Ephesus. Paul's first and
hurried
visit for the space of three months to Ephesus is
recorded in
Acts 18:19-21. The work he began on this occasion
was carried
forward by Apollos (24-26) and Aquila and Priscilla.
On his
second visit, early in the following year, he
remained at
Ephesus "three years," for he found it was the key
to the
western provinces of Asia Minor. Here "a great door
and
effectual" was opened to him (1 Cor. 16:9), and the
church was
established and strengthened by his assiduous
labours there
(Acts 20:20, 31). From Ephesus as a centre the
gospel spread
abroad "almost throughout all Asia" (19:26). The
word "mightily
grew and prevailed" despite all the opposition and
persecution
he encountered...
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By Paul, as Ephesians 1:1; Ephesians 3:1 prove. So Irenaeus,
Haer. 5:2-3; 1:8, 5; Clemens Alex., Strom. 4:65, Paed. 1:8;
Origen, Celsus 4:211. Quoted by Valentinus A.D. 120,
Ephesians 3:14-18, as we know from Hippolytus, Refut.
Haeres., p. 193. Polycarp, Epistle to Phil., 12, witnesses
to its canonicity. So Tertullian, Adv. Marcion, 5:17,
Ignatius, Ephesians 12, refers to Paul's affectionate
mention of the Christian privileges of the Ephesians in his
epistle. Paul, in Colossians 4:16, charges the Colossians to
read his epistle to the Laodiceans, and to cause his epistle
to the Colossians to be read in the church of Laodicea,
whereby he can hardly mean his Epistle to the Ephesians, for
the resemblance between the two epistles, Ephesians and
Colossians, would render such interchange of reading almost
unnecessary.
His greetings sent through the Colossians to the
Laodiceans are incompatible with the idea that he wrote an
epistle to the Laodiceans at the same time and by the same
bearer, Tychicus (the bearer of both epistles, Ephesians and
Colossians), for the apostle would then have sent the
greetings directly in the letter to the party saluted,
instead of indirectly in his letter to the Colossians. The
epistle to Laodicea was evidently before that to Colosse.
Ussher supposed that the Epistle to the Ephesians was an
encyclical letter, headed as in manuscripts of Sinaiticus
and Vaticanus, "To the saints that are ... and to the
faithful," the name of each church being inserted in the
copy sent to it; and that its being sent to Ephesus first
occasioned its being entitled the Epistle to the Ephesians.
But the words "at Ephesus" (Ephesians 1:1) occur in the very
ancient Alexandrinus manuscript and the Vulgate version.
The omission was subsequently made when read to
other churches in order to generalize its character. Its
internal spirit aims at one set of persons, coexisting in
one place, as one body, and under the same circumstances.
Moreover, there is no intimation, as in 2 Corinthians and
Galatians, that it is encyclical and comprising all the
churches of that region. After having spent so long time in
Ephesus, Paul would hardly fail to write an epistle
especially applying to the church there. For personal
matters he refers the Ephesians to Tychicus its bearer
(Ephesians 6:21-22); his engrossing theme being the
interest...
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1. The Canonicity of Esther
2. Its Authorship
3. Its Date
4. Its Contents
5. The Greek Additions
6. The Attacks upon the Book
7. Some of the Objections
8. Confirmations of the Book
This book completes the historical books of the Old
Testament. The conjunction "w" (waw = and), with which it
begins, is significant. It shows that the book was designed
for a place in a series, the waw linking it on to a book
immediately preceding, and that the present arrangement of
the Hebrew Bible differs widely from what must have been the
original order. At present Esther follows Ecclesiastes, with
which it has no connection whatever; and this tell-tale
"and," like a body-mark on a lost child, proves that the
book has been wrenched away from its original connection.
There is no reason to doubt that the order in the Septuagint
follows that of the Hebrew Bible of the 3rd or the 4th
century BC, and this is the order of the Vulgate, of the
English Bible, and other VSS: The initial waw is absent from
Genesis, Deuteronomy, 1 Chronicles and Nehemiah. The
historical books are consequently arranged, by the insertion
and the omission of waw, into these four divisions: Genesis
to Numbers; Deuteronomy to 2 Kings; 1 Chronicles to Ezra;
Nehemiah and Esther.
1. The Canonicity of Esther:
Of the canonicity of the book there is no question...
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one of the latest of the canonical books of Scripture,
having been written late in the reign of Xerxes, or early in
that of his son Artaxerxes Longimanus (B.C. 444, 434). The
author is not known. The book of Esther is placed among the
hagiographa by the Jews, and in that first portion of them
which they call "the five rolls." It is written on a single
roll, sin a dramatic style, and is read through by the Jews
in their synagogues at the feast of Purim, when it is said
that the names of Haman's sons are read rapidly all in one
breath, to signify that they were all hanged at the same
time; while at every mention of Haman the audience stamp and
shout and hiss, and the children spring rattles. It has
often been remarked as a peculiarity of this book that the
name of God does not once occur in it. Schaff gives as the
reason for this that it was to permit the reading of the
book at the hilarious and noisy festival of Purim, without
irreverence. The style of writing is remarkably chaste and
simple. It does not in the least savor of romance. The
Hebrew is very like that of Ezra and parts of the
Chronicles; generally pure, but mixed with some words of
Persian origin and some of the Chaldaic affinity. In short
it is just what one would expect to find in a work of the
age to which the book of Esther professes to belong.
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The authorship of this book is unknown. It must have been
obviously written after the death of Ahasuerus (the
Xerxes of
the Greeks), which took place B.C. 465. The minute
and
particular account also given of many historical
details makes
it probable that the writer was contemporary with
Mordecai and
Esther. Hence we may conclude that the book was
written probably
about B.C. 444-434, and that the author was one of
the Jews of
the dispersion.
This book is more purely historical than any other
book of
Scripture; and it has this remarkable peculiarity
that the name
of God does not occur in it from first to last in
any form. It
has, however, been well observed that "though the
name of God be
not in it, his finger is." The book wonderfully
exhibits the
providential government of God.
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The Book of Esther describes in the same year, the 3rd, the
lavish feasting during which Vashti was deposed, 488 B.C. In
his 7th year the battles of Plataea and Mycale, according to
secular history, drove Xerxes in fright from Sardis to Susa.
So, in Scripture, it was not until the tenth month of this
7th year that Esther was made queen. The long delay between
Vashti's deposal and Esther's accession is satisfactorily
accounted for by the Greek expedition which intervened. On
returning from it Xerxes tried to bury his disgrace in the
pleasures of the seraglio (Herodotus vii. 35,114); as indeed
he had begun it and, according to Herodotus, at intervals
continued it with feastings. Possibly Vashti answers to the
Amestris of secular history, who was queen consort from the
beginning to the end of his reign, and was queen mother
under his son and successor Artaxerxes.
Esther cannot be Amestris, since the latter was
daughter of a Persian noble, Otanes; if Vashti be Amestris,
then her disgrace was only temporary. Or else Vashti and
Esther were both only "secondary wives" with the title
"queen." A young "secondary wife" might for a time eclipse
the queen consort in the favor of the king; but the latter
would ultimately maintain her due position. Esther's
influence lasted at least from Ahasuerus: 7th to the 12th
year and beyond, but how far beyond we know not (Esther 3:7;
Esther 3:10). His marriage to a Jewess was in contravention
of the law that he must marry a wife belonging to one of the
seven great Persian families. But Xerxes herein, as
previously in requiring the Queen Vashti to appear unveiled
before revelers (such an outrage on oriental decorum that
she refused to come), set at nought Persian law and
prejudice...
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I. The Route.
1. The Starting-Point:
On the 14th Abib (early in April) the Hebrews were gathered
at Rameses (Ex 111:37; Nu 33:5) where apparently the hostile
Pharaoh was also living (Ex 12:31). From Ps 78:12,43 it
appears that the wonders preceding the Exodus occurred in
the "field of Zoan," where the starting-point may be placed
(see RAAMSES; ZOAN). Dr. Naville has suggested that the
court was at Bubastis, not at Zoan, and that the route lay
from near Zagazig down Wady Tumeilat--a line well fitted for
a people driving flocks and herds. On the other hand, in
favor of the starting-point having been at Zoan, we read
that the "way of the land of the Philistines" was "near" (Ex
13:17). This route, which was not taken lest the people
should be discouraged by defeat at Gaza where the Egyptians
always had troops, reached Egypt at Migdol (see MIGDOL, 2),
and ran thence to Daphnai--some 15 miles--and to Zoan by a
second march of the same length. The route from Bubastis to
Daphnai (some 50 miles) is less likely to have been
described as "near." Although an Arab will march 30 miles in
a day on foot, yet when moving camp with camels, who travel
only about 2 miles an hour, with women and children and
herds, he only covers about 12 or 15 miles a day. We cannot
suppose the Hebrew cattle to have covered more than this
distance without water on any single march.
2. Rameses to Succoth:
We are not told how many days were occupied on the way from
Rameses to SUCCOTH (which see), though the general
impression is that the stages mentioned (Nu 33) represent a
day's journey each. Measuring back from the first camp after
crossing the Red Sea, we find that Succoth probably lay in
the lower part of Wady Tumeilat, where there was plenty of
water and herbage. The direct route from Zoan leads to
Phakousa (Tell Faqus) by a march of 15 miles through well-
watered lands. A second march, across the desert to
Heroopolis and down the valley to Succoth, would be of the
same length. The Hebrews departed "in haste," and no doubt
made as long marches as they could. If the whole of the
people were not in Rameses, but scattered over Goshen, it is
possible that some came down the valley from near Bubastis,
and that the whole force concentrated at Succoth...
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LITERATURE
(NOTE: For the signs J (Jahwist), E (Elohist), P or Priestly
Code (Priest Codex), R (Redactor) compare the article on
GENESIS.)
I. In General.
1. Name:
The second book of the Pentateuch bears in the Septuagint
the name of Exodos, in the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible,
390-405 A.D.) accordingly Exodus, on the basis of the chief
contents of the first half, dealing with the departure of
the children of Israel out of Egypt. The Jews named the book
after the first words: we-'elleh shemoth ("and these are the
names"), or sometimes after the first noun shemoth ("names")
a designation already known to Origen in the form of
Oualesmoth.
2. Contents in General:
In seven parts, after the Introduction (Ex 1:1-7), which
furnishes the connection of the contents with Genesis, the
book treats of (1) the sufferings of Israel in Egypt, for
which mere human help is insufficient (Ex 1:8 through 7:7),
while Divine help through human mediatorship is promised;
(2) the power of Yahweh, which, after a preparatory miracle,
is glorified through the ten plagues inflicted on Pharaoh
and which thus forces the exodus (Ex 7:8 through 13:16); (3)
the love of Yahweh for Israel, which exhibits itself in a
most brilliant manner, in the guidance of the Israelites to
Mt. Sinai, even when the people murmur (Ex 13:17 through
18:27); (4) making the Covenant at Mt. Sinai together with
the revelation of the Ten Words (Ex 20:1 ff) and of the
legal ordinances (Ex 21:1 ff) as the condition of making the
Covenant (Ex 19:1 through 24:18); (5) the directions for the
building of the Tabernacle, in which Yahweh is to dwell in
the midst of His people (Ex 24:18 through 31:18); (6) the
renewal of the Covenant on the basis of new demands after
Israel's great apostasy in the worship of the Golden Calf,
which seemed for the time being to make doubtful the
realization of the promises mentioned in (5) above...
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II. Structure of the Book According to the Scriptures and
According to Modern Analyses.
In the following section (a) serves for the understanding of
the Biblical text; (b) is devoted to the discussion and
criticism of the separation into sources.
1. In General:
(a) The conviction must have been awakened already by the
general account of the contents given in I, 2 above, that in
the Book of Exodus we are dealing with a rounded-off
structure, since in seven mutually separated yet intimately
connected sections, one uniform fundamental thought is
progressively carried through. This conviction will only be
confirmed when the details of these sections are studied,
the sections being themselves again organically connected by
one leading thought. Since, in addition, the Book of Genesis
is clearly divided into ten parts by the ten toledhoth
("generations") (compare also the division made by typical
numbers in articles LEVITICUS and DAY OF ATONEMENT), thus
too the number seven, as itself dividing the Book of Exodus
into seven parts, is probably not accidental; and this all
the less, as in the subordinate parts too, a division is to
be found according to typical numbers, this in many cases
appearing as a matter of course, and in other cases traced
without difficulty, and sometimes lying on the surface
(compare 10 plagues, 10 commandments). Yet in all of the
following investigations, as is the case in the articles
GENESIS, LEVITICUS and DAY OF ATONEMENT, the demonstration
of the fundamental thought must be the main thing for us.
The division according to typical numbers is to be regarded
merely as an additional confirmation of the literary unity
of the book. We refer here first of all to a number of
cases, where certain numbers independently of the separate
chief parts combine the Biblical text into a unity. In Nu
14:22 R, Yahweh states that Israel had now tempted Him and
been disobedient to Him ten times: compare Ex 14:11 ff JE(?)
(Red Sea); 15:23 f JE (Marah); 16:2,3 P; 16:20 JE; 16:27,28
R (Manna); 17:1 ff JE (Massah and Meribah); 32:1 ff JE
(Golden Calf); Nu 11:1 ff JE (Tuberah); 11:4 ff JE (Graves
of Lust); 14:2 ff P and JE (Spies). Most of these cases are
accordingly reported in the Book of Exodus, but in such
manner that in this particular a clearly marked progress can
be noticed, as Yahweh does not begin to punish until Ex 32;
but from here on He does so with constantly increasing
severity, while down to Ex 32 grace alone prevails, and in
this particular, previous to Ex 32, there is found nothing
but a warning (16:27). Ten times it is further stated of
Pharaoh, in a great variety of forms of expression, that he
hardened his own heart (7:13 P; 7:14 JE; 7:22 P; 8:15 P;
8:32 JE; 9:7,34,35 JE; 13:15 D); ten times the hardening is
ascribed to God (4:21 JE; 7:3 P; 9:12 P; 10:1 R; 10:20 JE;
10:27 E; 11:10 R; 14:4,8 P; 17 P ?). Here already we must
note that within the narrative of the miracles and the
plagues at first there is mention made only of the hardening
by Pharaoh himself (7:13 P; 7:14 JE; 7:22 P; 8:11 ff; 8:15
P; 8:28 JE; 9:7 JE, i.e. seven times) before a single word
is said that God begins the hardening; and this latter kind
of hardening thereupon alone concludes the whole tragedy
(14:4,8 P; 17 P?). Ten months cover the time from the
arrival at Sinai (19:1 P) to the erection of the sacred
dwelling-place of God (40:17 P). Since, further, exactly
three months of this time are employed in 19:10,16 JE; 24:3
ff JE; 24:16 P (ten days); 24:18 P (40 days); 34:28 J (40
days), there remain for the building of the tabernacle
exactly seven months...
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III. Historical Character.
1. General Consideration:
The fact that extra-Israelitish and especially Egyptian
sources that can lay claim to historical value have reported
nothing authentic concerning the exodus of Israel need not
surprise us when we remember how meager these documents are
and how one-sided Egyptian history writing is. Whether the
expulsion of the lepers and the unclean, who before this had
desolated the country and acquired supremacy over it as
reported by Manetho and other historians, is an Egyptian
version of the exodus of Israel, cannot be investigated at
this place, but is to the highest degree improbable. If
Israel was oppressed by the Egyptians for a long period,
then surely the latter would not have invented the fable of
a supremacy on the part of Israel; and, on the other hand,
it would be incomprehensible that the Israelites should have
changed an era of prosperity in their history into a period
of servitude. Over against this the remembrance of the
exodus out of Egypt not only is re-echoed through the entire
literature of Israel (compare I, 4, above), but the very
existence of the people of God forces us imperatively to
accept some satisfactory ground for its origin, such as is
found in the story of the exodus and only here. In addition,
the Book compare Exodus shows a good acquaintance with the
localities and the conditions of Egypt, as also of the
desert. It is indeed true that we are still in doubt on a
number of local details. But other statements in the book
have in such a surprising manner been confirmed by
discoveries and geographical researches, that we can have
the greatest confidence in regard to the other difficulties:
compare e.g. Naville's The Store-city of Pithom (Ex 1:11).
In general, the opening chapters of Ex, especially the
narratives of the different plagues, contain so much
Egyptian coloring, that this could scarcely have resulted
from a mere theoretical study of Egypt, especially since in
the narrative everything makes the impression of resulting
from recent experience. The fact that Israel from its very
origin received ordinances in regard to religion, morality,
law and cults, is explained from the very conditions
surrounding this origin and is indispensable for the
explanation of the later development of the nation. None of
the later books or times claim to offer anything essentially
new in this respect; even the prophets appear only as
reformers; they know of the election of Israel, and, on the
other hand, everywhere presuppose as something self-evident
the knowledge of a righteous, well-pleasing relation with
God and chide the violation of this relation as apostasy.
Ethical monotheism as the normal religion of Israel is
reflected in the same way in all the sources of Israel's
history, as has been proven in my work ("Die Entwicklung der
alttestamentlichen Gottesidee in vorexilischer Zeit," in the
May, 1903, issue of Beitrage zur Forderung christlicher
Theologie). And the idea that an oriental people, especially
if they came out of Egypt, should have had no religious
cult, is in itself unthinkable. If all of these norms, also
the direction for the cults in the Books of Covenant, of the
Priestly Code, or D, at least in the kernel, do not go back
to the Mosaic times, then we have to deal with an insoluble
problem (compare my work, Are the Critics Right?)...
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(that is, going out [of Egypt]), the second book of the law
or Pentateuch. Its author was Moses. It was written probably
during the forty-years wanderings int he wilderness, between
B.C. 1491 and 1451. It may be divided into two principal
parts:
1. Historical, chs. Ex 1:1-18; 27:1 ... and
2. Legislative, chs. Ex 19:40; 38:1
1. The first part contains an account of the
following particulars: the great increase of Jacob's
posterity in the land of Egypt, and their oppression under a
new dynasty, which occupied the throne after the death of
Joseph; the birth, education, flight and return of Moses;
the ineffectual attempts to prevail upon Pharaoh to let the
Israelites go; the successive signs and wonders, ending in
the death of the first-born, by means of which the
deliverance of Israel from the land of bondage is at length
accomplished, and the institution of the Passover; finally
the departure out of Egypt and the arrival of the Israelites
at Mount Sinai.
2. This part gives a sketch of the early history of
Israel as a nation; and the history has three clearly-marked
stages. First we see a nation enslaved; next a nation
redeemed; lastly a nation set apart, and through the
blending of its religious and political life consecrated to
the service of God.
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of the Israelites from Egypt. the common chronology places
the date of this event at B.C. 1491, deriving it in this
way: --In 1Ki 6:1 it is stated that the building of the
temple, in the forth year of Solomon, was in the 480th year
after the exodus. The fourth year of Solomon was bout B.C.
1012. Add the 480 years (leaving off one years because
neither the fourth nor the 480th was a full year), and we
have B.C. 1491 as the date of the exodus. This is probably
very nearly correct; but many Egyptologists place it at 215
years later, --about B.C. 1300. Which date is right depends
chiefly on the interpretation of the Scripture period of 430
years, as denoting the duration of the bondage of the
Israelites. The period of bondage given in Ge 15:13,14; Ex
12:40,41 and Gala 3:17
as 430 years has been interpreted to cover different
periods. The common chronology makes it extend from the call
of Abraham to the exodus, one-half of it, or 215 years,
being spend in Egypt. Others make it to cover only the
period of bondage spend in Egypt. St. Paul says in Ga 3:17
that from the covenant with (or call of) Abraham the giving
of the law (less than a year after the exodus) was 430
years. But in Ge 15:13,14 it is said that they should be
strangers in a strange land,a nd be afflicted 400 years, and
nearly the same is said in Ex 12:40 But, in very truth, the
children of Israel were strangers in a strange land from the
time that Abraham left his home for the promised land, and
during that whole period of 430 years to the exodus they
were nowhere rulers in the land. So in Ex 12:40 it is said
that the sojourning of the children of Israel who dwelt in
Egypt was 430 years. But it does not say that the sojourning
was all in Egypt, but this people who lived in Egypt had
been sojourners for 430 years. (a) This is the simplest way
of making the various statements harmonize. (b) The chief
difficulty is the great increase of the children of Israel
from 70 to 2,000,000 in so short a period as 215 years,
while it is very easy in 430 years. But under the
circumstances it is perfectly possible in the shorter
period. See on ver. 7
(c) If we make the 430 years to include only the
bondage in Egypt, we must place the whole chronology of
Abraham and the immigration of Jacob into Egypt some 200
years earlier, or else the exodus 200 years later, or B.C.
1300. in either case special difficulty is brought into the
reckoning. (d) Therefore, on the whole, it is well to retain
the common chronology, though the later dates may yet prove
to be correct. The history of the exodus itself commences
with the close of that of the ten plagues. [PLAGUES, THE
TEN] In the night in which, at midnight, the firstborn were
slain,
Ex 12:29 Pharaoh urged the departure of the
Israelites. vs. Ex 12:31,32 They at once set forth from
Rameses, vs. Ex 12:37,39 apparently during the night v. Ex
12:42 but towards morning on the 15th day of the first
month. Nu 33:3 They made three journeys, and encamped by the
Red Sea. Here Pharaoh overtook them, and the great miracle
occurred by which they were saved, while the pursuer and his
army were destroyed. [RED SEA, PASSAGE OF]
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Exodus is the name given in the LXX. to the second book of
the
Pentateuch (q.v.). It means "departure" or
"outgoing." This name
was adopted in the Latin translation, and thence
passed into
other languages. The Hebrews called it by the first
words,
according to their custom, Ve-eleh shemoth (i.e.,
"and these are
the names").
It contains, (1.) An account of the increase and
growth of the
Israelites in Egypt (ch. 1) (2.) Preparations for
their
departure out of Egypt (2-12:36). (3.) Their
journeyings from
Egypt to Sinai (12:37-19:2). (4.) The giving of the
law and the
establishment of the institutions by which the
organization of
the people was completed, the theocracy, "a kingdom
of priest
and an holy nation" (19:3-ch. 40).
The time comprised in this book, from the death of
Joseph to
the erection of the tabernacle in the wilderness, is
about one
hundred and forty-five years, on the supposition
that the four
hundred and thirty years (12:40) are to be computed
from the
time of the promises made to Abraham (Gal. 3:17).
The authorship of this book, as well as of that of
the other
books of the Pentateuch, is to be ascribed to Moses.
The
unanimous voice of tradition and all internal
evidences
abundantly support this opinion.
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the great deliverance wrought for the children of Isreal
when
they were brought out of the land of Egypt with "a
mighty hand
and with an outstretched arm" (Ex 12:51; Deut. 26:8;
Ps 114;
136), about B.C. 1490, and four hundred and eighty
years (1
Kings 6:1) before the building of Solomon's temple.
The time of their sojourning in Egypt was, according
to Ex.
12:40, the space of four hundred and thirty years.
In the LXX.,
the words are, "The sojourning of the children of
Israel which
they sojourned in Egypt and in the land of Canaan
was four
hundred and thirty years;" and the Samaritan version
reads, "The
sojourning of the children of Israel and of their
fathers which
they sojourned in the land of Canaan and in the land
of Egypt
was four hundred and thirty years." In Gen. 15:13-
16, the period
is prophetically given (in round numbers) as four
hundred years.
This passage is quoted by Stephen in his defence
before the
council (Acts 7:6).
The chronology of the "sojourning" is variously
estimated.
Those who adopt the longer term reckon thus:
Years
From the descent of Jacob into Egypt to the
death of Joseph 71
From the death of Joseph to the birth of
Moses 278
From the birth of Moses to his flight into
Midian 40
From the flight of Moses to his return into
Egypt 40
From the return of Moses to the Exodus 1
430
Others contend for the shorter period of two hundred
and
fifteen years, holding that the period of four
hundred and
thirty years comprehends the years from the entrance
of Abraham
into Canaan (see LXX. and Samaritan) to the descent
of Jacob
into Egypt. They reckon thus...
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The history of Israel (1) enslaved, (2) redeemed, (3)
consecrated religiously and politically to God. There are
two distinct parts: (1) Exodus 1-19, the history of Israel's
deliverance from the beginning of their Egyptian bondage to
their arrival at Sinai; (2) Exodus 20-40, the giving of the
law and Israel's organization as "a kingdom of priests and
an holy nation." The two parts, though differing in style as
in subject matter, are closely intertwined, the institutions
of the law in the second part resting on the historical
facts recorded in the former part. The term Exodus, "the
going forth," is drawn from the Septuagint, the Greek
version of the Alexandrian Jews settled in the same country
from whence Israel had "gone forth." The Palestinian Jews
called the book from its first two Hebrew words, 'elleh
shemot; "these are the names." Its separation from Genesis
is marked by the different circumstances under which it
presents Israel at its commencement as compared with the
close of Genesis.
The first seven verses are the introduction briefly
recapitulating previous events and stating the existing
condition of affairs. Its close is marked by the completion
of the tabernacle. Its several sections were probably
written on separate papyri or parchments (according to an
inscription of Thothmes III his campaigns were written on
parchment and hung up in the temple of Ammon). The breaks in
the narrative, and the repetitions, accord with the theory
that there were distinct sections, composed separately by
Moses as the events transpired, and read publicly at
successive times. All would be united in one work toward the
close of his life, with but a few additions and
explanations. The feature which is inexplicable if anyone
else were the author is this, the writer's evident
unconsciousness of the personal greatness of the chief
actor.
The Egyptians recognized his greatness (Exodus
11:3); but the writer, while recognizing the greatness of
Moses' mission, dwells especially on his want of natural
gifts, his deficiencies of character and the hindrances
thereby caused to his mission, and the penalties he
incurred; his hasty intervention between the Israelite and
Egyptian, the manslaughter, and the Israelites' rejection of
him as a ruler, and his exile for the prime 40 years of his
manhood. Then his unbelieving hesitancy at the divine call
and pertinacious allegation of personal incapacity in spite
of the miracles which might have convinced him of God's
power to qualify him (Exodus 3:10-13). Then the Lord's
visitation on him (probably sudden and dangerous sickness)
for neglecting to circumcise his son (Exodus 4:24-26). (See
CIRCUMCISION.) Then his passionate reproach of Jehovah for
the failure of his first appeal to Pharaoh, which only
brought more bitter hardship on Israel (Exodus 5:20-23)...
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(the departure of Israel from Egypt), 1652 B.C. (See
CHRONOLOGY.) A grand epoch in the history of man's
redemption. The patriarchal dispensation ends and the law
begins here. God by His providential preparations having
wonderfully led the Hebrew to sojourn in Egypt, and there to
unlearn their nomadic habits and to learn ag
