Ancient Rome
The Pilate Inscription
A limestone block was discovered among the ruins of a theatre at the site of ancient Caesarea in Israel. It contained 4 lines of writing in Latin which revealed a dedicatory inscription from Pontius Pilate of Judea to Tiberias Caesar in Rome. It is now in the Israel Museum (Jerusalem).The Pilate Inscription
A limestone block was discovered among the ruins of a theatre at the site of ancient Caesarea in Israel. It contained 4 lines of writing in Latin which revealed a dedicatory inscription from Pontius Pilate of Judea to Tiberias Caesar in Rome. It is now in the Israel Museum (Jerusalem).61 Online Bibles
Search and read Bible versesOrigen in Wikipedia
Origen (Greek: Ὠριγένης Ōrigénēs, or Origen Adamantius, c. 185–254[1]) was an early Christian scholar and theologian, and one of the most distinguished writers of the early Christian Church despite not being considered a Church father by most Christians who recognize this distinction.[2] According to tradition, he is held to have been an Egyptian[3] who taught in Alexandria, reviving the Catechetical School of Alexandria where Clement of Alexandria had taught.[4] The patriarch of Alexandria at first supported Origen but later expelled him for being ordained without the patriarch's permission.[5] He relocated to Caesarea Maritima and died there after being tortured during a persecution.[6] Using his knowledge of Hebrew, he produced the Hexapla and a corrected Septuagint.[7] He wrote commentaries on most of the books of the Bible.[7] In De principiis (On First Principles), he articulated one of the first philosophical expositions of Christian doctrine.[7] He interpreted scripture allegorically and developed certain doctrines with similarities to Neo-Pythagorean and Neo-Platonist thought.[7] Like Plotinus, he wrote that the soul passes through successive stages of incarnation before eventually reaching God.[7] He imagined even demons being reunited with God. For Origen, God was the First Principle, and Christ, the Logos, was subordinate to him.[7] His views of a hierarchical structure in the Trinity, the temporality of matter, "the fabulous preexistence of souls," and "the monstrous restoration which follows from it" were declared anathema in the 6th century.[8] Etymology His Greek name, Ōrigénēs (Ὠριγένης), probably means "child of Horus" (from Ὡρος, "Horus", and γένος, "born").[9] His nickname or cognomen Adamantius derives from Greek ἀδάμας, which means "unconquerable" or "unbreakable". Life Origen was educated by his father, Leonides, who gave him a standard Hellenistic education, but also had him study the Christian Scriptures. In 202, Origen's father was killed in the outbreak of the persecution during the reign of Septimius Severus. Legend has it that Origen wished to follow in martyrdom, but was prevented only by his mother hiding his clothes. The death of Leonides left the family of nine impoverished when their property was confiscated. Origen, however, was taken under the protection of a woman of wealth and standing; but as her household already included a heretic named Paul, the strictly orthodox Origen seems to have remained with her only a short time. Since his father's teaching enabled him also to give elementary instruction, he revived, in 203, the Catechetical School of Alexandria, whose last teacher, Clement of Alexandria, was apparently driven out by the persecution. But the persecution still raged, and the young teacher unceasingly visited the prisoners, attended the courts, and comforted the condemned, himself preserved from harm as if by a miracle. His fame and the number of his pupils increased rapidly, so that Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria, made him restrict himself to instruction in Christian doctrine alone. Origen, to be entirely independent, sold his library[10] for a sum which netted him a daily income of 4 obols, on which he lived by exercising the utmost frugality. Teaching throughout the day, he devoted the greater part of the night to the study of the Bible and lived a life of rigid asceticism. Eusebius reported that Origen, following Matthew 19:12 literally, castrated himself.[11] This story was accepted during the Middle Ages and was cited by Abelard in his 12th century letters to Heloise.[12] Scholars within the past century have questioned this, surmising that this may have been a rumor circulated by his detractors.[13] The 1903 Catholic Encyclopedia does not report this.[14] However, renowned historian of late antiquity Peter Brown finds no reason to deny the truth of Eusebius' claims. During the reign of emperor Caracalla, about 211-212, Origen paid a brief visit to Rome, but the relative laxity during the pontificate of Zephyrinus seems to have disillusioned him, and on his return to Alexandria he resumed his teaching with zeal increased by the contrast. But the school had far outgrown the strength of a single man; the catechumens pressed eagerly for elementary instruction, and the baptized sought for interpretation of the Bible. Under these circumstances, Origen entrusted the teaching of the catechumens to Heraclas, the brother of the martyr Plutarch, his first pupil. His own interests became more and more centered in exegesis, and he accordingly studied Hebrew, though there is no certain knowledge concerning his instructor in that language. From about this period (212-213) dates Origen's acquaintance with Ambrose of Alexandria, whom he was instrumental in converting from Valentinianism to orthodoxy. Later (about 218) Ambrose, a man of wealth, made a formal agreement with Origen to promulgate his writings, and all the subsequent works of Origen (except his sermons, which were not expressly prepared for publication) were dedicated to Ambrose. In 213 or 214, Origen visited Arabia at the request of the prefect, who wished to have an interview with him; and Origen accordingly spent a brief time in Petra, after which he returned to Alexandria. In the following year, a popular uprising at Alexandria caused Caracalla to let his soldiers plunder the city, shut the schools, and expel all foreigners. The latter measure caused Ambrose to take refuge in Caesarea, where he seems to have made his permanent home; and Origen left Egypt, apparently going with Ambrose to Caesarea, where he spent some time. Here, in conformity with local usage based on Jewish custom, Origen, though not ordained, preached and interpreted the Scriptures at the request of the bishops Alexander of Jerusalem and Theoctistus of Caesarea. When, however, the confusion in Alexandria subsided, Demetrius recalled Origen, probably in 216. Of Origen's activity during the next decade little is known, but it was probably devoted to teaching and writing. The latter was rendered the more easy for him by Ambrose, who provided him with more than seven stenographers to take dictation in relays, as many scribes to prepare long-hand copies, and a number of girls to multiply the copies. At the request of Ambrose, he now began a huge commentary on the Bible, beginning with John, and continuing with Genesis, Psalms 1-25, and Lamentations, besides brief exegeses of selected texts (forming the ten books of his Stromateis), two books on the resurrection, and the work On First Principles. Conflict with Demetrius and removal to Caesarea About 230, Origen entered on the fateful journey which was to compel him to give up his work at Alexandria and embittered the next years of his life. Sent to Greece on some ecclesiastical mission, he paid a visit to Caesarea, where he was heartily welcomed and was ordained a priest, that no further cause for criticism might be given Demetrius, who had strongly disapproved his preaching before ordination while at Caesarea. But Demetrius, taking this well-meant act as an infringement of his rights, was furious, for not only was Origen under his jurisdiction as bishop of Alexandria, but, if Eastern sources may be believed, Demetrius had been the first to introduce episcopal ordination in Egypt. The metropolitan accordingly convened a synod of bishops and presbyters which banished Origen from Alexandria, while a second synod declared his ordination invalid. Origen accordingly fled from Alexandria in 231, and made his permanent home in Caesarea. A series of attacks on him seems to have emanated from Alexandria, whether for his self-castration (a capital crime in Roman law) or for alleged heterodoxy is unknown; but at all events these fulminations were heeded only at Rome, while Palestine, Phoenicia, Arabia, and Achaia paid no attention to them. At Alexandria, Heraclas became head of Origen's school, and shortly afterward, on the death of Demetrius, was consecrated bishop. At Caesarea, Origen was joyfully received, and was also the guest of Firmilian, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, and of the empress-dowager, Julia Mamaea, at Antioch. The former also visited him at Caesarea, where Origen, deeply loved by his pupils, preached and taught dialectics, physics, ethics, and metaphysics; thus laying his foundation for the crowning theme of theology. He accordingly sought to set forth all the science of the time from the Christian point of view, and to elevate Christianity to a theory of the Universe compatible with Hellenism. In 235, with the accession of Maximinus Thrax, a persecution raged; and for two years Origen is said, though on somewhat doubtful authority, to have remained concealed in the house of a certain Juliana in Caesarea of Cappadocia. Little is known of the last twenty years of Origen's life. He preached regularly on Wednesdays and Fridays, and later daily. He evidently, however, developed an extraordinary literary productivity, broken by occasional journeys; one of which, to Athens during some unknown year, was of sufficient length to allow him time for research. After his return from Athens, he succeeded in converting Beryllus, bishop of Bostra, from his adoptionistic (i.e., belief that Jesus was born human and only became divine after his baptism) views to the orthodox faith; yet in these very years (about 240) probably occurred the attacks on Origen's own orthodoxy which compelled him to defend himself in writing to Pope Fabian and many bishops. Neither the source nor the object of these attacks is known, though the latter may have been connected with Novatianism (a strict refusal to accept Christians who had denied their faith under persecution). After his conversion of Beryllus, however, his aid was frequently invoked against heresies. Thus, when the doctrine was promulgated in Arabia that the soul died and decayed with the body, being restored to life only at the resurrection (see soul sleep), appeal was made to Origen, who journeyed to Arabia, and by his preaching reclaimed the erring. There was second outbreak of the Antonine Plague, which at its height in 251 to 266 took the lives of 5,000 a day in Rome. This time it was called the Plague of Cyprian. Emperor Gaius Messius Quintus Decius, believing the plague to be a product of magic, caused by the failure of Christians to recognize him as Divine, began Christian persecutions.[15] This time Origen did not escape.[16] He was tortured, pilloried, and bound hand and foot to the block for days without yielding.[dubious – discuss][original research?][citation needed][17] Though he did not die while being tortured, he died three years later due to injuries sustained at the age of 69.[18] A later legend, recounted by Jerome and numerous itineraries place his death and burial at Tyre, but to this little value can be attached.[19] Works Exegetical writings According to Epiphanius,[20] Origen wrote about 6,000 works (i.e., rolls or chapters). A list was given by Eusebius in his lost Life of Pamphilus,[21] which was apparently known to Jerome.[22] These fall into four classes: textual criticism; exegesis; systematic, practical, and apologetic theology; and letters; besides certain spurious works. By far the most important work of Origen on textual criticism was the Hexapla, a comparative study of various translations of the Old Testament. The full text of the Hexapla is no longer extant. Some portions were discovered in Milan indicating that at least some individual parts existed much longer than was previously thought. The Hexapla has been referred to by later manuscripts and authors, and represented the precursor to the parallel bible. The Tetrapla was an abbreviation of the Hexapla in which Origen placed only the translations (Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, and the Septuagint) in parallels. He was likewise keenly conscious of the textual difficulties in the manuscripts of the New Testament, although he never wrote definitely on this subject. In his exegetical writings he frequently alludes to the variant readings, but his habit of making rough citations in his dictation, the verification being left to the scribes, renders it impossible to deduce his text from his commentaries. Eusebius in Ecclesiastical History 6.25.7 strongly implies Origen disputed the authenticity of the Letters of Paul when he wrote that Paul did not write to all the churches that he taught and even to the ones he wrote he only sent a few lines. However, Origen's own writings refer often to the words of Paul. The exegetical writings of Origen fall into three classes: * scholia, or brief summaries of the meaning of difficult passages * homilies * "books", or commentaries in the strict sense of the term. Jerome states that there were scholia on Leviticus, Psalms i.-xv., Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, and part of John. The Stromateis were of a similar character, and the margin of Codex Athous Laura, 184, contains citations from this work on Rom. 9:23; I Cor. 6:14, 7:31, 34, 9:20-21, 10:9, besides a few other fragments. Homilies on almost the entire Bible were prepared by Origen, these being taken down after his sixtieth year as he preached. It is not improbable that Origen gave no attention to supervising the publication of his homilies, for only by such a hypothesis can the numerous evidences of carelessness in diction be explained. The exegesis of the homilies was simpler than that of the scientific commentaries, but nevertheless demanded no mean degree of intelligence from the auditor. Origen's chief aim was the practical exposition of the text, verse by verse; and while in such barren books as Leviticus and Numbers he sought to allegorize, the wealth of material in the prophets seldom rendered it necessary for him to seek meanings deeper than the surface afforded. Whether the sermons were delivered in series, or the homilies on a single book were collected from various series, is unknown. The homilies preserved are on Genesis (17), Exodus (13), Leviticus (18), Numbers (28), Joshua (16), Judges (9), I Sam. (2), Psalms xxxvi-xxviii (9), Canticles (2), Isaiah (9), Jeremiah (7 Greek, 2 Latin, 12 Greek and Latin), Ezekiel (14), and Luke (39). Extant commentaries of Origen The object of Origen's commentaries was to give an exegesis that discriminated strictly against historical significance, in favour of a "hidden" spiritual truth. At the same time, he neglected neither philological nor geographical, historical nor antiquarian material, to all of which he devoted numerous excursuses. In his commentary on John he constantly considered the exegesis of the Valentinian Heracleon (probably at the instance of Ambrose), and in many other places he implied or expressly cited Gnostic views and refuted them. Unfortunately, only meagre fragments of the commentaries have survived. Besides the citations in the Philocalia, which include fragments of the third book of the commentary on Genesis, Ps. i, iv.1, the small commentary on Canticles, and the second book of the large commentary on the same, the twentieth book of the commentary on Ezekiel, and the commentary on Hosea, and of the commentary on John, only books i, ii, x, xiii, xx, xxviii, xxxii, and a fragment of xix. have been preserved. The commentary on Romans is extant only in the abbreviated version of Rufinus, though some Greek fragments also exist. The eight books preserved of the commentary on Matthew likewise seem to be either a brief reworking or a rough outline. Codex Vaticanus 1215 gives the division of the twenty-five books of the commentary on Ezekiel, and part of the arrangement of the commentary on Isaiah (beginnings of books VI, VIII, XVI; book X extends from Isa. viii.1 to ix.7; XI from ix.8, to x.11; XII, from x.12 to x.23; XIII from x.24 to xi.9; XIV from xi.10 to xii.6; XV from xiii.1 to xiii.16; XXI from xix.1 to xix.17; XXII from xix.18 to xx.6; XXIII from xxi.1 to xxi.17; XXIV from xxii.1 to xxii.25; XXV from xxiii.1 to xxiii.18; XXVI from xxiv.1 to xxv.12; XXVII from xxvi.1 to xxvi.15; XXVIII from xxvi.16 to xxvii.11a; XXIX from xxvii.11b to xxviii.29; and XXX treats of xxix.1 sqq.). Codex Athous Laura 184, in like manner, gives the division of the fifteen books of the commentary on Romans (except XI and XII) and of the five books on Galatians, as well as the extent of the commentaries on Philippians and Corinthians (Romans I from 1:1 to 1:7; II from 1:8 to 1:25; III from 1:26 to 2:11; IV from 2:12 to 3:15; V from 3:16 to 3:31; VI from 4:1 to 5:7; VII from 5:8 to 5:16; VIII from 5:17 to 6:15; IX from 6:16 to 8:8; X from 8:9 to 8:39; XIII from 11:13 to 12:15; XIV from 12:16 to 14:10; XV from 14:11 to the end; Galatians I from 1:1 to 2:2; II from 2:3 to 3:4; III from 3:5 to 4:5; IV from 4:6 to 5:5; and V from 5:6 to 6:18; the commentary on Philippians extended to 4:1; and on Ephesians to 4:13). Dogmatic, practical, and apologetic writings Among the systematic, practical, and apologetic writings of Origen, mention should first be made of his work On First Principles, perhaps written for his more advanced pupils at Alexandria and probably composed between 212 and 215. It is extant only in the free translation of Rufinus, except for fragments of the third and fourth books preserved in the Philokalia, and smaller citations in Justinian's letter to Mennas. In the first book the author considers God, the Logos, the Holy Ghost, reason, and the angels; in the second the world and man (including the incarnation of the Logos, the soul, free will, and eschatology); in the third, the doctrine of sin and redemption; and in the fourth, the Scriptures; the whole being concluded with a résumé of the entire system. The work is noteworthy as the first endeavor to present Christianity as a complete theory of the universe, and was designed to remove the difficulties felt by many Christians concerning the essential basis of their faith. Earlier in date than this treatise were the two books on the resurrection (now lost, a fate which has also befallen two dialogues on the same theme) dedicated to Ambrose. After his removal to Caesarea, Origen wrote the works, still extant, On Prayer, On Martyrdom, and Against Celsus. The first of these was written shortly before 235 (or possibly before 230), and, after an introduction on the object, necessity, and advantage of prayer, ends with an exegesis of the Lord's Prayer, concluding with remarks on the position, place, and attitude to be assumed during prayer, as well as on the classes of prayer. The persecution of Maximinus was the occasion of the composition of the On Martyrdom, which is preserved in the Exhortation to Martyrdom. In it, Origen warns against any trifling with idolatry and emphasizes the duty of suffering martyrdom manfully; while in the second part he explains the meaning of martyrdom. The eight books against Celsus, Contra Celsum [23] were written in 248 in reply to the polemic of the pagan philosopher against Christianity. Eusebius had a collection of more than one hundred letters of Origen,[24] and the list of Jerome speaks of several books of his epistles. Except for a few fragments, only a short letter to Gregory Thaumaturgus and the epistle to Sextus Julius Africanus (defending the authenticity of the Greek additions to the book of Daniel) have been preserved. For forgeries of the writings of Origen made in his lifetime cf. Rufinus, De adulteratione librorum Origenis. The Dialogus de recta in Deum fide, the Philosophumena of Hippolytus of Rome, and the Commentary on Job by Julian of Halicarnassus have also been ascribed to him. Philosophical and religiousRoman Society
Equality as we know it was practically unknown the Romans. Women were treated as inferiors, the slave trade was booming, and, as one person put it, Rome was a great civilization for the few built on the backs of many. In any event, Roman society held different rules for different demographics, such as those below.Roman Entertainment
Entertainment was essential to daily life in Ancient Rome. As noted by Juvenal, it seemed that all Romans were interested in was "bread and circuses." And with theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, and public baths galore, the Romans never seemed to get bored.Roman Cuisine
The expression "you are what you eat" could not have been more true than at Ancient Rome. While plebeians sustained themselves on cereals and bread, members of the senatorial class dined on exotic foods from far away lands and enjoyed three course meals over luxurious dinners. Wine, anyone?Roman Families
IN EARLY TIMES, under the Kingdom and the Republic: (600 BCE to about 1c CE) Before the Imperial Age, in very early Roman times, a typical Roman family included unmarried children, married sons and their families, other relatives, and family slaves.Roman Houses - The Atrium
The lower class Romans (plebeians) lived in apartment houses, called flats, above or behind their shops. Even fairly well-to-do tradesmen might chose to live in an apartment-building compound over their store, with maybe renters on the upper stories. Their own apartments might be quite roomy, sanitary and pleasant, occasionally with running water. But others were not that nice.Clothing & Hairstyles
CLOTHING & HAIR STYLES: The very early Romans wore a toga. It looked like a white sheet 9 yards long. Togas were arranged very carefully, in a stylish way. Togas fell out of style rather early. (The toga was inconvenient, and people felt the cold when they wore it.) To get anyone to wear them, even very early emperors had to legislate the wearing of togas by at least senators. Eventually, the emperors gave up. The Romans switched to comfortable tunics, which looked like long tee-shirts. They were far more practical. Tunics were made of cool linen, for summer wear, and warm wool, for winter wear. Sometimes, they worn trouser like affairs.Roman School
Rome as a Kingdom: In early Roman days, kids did not go to school. A Roman boy's education took place at home. If his father could read and write, he taught his son to do the same. The father instructed his sons in Roman law, history, customs, and physical training, to prepare for war. Reverence for the gods, respect for law, obedience to authority, and truthfulness were the most important lessons to be taught.Ancient Roman Weddings
When did they get married? Both parties had to be adults, and they could not marry more than one person at a time. For the first 500 years in Rome, divorce was unknown. So, a great deal of care was taken selecting a marriage partner. Probably the groom had to be at least 14 years old, and the bride had to be at least 12 years old. The bride and groom could not be closed related. In general, marriage was forbidden between relatives four times removed, and between anyone connected by marriage. Thus, in ancient Rome, if you happened to fall in love with your fourth cousin, or your sister's husband's brother, too bad!Status of Women in Ancient Rome
Women were not citizens of Rome. Only adult free men were citizens. The ancient Roman men believed that a women had to be under a guardianship. That guardianship could be a father or a husband. But they believed a women was unable to direct her own activities. As Cicero once said of early Roman men, 'Our ancestors, in their wisdom, considered that all women, because of their innate weakness, should be under the control of guardians.'Odyssey Rome: Daily Life
Throughout our exploration of ancient cultures on Odyssey Online, we've used museum objects to learn about the people who made and used them. But, for the most part, we don't know the exact "context," or place, where each object was found. Archaeologists and other specialists study ancient sites and the artifacts found there to try and shed light on the cultures that produced these objects.Odyssey Rome: Death & Burial
Like most people living in ancient times, the Romans had a short life expectancy. Diseases were common, and medical knowledge was limited. Funerary rituals and practices played a central role in Roman life because remembering and honoring the deceased members of their family was important to the Romans.Roman Cooking
Where would we be without food? Romans, while disdaining the Greeks for decadence and luxury, were quite fond of it themselves, at least in the upper classes. Poorer Romans made due on fish, bread, grain, olives, and the obligatory wine. Patricians, and many of those in the middle class, ate from a slightly more interesting menu. Many tales are recorded of the fabulous banquets thrown by the rich and powerful. Below are some places you can check out before attempting your own Roman banquet.Death and Funerals
Most of the Romans believed that the spirits of the dead were rowed across a mythological river called the Styx, to the underworld. There, the spirit was said to be judged whether it was to go to heaven Elysium, or hell Tartarus. Funerals were held to prepare the spirit for this journey. To pay the ferry fare across the Styx, a coin was placed underneath the tongue.Marriage
Roman girls were allowed to marry at the age of 12, but most waited until they became 14. The young Romans did not have a lot of choice about whom they married. Parents made the choice, and they were often for business, political or social reasons.Roman Marriage
Prior to 445 BC, intermarriage (connubium) between patricians and plebeians was forbidden. After that the children of such marriages took the social rank of the father, be it patrician or plebeian, regardless of the mother's status.Marriage and Customs and Roman Women
Marriage in Roman times began as a sacred institution. Divorce was unknown. Patricians married only patricians, and they were married in the stately form of marriage called confarreatio (the only legal form of marriage at the time). The patrician took his bride from her father's family into his own, with the direct consent of the gods (revealed by the auspices), in the presence of representatives of his gens. In this form, the wife passed in manum viri (under her husband's authority) and her husband would also become, in a way, her master. The ceremony involved the joining of hands of the bride and groom by the pronuba (a matron who had been married only once and was still living with there husband) in front of ten witnesses, representing the ten clans of the curia, an old patrician division of the people. The term confarriato came from the cake of far (spelt, an old variety of wheat), which was dedicated to Jupiter by the high priest and the priest of Jupiter.Ancient Roman Family and Marriage
600 BC to about 1 AD - Before the Imperial Age, in very earlyn Roman times, families were organized rather like mini Greek city-states. Everybody in one family lived in one home, including the great grandparents, grandparents, parents and children. The head of the family was the oldest male. That could be the father, the grandfather, or perhaps even an uncle.Roman Marriage
The chief purpose of Roman matrimony, as stated in marriage contracts and various laws, was the obvious one of producing and bringing up children. The Roman government often made efforts to encourage marriage and large families; in particular, the Emperor Augustus introduced a law which laid down penalties for those who remained unmarried (for example, by forbidding them to receive legacies; see bachelor) and offered special privileges to married couples who produced three or more children. Nevertheless the birth rate in Rome dropped steadily from the second century BC onwards, especially among the senatorial class.Life in Roman Times
The average Roman family consisted of father, mother, children,married sons, their family, and slaves. If you didn't get married by the age of 15-16, you were punished. The person who decided who his children marry was the head of the house, the father (PATERFAMILIAS). The family was very important to the Romans. Women were under control of their husbands but controlled how the house was run and were known as (MATERFAMILIAS).Romans - Families and Children
Life in Roman times for women was quite hard. The father was the most important member of the family. He had the power of life or death over everyone. When a new baby was born it would be laid at its father's feet - if the father picked the baby up it would live, and if he ignored the baby it would be taken away to die. Mothers and children were never seen as important.Roman Family Law and Traditions
Roman Law One of the greatest legacies of Rome is their legal system... The development of Roman law began with the Twelve Tables in the mid-fifth century B.C. During a period of over 1000 years, the Roman jurists created a rich literature about all aspects of law: property, marriage, guardianship and family, contracts, theft, and inheritance. Roman law laid the foundations for much of Western civil and criminal law.Ancient Roman Women: A Look at their Lives
Any historical investigation into the lives of ancient women involves individual interpretation and much speculation. One can read the ancient sources concerned with women and their place in society, but to a large degree, they are all secondary sources that were written by men about women. No ancient journals or personal diaries written by Roman women were uncovered, so it is not known what their hopes and dreams were, or if they had any. What Roman women felt about most political issues and the numerous wars and upheavals is also a mystery. Nor can we read about what women thought of slavery, marriage, or the fact they had no legal rights over their children or even themselves.Ancient Roman Food and Dining
The usual dishes of Roman foods contained peacock brains, pike livers, cock crests, lark tongues, bear, and lion. Also, frequently served for breakfast were cold meats, eggs, veggies, and bread. Herbs and spices livened up their meals to have cooking that was spicy and sweet. The most commonly used spice was pepper to give flavoring to game-birds, fish, shellfish, lamb, kid, and wild boar. In addition, a fish sauce and fish pickle was popular where "The gills, blood, and intestines of a mackerel were placed in a jar with salt, vinegar, and herbs. The mixture was stirred and pounded into a paste or sauce, which was left in the sun to ferment."Ancient Roman Medicine
Roman Medicine: We, in our overmedicated and over-modified world, have visions of primitive medical practices in "ancient" Europe. We think of unsanitary curbside surgeries by traveling barbers, poisons distributed as medicines (and vice versa, if you had enemies), herbs and simples with minimal value, bleeding and purging, superstition. There was some of that in the Roman world, but most of the excesses actually came later, when Roman knowledge had been lost.Roman Children
Only children from wealthy families went to school. Poor families needed their children to help work. Schools were not free. Poor families could not pay the tuition. Often children from poor families were taught by their parents at home. Some Roman families paid school masters to teach their children. The school year started on March 24. Schools were usually just one room. There were about twelve students in a class. Often the teachers were Greek slaves. The Romans thought the Greeks were smart.Roman Funerals
The Romans had a short life expectancy due to disease, limited medical knowledge and almost constant wars. Funerary rituals and practices played an essential part in their lives, as they believed that honouring the deceased members of their family and a proper burial were essential for the Afterlife. Central to the Romans very detailed view of the Afterlife was the belief that the spirits of the dead were taken across the mythological river Styx to the Underworld, where the spirit was judged whether it was to find its place in heaven, Elysium, or hell, Tartarus. Funerals were seen as a way of preparing the spirit for this journey. There were numerous customs that were followed to ensure that the deceased was properly laid to rest, would have an auspicious Afterlife and would not return to haunt the living. These were also intended to reflect the deceased's place in the family and the continued importance of the surviving family.The Roman Funeral
Roman. When a Roman was at the point of death, his nearest relation present endeavoured to catch the last breath with his mouth (Virg. Aen. IV.684; Cic. Verr. V.45). The ring was taken off the finger of the dying person (Suet. Tib. 73); and as soon as he was dead his eyes and mouth were closed by the nearest relation (Virg. Aen. IX.487; Lucan, III.740, who called upon the deceased by name (inclamare, conclamare), exclaiming have or vale (Ovid, Trist. III.3.43, Met. X.62, Fast. IV.852; Catull. ci.10). The corpse was then washed, and anointed with oil and perfumes by slaves, called Pollinctores, who belonged to the Libitinarii, or undertakers, called by the Greeks ÃåêñÃ-èÜðôáé (Dig. 14 tit. 3 s5 § 8). The Libitinarii appear to have been so called because they dwelt near the temple of Venus Libitina, where all things requisite for funerals were sold (Senec. de Benef. vi.38; Plut. Quaest. Rom. 23; Liv. XLI.21; Plut. Num. 12). Hence we find the expressions vitare Libitinam and evadere Libitinam used in the sense of escaping death (Hor. Carm. III.30.6; Juv. XII.122). At this temple an account (ratio, ephemeris) was kept of those who died, and a small sum was paid for the registration of their names (Suet. Ner. 39; Dionys. Ant. Rom. IV.15).Roman Society
In the beginning was the census. Every five years, each male Roman citizen had to register in Rome for the census. In this he had to declare his family, wife, children, slaves and riches. Should he fail to do this, his possessions would be confiscated and he would be sold into slavery. But registration meant freedom. A master wishing to free his slave needed only to enter him in the censor's list as a citizen (manumissio censu).Roman Slaves
Slaves were very important to the Romans. Without slaves, the wealthy of Rome would not have been able to lead the lifestyles that they wanted to. Who were slaves? They were people who were frequently captured in battle and sent back to Rome to be sold. However, abandoned children could also be brought up as slaves. The law also stated that fathers could sell their older children if they were in need of money.Roman Education
A Roman Education: Just as it is in much of the world today, the amount and kind of education you got in Rome depended on your family's wealth, status, and connections. There was no legal requirement to educate your children, but in most times and places during the long span of "ancient Rome" there was broad acceptance of the idea that knowledge was the key to a happy and prosperous future. Parents tried to provide the best available education for their offspring. Kids learned early on both a sense of duty to the family and the value of applying themselves to academics, so they generally made a real effort to learn as much as possible. The "best available" and "as much as possible" varied immensely. Think of the kind of education that was available to Americans 100 years ago in different parts of the US, and then think of what could be had by Western Europeans in 1000 AD -- similar distances and times spanned "Rome".The Roman House
Early Italian houses grouped around the atrium, with a small garden, the so-called hortus, at the back. The classic Roman house, however, was divided into two parts. The first part grouped around the atrium, the second around the peristylium. The peristylium having developed out of the earlier hortus.Roman Houses
Most people living in the Roman Empire lived with their whole family in one room of a sort of apartment house. These were built, like many cheap apartment houses in the United States today, around two or three sides of a courtyard, one or two stories high. The other sides of the courtyard had high walls to keep out burglars. Today we use these courtyards for parking, but Roman people (who didn't have cars) used them for cooking, and for children to play in. The apartment houses were generally mud-brick, with flat roofs that you could sleep on in good weather.Roman Medicine
Ancient Roman medicine was a combination of some limited scientific knowledge, and a deeply rooted religious and mythological system. While knowledge of anatomy was quite impressive, and many surgical techniques were only surpassed in the modern age, the application of medicines and cures was simplistic and largely ineffective. Much of the Roman system was adopted from the Greeks, and primarily the teachings of Hippocrates.Medicine in Ancient Rome
The Ancient Romans, like the Ancient Greeks and Ancient Egyptians, made a huge input into medicine and health, though their input was mainly concerned with public health schemes. Though the Roman "˜discoveries' may not have been in the field of pure medicine, poor hygiene by people was a constant source of disease, so any improvement in public health was to have a major impact on society.Medicine & Surgery in Ancient Rome
Early Romans had a religious, yet fundamental understanding of medicine. Deriving knowledge from the Medical Treatises and Methods of the Greeks, the Etruscans, the Egyptians, the Persians and other conquered peoples, the Romans came up with one of the best and most sophisticated Medical Systems of the Ancient World. The science of medicine and the human body was evolving. Ancient Roman medicine was a combination of physical techniques using various tools and holistic medicine using rituals and religious belief systems.Roman Traditions
Weddings- Marriages were arranged by the father of the bride and the future husband. The boy had to be at least 14 years old and the girl, 12 years. The Romans were the first to wear the engagement ring on the third finger of the left hand. A wedding ceremony was not needed for the marriage to be legal, however for wealthy couples a ceremony was considered an important rite. It was not uncommon for the groom to be absent from the ceremony. He would send a letter with his vows if he could not be there. A cake was present during the ceremony as an offering. A dinner party followed and ended with a procession to the grooms house. Nuts were usually thrown instead of rice.Ancient Roman Festivals
Feriae - Ancient Roman Festivals. Bacchanalia | Dionysiac festivals held in honor of the god Bacchus, Bacchanalia were so notorious in ancient Rome that the Roman Senate suppressed the celebration of these rites in 186 B.C.Roman Lifestyle
The Romans encompassed thousands of different cultures and comprised of diverse social, religious, ethnic and economic classes. The Roman family consisted of the father of the family, the wife, the children and the slaves of the household. The Roman family structure was patriarchal, with the oldest father of the family being the head. They lived in joint family systems where the sons' families lived with his father under the same roof. The Romans had very short working days, working at an average for 6 hours a day. The men in the families went for work whereas the women were housewives. They lived in sophisticated brick houses.Ancient Roman Meals
History, Facts and Information about Ancient Roman Meals. The content of this article provides interesting history, facts and information about life in Ancient Rome including Ancient Roman Meals, the customs and religious observances.Roles of Men, Women and Children in Ancient Rome
After learning about where the Romans lived and what hobbies they enjoyed, you might be wondering what roles the men, women, and children played in ancient Rome. Keep reading to learn about what you, your friends, and your family would have been expected to do in ancient Rome.Mesopotamia - Daily Life
THE CLOTHING THAT PEOPLE IN ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA WORE. The normal day of a Mesopotamian was based on mostly their work. The majority of the people worked at farming. Other than farmers there was potters, builders, traders, slaves, servants, priests, kings, and elders. Their clothes consisted of a garment which was a flounced skirt.Houses and Shops
From the grandest villa to the vilest tenements, the living residences of Ancient Rome continue to strike a sense of wonder into the hearts of those who lay eyes upon them. Over the centuries, Roman houses developed into a unique and functional style all their own.Roman Ceremonies
The Roman people were deeply rooted in tradition and custom. Ceremonies such as those listed below would have meant an enormous amount to a Roman family. Far more important to the Romans than the day of birth of a child, the dies lustricus, they day when the baby was to be named, was a joyous occasion. The custom of handing down names to children was of great importance to Romans and their families.Roman Fashions
Roman fashions did not change much over the centuries, but they did vary regionally. In general, children wore smaller versions of adult clothing. Roman fashions did not change much over the centuries, but they did vary regionally. In general, children wore smaller versions of adult clothing.Amphitheatrum Castrense
Having paid the almost obligatory visit to the Colosseum, most visitors to Rome never realize, and others are surprised to learn, that a second ancient amphitheater remains in the city. Indeed, at various times during the life of ancient Rome, even more amphitheaters existed. We know of at least one built of stone "" the amphitheater of Statilius Taurus "" and one of wood built by Nero: both stood among the sports and military training facilities in the Campus Martius complex. In fact, technically, there remain even now vestiges of yet a third amphitheater in Rome: a small training arena right next to the Colosseum, to the E, used by gladiators as they prepared for the real combat. It also seems reasonable to imagine that in so large a city as Rome, several further smaller structures of this type may have existed as well, not recorded in extant sources; and some of them may even have been of brick as well, since other brick amphitheatres are known, for example at Nola.The Colosseum
The Colosseum was considered the greatest amphitheatre of the antiquity, it was built in Rome, Italy, over 1920 years ago. It is considered an architectural and engineering wonder, and remains as a standing proof of both the grandeur and the cruelty of the Roman world. After the splendour of imperial times, the Colosseum was abandoned, and in turn it became a fortress for the medieval clans of the city, a source of building materials, a picturesque scenery for painters, a place of Christian worship. Today it is a challenge for the archaeologists and a scenario for events and shows.Baths of Agrippa
Baths of Agrippa - built 27 BC. These were built by Agrippa as a private bath house, but given to the public in Agrippa's will. It was fed by the Aqua Virgo upon its completion in 19 BC.The Colosseum and The Forum of Augustus
Ancient Rome: Monuments Past and Present: The Colosseum and The Forum of AugustusThe Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome
Book By Samuel Ball Platner, WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITYTheater of Marcellus
The Theater of Marcellus was built by Emperor Augustus in 13 BC. It was the largest theater in ancient Rome. After Julius Caesar defeated Pompey in the struggle for control over Rome, he wanted to build a theater rivaling the Pompey theater which Caesar's his bitter enemy had built in 55 BC. When Caesar was killed in 44 BC the project had only just started. In 22 BC Augustus, known as the emperor who turned Rome from a city of brick into a city of marble, restarted the project.Amphitheater of C. Statilius Taurus
The amphitheatre C. Statilius Taurus, at the top right of the picture, had the privilege to be the first amphitheatre in Rome. It was built in 29 BC by consul C. Statilius Taurus. The first building was of stone, nevertheless it disappeared in the fire of the town under Nero in 64. It seems that Nero had it rebuilt in wood. Almost all sources cease mentioning it after the Great Fire. Yet Sylvia Pressouyre, in her historical atlas of town planning and architecture of Rome, lets this remarkable building disappear only in the High Middle-Ages. It is this version that I'm suggesting.The Region of the Baths of Commodus
The Baths of Commodus , that you can see in the centre left of the picture, were built on a natural hillock from which the panorama included the Baths of Caracalla, in the upper part of the picture, and the famous Via Appia further down on the right. Vast gardens harmoniously completed the landscape.Circus Maximus
The Circus Maximus was the largest stadium in ancient Rome. At one point the Circus could seat 250.000 people, one quarter of Rome's population... Chariot races were one of the Roman's most popular form of entertainment. Romulus, the first of Rome's seven kings, is said to have held chariot races. The origins of the Circus Maximus go back to the 6th century BC when Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, created a track between the Palatine and Aventine hills. The first permanent starting gates were created in 329 BC. In 174 BC the gates were rebuilt and seven wooden eggs were placed on top of the spina, the central wall in the arena. The eggs were used to count the number of laps; after each lap one egg was removed. In 33 BC seven bronze dolphins were added to the spina for the same purpose.The Gardens of Lucullus
Among all the great gardens of the Pincius, the Gardens of Lucullus are probably the most famous and most impressive, together with the Gardens of Sallustus. They were built by Lucullus, victor of Mithridate (74-66). The whole showed a perfect harmony and overhang the Campus Martius. One of the main characteristics was this monumental stair that linked the levels up to a gigantic nymphÃ"um in hemicycle. The other gardens, those of Sallustus on the east side and those of Pompey towards the Villa Medici are not represented on this model.Porticus Aemila
Closely linked to the late 3rd c. BC river port built south of the Aventino hill, the Porticus Aemilia was a vast complex of warehouses situated in the area behind the Emporium or a market for wares.Porticus Deorum Consentium
The Portico of the Dei Consentes (Porticus Deorum Consentium) was a sanctuary for the twelve major gods and goddesses of the Roman pantheon, maybe in the style of the Greek dodecatheon. The portico is located on the slope of the Capitoline Hill towards the Forum Romanum, on the Clivus Capitolinus in a corner between the Temple of Saturn and the Temple of Vespasian and Titus. The remains of the portico was first found in 1834, and during restorations of 1858 some of the columns were re-erected.Portico di Ottavia (Porticus Octaviae)
The only one conserved of the large ones you carry to us that they limited, on the northern side, the public square of the Flaminio Circus (Porch of Ottavio, Porch of Filippo, Porch of Ottavia) is the Porch of Ottavia. It was preceded on the same place from a more ancient building, the porch of Metello, begun from Q. Cecilio Metello Macedonico in the 146, after its Victoria and the triumph on the pseudo-Andrisco, and inaugurated probably in the 131 a.C.The Theatres
Originally, the Theatre in Rome is only a simple wooden platform, put down after each play, which the audience attends standing. This global view allows to see, in the Campus Martius, the four great active theatres of Rome. On the left side of the picture, the Odeon, in the centre, the great Theatre of Pompey, and in the background on the right, the Theatre of Balbus and the Theatre of Marcellus.The Saepta Julia
The SÃ"pta Julia on the Campus Martius. These grandiose porticoes were the meeting place for bargaining of luxury products.Basilica Aemilia
The Basilica Aemilia, or the Basilica Fulvia-Aemilia, is largest""and the only surviving""of the basilicas of the Roman Republic. It is located on the NE side of the main square of the Forum Romanum, between the Curia Julia and the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. The Basilica Aemilia was first built in 179 BCE by the censors M. Aemilius Lepidus and M. Fulvius Nobilior. In the following centuries it was actively maintained and improved by the gens Aemilia. The first complete reconstruction took place in the years between 55 BCE and 34 BCE, which incorporated into the building the series of shops, the tabernae novae, that stood in front of the basilica. The building was destroyed by a fire in 14 BCE and was rebuild by Augustus. A last restoration happened after a fire in 410 CE, following the sacking of the town by the Visigoths of Alaric.Basilica Julia
The Basilica Julia was built in 54-48 BCE by Julius Caesar as a part of his reorganisation of the Forum Romanum, where it replaced the Basilica Sempronia. It is located on the S. side of the main square of the Forum Romanum, between the Temple of Saturn and the Temple of Castor and Pollux.Forum Romanum
The Roman Forum (Forum Romanum) was the political and economical centre of Rome during the Republic. It emerged as such in the 7th century BCE and maintained this position well into the Imperial period, when it was reduced to a monumental area. It was mostly abandoned at the end of the 4th century.Curia Julia
The Curia was the normal meeting place of the Senate and the Curia Julia (Curia Iulia) was the third meeting hall for the senate in the Forum Romanum. The Curia Julia is located on the main square of the Forum Romanum, on the ancient Comitium, between the Arch of Septimius Severus and the Basilica Aemilia.Comitum
The Comitium was the centre of all political activity in the Roman Republic. The senate met in the Curia, which was a part of the Comitium, and the consuls and other magistrates spoke to the Roman people from the Rostra, the speakers platform. Some of the most ancient monuments of archaic Rome has been found near or under the Comitium, such as the Vulcanal and the Lapis Niger, with the oldest known inscription in the Latin language.Regia - The House of Roman Kings
and later the Pontifex Maximus. The Regia was originally the residence of the kings of Rome, and later the office of the pontifex maximus, the high priest of Roman religion. It occupied an area between the Temple of Vesta, the Temple of Divus Julius and Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the Forum Romanum. According to ancient tradition it was build by the second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius.Rostra Vetera
The Rostra was the speakers platform on the Forum Romanum in Imperial Rome. It was also called the Rostra vetera to distinguish it from the new speakers platform in front of the Temple of Divus Julius. The Rostra is located in the main square, between the Arch of Septimius Severus and the Temple of Saturn, in front of the Temple of Concord and the Temple of Vespasian and Titus.Tabularium
Built in 78 BC and restored by Claudius in 46 AD, the Tabularium or record office was the repository for official State archives, its arcade of eleven large arches providing a dramatic terminus for the western end of the Forum.Forum of Augustus
The second of the imperial fora, built to rival that of Julius, the Forum of Augustus and its Temple of Mars Ultor (the Avenger) were vowed by Octavian on the eve of the battle of Philippi (42 BC), where he avenged the assassination of Caesar, his adoptive father. Having consolidated his power and then completed the building projects initiated by Caesar, it may not have been until 20 BC, when Augustus negotiated the return of military standards lost by Marcus Crassus to the Parthians (and so avenged Rome a second time), that work on the temple actually began (Dio, LIV.8.3). Or it may have been later still, in 17 BC, when Augustus, having "commanded those who celebrated triumphs to erect out of their spoils some monument to commemorate their deeds" (Dio, LIV.18.2), set the example, himself. The site was on private property and had to be purchased ex manubiis, that is, from the spoils of war in Spain and Germany, Dalmatia and Egypt. Augustus, in the Res Gestae (XXI), relates the cost to have been a hundred million sesterces. Even then, not all the land could be acquired. There also were architectural delays (Macrobius, II.4.9), and the temple still was unfinished when the forum was dedicated on 2 BC.Imperial Forums
The heart of the ancient Roman Empire, the Imperial Forums were a gathering place and a center for religion and politics. The Imperial Forums, not to be confused with the older Roman Forum, are a series of public squares that were constructed between 46 BC and 113 AD. For many decades, they were the center of city life and important figures gathered here to discuss the economy or expound upon their beliefs about politics or any other hot subjects of the era.Forum Boarium
Close to the Tiber River, the Forum Boarium was the site of Ancient Rome's cattle market. Together with the nearby Forum Olitorium, the vegetable and herb market, it was the mercantile center of the Republic of Rome. The oldest forum in Rome, dating back to the Roman Republic, the Forum Boarium sat near the Tiber River between three of Rome's seven ancient hills: the Palatine, Capitoline, and Aventine. The area was a swamp until it was reclaimed by the Etruscan Kings. In the 6th century BC, Servius Tullius, one of the Etruscan Kings also built a port here, the Portus Tiberius. Thanks to the port and a historic trade route that passed through here, the Forum Boarium was a busy commercial area that experienced lots of pedestrian traffic.Aqua Alsietina
The Aqua Alsietina (sometimes called also Aqua Augusta), on the other side of the Tiber, was constructed by Augustus from the Lacus Alsietinus (Lago di Martignano), which lay 6500 passus to the right of the fourteenth milestone on the Via Claudia, to the part of the Regio Transtiberina below the Janiculus. Its length was 22,172 passus, of which only 358 were on arches; and its water was so bad that it could only have been intended for the supply of Augustus's Naumachia, and for watering gardens. Its reservoir was 1800 feet long by 1200 wide (Frontin. 11).Aqua Appia
This aqueduct was built in 312 B.C. It was built during the Roman Republic, by Appius Claudius Caecus. This is the oldest aqueduct in Ancient Rome. This aqueduct is sixteen kilometers long. This aqueduct also runs underground. When described in how low it traveled under ground, the Aqua Appia was the lowest. This aqueduct stretched 8 miles to the Sabine Hills outside Rome. This aqueducts structure is much like the Greek and Egyptian Aqueducts.Roman Aqueducts
Ancient Rome had eleven major aqueducts, built between 312 B.C. (AquaAppia) and 226 A.D. (Aqua Alexandrina); the longest (Anio Novus) was 59 miles long. It has been calculated that in imperial times, when the city's population was well over a million, the distribution system was able to provide over one cubic meter of water per day for each inhabitant: more than we are accustomed to use nowadays.Pons Aemilius
The oldest stone bridge in Rome, the Pons Aemilius was begun in 179 BC and completed in 142 BC. It stood almost intact until 1598, when floods swept away two supporting piers and three of the arches. Two remaining arches were dismantled in 1885, leaving only a single arch standing in mid-river.The Pons Cestius
The Pons Cestius (today's Ponte Cestio) is an ancient Roman bridge still remaining today, leading from the western shore of the Tiber to the Isola Tiberina, the island in the river.Bridge of Fabricius
The island in the Tiber is connected with the rivers banks by two bridges. The Pons Cestius between the island and Trastevere was destroyed between 1888 and 1892 and replaced by a modern bridge. According to the historian Cassius Dio, the elegant Pons Fabricius was built in 62 BCE and still survives. A satellite photo can be found here.Ponte Milvio
This is one of the oldest bridge in Rome. It was rebuilt by Emilio Scauro in 109BC. During the centuries, it was rearranged many times. The tower, rebuilt by Valadier in 1805, was certainly a part of Aurelian's fortifications. On the head of the bridge there are two statues: S. Giovanni Nipomuceno (by Cornacchini, 1731) and the Immacolata ( by Pigiani, half 19C).Pons Sublicius
The earliest known bridge of ancient Rome, Italy, the 'Pons Sublicius', spanned the Tiber River near the Forum Boarium ("cattle forum") downstream from the Tiber island, near the foot of the Aventine Hill. According to tradition, its construction was ordered by Ancus Martius around 642 BC, but this date is approximate because there is no ancient record of its construction. Martius wished to connect the newly fortified Janiculum Hill on the Etruscan side to the rest of Rome, augmenting the ferry that was there. The bridge was part of public works projects that included building a port at Ostia, the then location of worked salt deposits.The Appian Way
The Appian way is the oldest and most famous road built by the ancient Romans. It was built in 312 BC by the Roman censor Appius Claudius Caecus. The road went south from the Servian Wall in Rome to Capua. It passed through Appii Forum and Terracina, and later on was extnede so that it reached Brundisium, now called Brindisi. The main route to Greece, the Appian Way was more than 560 km (more than 350 mi) long.Cloaca Maxima
The Cloaca Maxima was one of several large ditches that drained water from inhabited areas of the City of Rome. The Cloaca Maxima drained the valleys between the Esquiline, Viminal, and Quirinal Hills, as illustrated here:Servian Wall
The so-called Servian wall. Although the ancient sources state that this wall was built by king Servius Tullius in the sixth century, it is more plausible that it was in fact constructed after 375 BC. The stones, tufa from Veii, can not have been obtained before this city was captured. This pictures shows the largest surviving part of the wall; it is near Stazione Termini, which can be seen in the background. A satellite photo can be found here.Porta Capena
The Porta Capena, the southern gateway in Rome's old Servian Wall (see a stretch of the wall on the Aventine), was the starting point for those journeying to the south. The Aqua Marcia, a leaky old aqueduct which was in constant need of repairs, crossed above the Porta Capena and was responsible for making it "soaked," madidam.Arch of Augustus
The Arch of Augustus (Arcus Augusti) was dedicated to Augustus in 29 BCE to celebrate his victory over Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 BCE. The arch is spanning the road between the Temple of Castor and Pollux and the Temple of Caesar, near the Temple of Vesta.Pyramid of Cestius
The pyramid of Cestius was built during the reign of the emperor Augustus, probably between 18 and 12 BCE. It is a remarkable monument, made of white Carrara marble and exactly 100 Roman feet (30 meters) high. Here, the pyramid can be seen from the Protestant cemetery, west of the tomb. In the background is the Porta Ostiensis.Tomb of Eurysaces
The tomb of Eurysaces near the Porta Maggiore, seen from the north. It was built in c.30 BCE by a man named Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces. A former slave, he had started a bakery and had become rich, which is shown in the decoration. Later, several aqueducts were constructed but the tomb was respected, and it was later included in one of the towers of a city gate belonging to the wall of Aurelian. When this gate was demolished in the nineteenth century, the tomb became visible again.Ara Pacis Augustae
In 13 BCE, the Roman Senate decreed that the Ara Pacis be built to celebrate Augustus' triumphant return from the wars in Spain and Gaul, although the dedication or official inauguration took place about three and a half years later, in January 9 BCE. This altar to Peace was located in the Campus Martius (the Field of War), a place ironically where the military did exercises. In the succeeding centuries, however, the altar was eventually covered up as the level of the area was raised until finally it was buried and forgotten, only to be uncovered in part in the Renaissance, with slabs of the altar dispersed to various locations. Eventually the area was excavated and slabs were recovered from a number of owners; the altar was restored and installed in its own pavilion in 1938. Today, the Ara Pacis is installed in a new museum, which opened in 2006 (not entirely finished by the time I photographed it).The Temple of Veiovis
The Temple of Veiovis was only brought to light in 1939, during the excavation underneath Piazza del Campidoglio for the creation of the Gallery Junction. The parts of the building which make up the Palazzo Senatorio are superimposed both over the temple and over the nearby Tabularium, thereby managing to obscure the Roman building almost completely and as a result saving it from destruction. According to ancient sources, and based on the discovery, in the area of the cella, of a marble statue used for religious purposes, it has been possible to identify the divinity to whom this temple was dedicated: Veiovis, the youthful God of the underworld who was the ancient Italic version of Jupiter.Temple of Capitoline Jupiter
The Temple of Capitoline Jupiter was dedicated to the Optimus Maximus Jupiter, together with the other two divinities that made up the Capitoline triad - Juno and Minerva. The building was begun by Tarquinius Priscus and completed by the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, although it was only inaugurated at the beginning of the Republican era in 509 BC.Temple of Juno Moneta
The Temple of Juno Moneta, the result of a vow taken by L. Furius Camillus during the war against the Auruncii, was built on the Arx in 344 BC. Ancient sources, in referring to the episode of Juno's sacred geese that warned the Romans during the Gallic siege of 390 BC, appear to suggest the existence of a previous temple building, which has been linked to two terracotta Archaic architectural artefacts found in the Garden of Aracoeli and dating to between the end of the VI and the beginning of the V century BC. The remains of a square wall, built in cappellaccio and tufa-stone from Fidene, which have been preserved in the same garden and which some scholars have attributed to the fortification work of the Arx, might possibly go back to the supposed Archaic and Mid-Republican phases of the Juno Moneta Temple. Examples of the Imperial Age remodelling of the building can be seen in the two parallel walls in cementitious material which run into the tufa-stone structures at right-angles.The Pantheon
Built more than 1800 years ago, the magnificent Pantheon building still stands as a reminder of the great Roman empire. The building's dome, more than 43 meters high is most impressive. It was the largest dome in the world until 1436 when the Florence Cathedral was constructed. At the top of the dome is a large opening, the oculus, which was the only source of light... The front portico has three rows of 8 columns, each one with a diameter of 1.5m. A huge bronze door gives access to the cylindrical building. Its diameter equals the interior height of 43,3m.Temple of Apollo Sosianus
Vowed to Apollo Medicus (the healer) in 433 BC because of a plague and dedicated two years later by an ancestor of Julius Caesar (Livy, IV.29), this was the only temple of Apollo in Rome until the one built by Augustus on the Palatine. The Ludi Apollinares were instituted in 212 BC to honor the god and were celebrated in July. The temple, itself, which was restored or rebuilt several times, received its final restoration by Gaius Sosius, one of Caesar's lieutenants and consul in 32 BC. Although the epithet Sosianus still was used by Pliny in the AD 70s, Sosius was an opponent of Octavian and had sided with Antony at Actium in 31 BC. Given the rich decoration of the cella, it may be that the temple actually was completed by Augustus, who changed the dedication date to his birthday on September 23 and was building his own temple to Apollo on the Palatine, which was dedicated in 28 BC. The frieze, too, depicts a battle against northern barbarians, and Augustus did have a triumph for his victories over the German tribes in 29 BC.Temple of Castor and Pollux
The Temple of Castor and Pollux (Templum Castorum or Aedes Castoris) introduced the Greek cult of the dioscuri into Rome, in its very heart, the Forum Romanum, where it is located between Basilica Julia across the Vicus Tuscus, the Temple of Divus Julius, the Arch of Augustus and the Temple of Vesta.Temple of Jupiter Stator
The Temple of Jupiter Stator was first vowed, according to ancient tradition, by Romulus after a battle with the Sabines. The city of Rome was hardly more than a settlement on the Palatine Hill, and the battle was taking place in the valley, in the Forum Romanum. The Romans were forced to retreat up hill by the Via Sacra, but at the Porta Mugonia they managed to regroup and hold their ground against the Sabines, who were eventually defeated.The Temple of Hercules Victor
The Temple of Hercules Victor is often misnamed the Temple of Vesta, maybe because it is similar in size and shape to the temples of the Goddess of the Hearth. It is dedicated to Hercules, the patron of oil sellers and is made of Greek marble from Mount Pentelicus. The central cell is surrounded by 20 corinthian columns and has an entrance on its east side. It was designed by a Greek architect from Salamis called Hermodorus in the late 2nd Century BC.Temple of Portunus
The Temple of Portunus, the god of the port, is one of the two temples on the Forum Boarium ("cattle market") that have survived to the present day. Here, it is seen from the east, from the forum itself. Behind it you can see the cars on the Lungotevere, the street along the Tiber. Behind the cars, invisible, is the ruin of the ancient Pons Aemilius, the Aemilian bridge.Monuments of Rome
Rome, the Eternal City is renewed for its various monuments.Here follows a list of the main ones.Rome Monuments
List of the greatest historical architecture from the Roman EmpireJulius Caesar
104 - 44 B. C. In 44 B.C. the Senate bestowed upon him the title of "Imperator" which is where the word "emperor" originates. Though he was acting as dictator, he would not allow himself to be referred to publicly as king or emperor but "Caesar" instead.Augustus
27 B.C. - 14 A.D. Twenty seven years before Jesus Christ was born, the Senate of Rome bestowed upon Octavian the title Augustus. Augustus became the first "Emperor", which comes from the military title imperator.Tiberius
The empress Livia bore a son from a previous marriage whom she named "Tiberius." The reign of Tiberius was damaged by treason trials, scandal, absence, indulgence, and his own personal orgies. In 26 A.D. Tiberius was 67 years old when he was persuaded by Sejanus, the reckless leader of the praetorian guard. He was advised to leave Rome and spend his life on the island of Capri, near the Bay of Naples.Caligula
37 - 41 A.D. His own troops nicknamed the boy Caligula which means "Baby-boots". He appeared to be a good emperor at the start, but he was absolutely corrupt, utterly immoral, and he committed incest with his own sisters. He dealt severely with his senators, humiliating them publicly. He was a complete psychopath thinking he was a god.Claudius
41 - 54 A.D. Claudius was the uncle of Caligula and fourth Emperor of Rome. He was a scholar who had the historian Livy as one of his tutors. He also stumbled as he walked. He suffered from a deformity because of polio, paralyzed as an infant. He was not taken very seriously until he became emperor or Rome, and gained prominence by his decisions. He added at least five provinces to the Empire, including Britain and Morocco (Mauretania).ROMAN SHIPWRECKS FROM THE WINE-DARK SEA
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The Comacchio Wreck
The Roman ship of Comacchio was discovered on the city outskirts near the initial section of the Water Collection Canal, the principal drainage channel of the Valle Ponti basin which was reclaimed between 1919 and 1922... The first clues of the vessel's presence were revealed in the fall of 1980 (signalled by the Comacchio Archaeological Group) when, during dredging operations in the canal, several timber fragments -- later identified as belonging to a vessel -- came to the surface. The entire upper portion of the wreck was brought to light and the cargo recovered during an extensive excavation season in the summer of 1981. Subsequently, the vessel was submerged beneath the watertable in order to preserve the timber pieces.Yassiada 7th C. Shipwreck Excavation
During the summers of 1961-64, an expedition of the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of George F. Bass excavated the wreck of a 7th-century Byzantine ship that had struck a reef just off the small coastal island of Yassi Ada located between the Turkish mainland and the Greek island of Kos. The wreck lay at an ideal working depth of 32 to 39 m on a moderately steep but fairly even slope and appeared to be well preserved. Then visible was a relatively small amphora mound with a pile of iron anchors at one end and a well-defined area containing kitchen utensils and hearth and roof tiles at the other. (for more information, see Site & Excavation)The Porticello Wreck
A 5th Century B.C. Merchantman in Italy. Like the Byzantine ship at Yassi Ada (INA Newsletter Vol. 1, No.2) the Porticello shipwreck was excavated by INA staff members while still working for the University Museum. The wreck, located on the Italian side of the Straits of Messina, near the village of Porticello, was discovered by a local Italian fisherman and heavily plundered by him and diving associates in the Fall of 1969. Because of a dispute among the looters, the wreck's existence was brought to the attention of the local antiquities authorities. Dott. Giuseppe Foti, superintendent of antiquities in Calabria, Italy, sought the aid of Franco Colosimo, a Sicilian diver who had assisted in the excavation of other ancient wrecks in Italian waters, and a group of specially trained divers of the Italian state police. They mapped the site and recovered remains still visible on the seabed.The Marsala Punic Warship
An exceptional wreck means far more than the sum of its wooden parts; many features of this well preserved after-end of a cargo-less vessel are unique and heavy with implication. Phoenicio-Punic writing is one of them: when first excavated the black calligraphy showed clearly on pine-wood planking that was still yellow, just as the "dunnage" (or leafy branches laid to protect bottoms from ballast) was still green. Both soon faded on exposure to the light and oxygen in the water, but not before focusing attention on the wreck's chemical environment and - for reasons of "nationality" - on its geographic background. The place where a seagoing ship sank is usually of minor interest because, unlike river craft, ancient seagoing vessels usually carry no clue to where and by whom they were built, or to how many owners they may have had before sinking. This makes it impossible to assign any particular design of hull to any particular Mediterranean region, so leaving a serious gap in our knowledge of ship architecture.Two Bronze Etruscan Helmets from a Roman Wreck
Two Bronze Helmets of Etruscan Typology from a Roman Wreck, from a Roman Wreck Found at the Les Sorres Anchorage (Gavà -Viladecans, Catalonia). Under Franco's regime, a great number of Catalan archaeological sites were partially or totally spoliated and/or destroyed, the public powers being absolutely unconcerned about this fact. A paradigmatic example of this situation is the Les Sorres anchorage, a vast site a few kilometres south of Barcelona, under the river Llobregat delta.Wrecks Sardinia Spargi
The Roman vessel of Spargi Island II Century B.C. The famous Ship of Spargi was a Roman trade vessel sunk near the Secca Corsara off Spargi Island, probably between 120 and 100 B.C. She carried a cargo of olive oil, of wine in Dressel 1 amphorae (below) and a large amount of Campanian pottery... Some small bronze statuettes (right) have been stolen by abusive antiquities hunters.Wrecks Sardinia Capo Testa
The Roman vessel of Capo Testa I Century B.C. The Ship of Capo Testa was a Roman trade vessel, about 20m long, carrying a cargo of iron and lead ingots (left): she sank near Capo Testa (East of Bocche di Bonifacio) during the first Century B.C.Wrecks Sardinia Arbatax
The Roman vessel of Arbatax I Century B.C. The Ship of Arbatax was a Roman trade vessel sunk near Capo Bellavista (Arbatax) during the second half of the first Century B.C.Wrecks Sardinia of Costa Rey
The Roman vessels of Costa Rey I Century B.C. Two ancient ships have been discovered on the seabottom off Costa Rey: they are both Roman trade vessels, sunk near Punta Santa Giusta (Costa Rey) in different occasions during the first Century B.C.Wrecks of Sardinia Mal di Ventre
The Roman vessel of Isola Mal di Ventre ("the thousand ingots wreck") 50-70 B.C. The Ship of Mal di Ventre was a large Roman trade vessel, about 36m long, carrying from Spain an extraordinary cargo of 33 tons of lead ingots (right), engraved with the name of the producer.Nautical Pompeii Found in Pisa
Pisa is famous for its leaning tower, but archeologists there are now uncovering an amazing fleet of ancient ships, some complete with crew and cargo. The San Rossore train station on the edge of Pisa, Italy, is a lonely stop. Tourists who visit this city to see its famous leaning tower generally use the central station across town. But San Rossore is about to be recognized as one of the country's most significant archeological digs. For nearly a decade archeologists have been working near and under the tracks to unearth what is nothing short of a maritime Pompeii. So far the excavation has turned up 39 ancient shipwrecks buried under nine centuries of silt, which preserved extraordinary artifacts. The copper nails and ancient wood are still intact, and in many cases cargo is still sealed in the original terra cotta amphorae, the jars used for shipment in the ancient world. They have also found a cask of the ancient Roman fish condiment known as garum and many mariners' skeletons""one crushed under the weight of a capsized ship. One ship carried scores of pork shoulder hams; another carried a live lion, likely en route from Africa to the gladiator fights in Rome.Roman Merchant Ship
Roman Merchant Ship. Small Wooden Merchant Ship With Two White Sails... Jonothan Potter (c) Dorling KindersleyRoman Ship - Picture - MSN Encarta
Most Roman ships designed for commerce or war featured distinctive square sails. Long banks of oars propelled the ships swiftly through the water. Warships often had additional protective coverings to shield the crew from fire and missiles.Sketch of a Roman Warship
Sketch of a Roman warship, part of a Roman merchant ship and a vessel with sail set. National Maritime Museum, London. The Romans used galleys, both as merchant ships for trading, and as warships. They made many long sea journeys in these vessels, but stayed quite close to the coast. Their fighting galleys were powered by rowers, sitting in one, two or three lines. The main weapon of the galley was a ram, a pointed piece of wood fixed to the bow of the ship. The ram was crashed into the side of the enemy ship at speed. The ships also carried archers and men with spears. Sometimes the galleys were fitted with a mast and one square sail, but they were taken down during battles.http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/conMediaFile.664/Sketch-of-a-Roman-warship-part-of-a-Roman-merchant-ship-and-a-vessel-with-sail-set.html
Ancient Roman Warship B.C. 50. Model
Roman warships were feared by other war vessels during the Great Roman Empire. The ships were powered by sail and oarsmen. Armed with Roman Legionaries and sophisticated armaments, the ship became a deadly adversary to other warships of the ancient world. The battering ram was one of the key weapons to devastate another sea going vessel.Parts of a Roman Warship
These were the basic parts of the Roman Quinquireme, an long, slender warship propelled by rowers and on occasion by sail and suited for naval combat on the Mediterranean during Classical times. Corvus, Beak, Towers, Gunwales, Oars, Rudders, Sail and Roman Seamen.Roman Warship
This is the sort of warship that was the backbone of the Roman fleet in the time of Julius Caeser. It would also have made up the fleets that engaged each other when Octavius Caeser went after Anthony and Cleopatra.A Cache of Vintage Ships
By Andrew L. Slayman. Summoned last April to survey a construction site in Pisa, Italian archaeologist Stefano Bruni never imagined what he would find: nine well-preserved Roman ships--the largest group of ancient vessels ever discovered in a single place--and part of Pisa's classical port. Eight months of patient testing had yielded little, and construction of an office building at the San Rossore train station was proceeding. Then, in December, builders sinking a corrugated steel retaining wall to support the sides of the foundation pit realized they had bisected an ancient ship, nearly intact, its wooden frame and planks still held together by copper nails. During the next five months, eight others were found, dating between the second century B.C. and the fifth century A.D., from Pisa's florescence as a Republican naval naval base to the end of the Roman Empire. Bruni's original cores had stopped in what seemed like sterile soil three inches shy of the discovery of a lifetime.Ancient Roman Transportation
From earliest times the Romans displayed remarkable skill at building and engineering. They constructed bridges across the river Tiber, aqueducts to supply Rome with water, and sewers to drain the Forum and keep the city healthy.As they expanded their power across Italy, the Romans linked the capital with other communities they had conquered by a network of roads so well designed that many still lie beneath the motorways of modern Italy.After the neglect of the provinces during the civil wars, Augustus was determined to improve the infrastructure to promote economic growth. With Transportation by sea.Roman Warship 31 B.C
... (for Poser). The Roman Navy (Latin: Classis, lit. "fleet") comprised the naval forces of the Roman state. Unlike modern naval forces, it never existed as an autonomous service, but operated as an adjunct to the Roman army. Founded in ca. 311 BC, and massively expanded course of the First Punic War, the Roman navy played a vital role in the early stages of the Roman Republic's ascension to hegemony in the Mediterranean Sea, especially in the wars against Carthage, but was gradually reduced in size and significance, undertaking mainly policing duties, under the Empire. In the 4th century, the bulk of the Roman fleet was moved to the Eastern Roman Empire, and continued to serve as the Byzantine navy. This ship is a Penteconter, a precursor to the later biremes and triremes. The development of the ram in about 800 BC changed the nature of naval warfare, which had until that point involved boarding and hand-to-hand fighting. Now a more maneuverable ship could render a slower ship useless by staving in its sides.A Guide to Greek and Roman Warships?
JSTOR article. The Classical Review New Series Vol 51 No. 1 (2001)pp. 103-105.The Fleets and Roman Border Policy
Through the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C. the destiny of the Roman Empire was decisively influenced by a sea-battle for the final time. Following it Rome dominated the seas; enemies with their own large fleets no longer existed. Despite this, the Roman navy was not disbanded; indeed, it was expanded further. This clearly demonstrates that the fleets did not play an inconsiderable role in Roman imperial policy. As a result, one has to ask oneself what functions the fleets performed.Roman Warship Liburna
Image Bank "" Roman Warship LiburnaGalleys on Roman Coins
When people think of the spread of the Roman empire, it is the armies that come to mind. Well organised, well trained, using efficient methods, they drove all before them (with a few exceptions, of course!). But just as important for a Mediterranean empire was sea power. It was the battle of Actium - a sea battle - that sealed the fate of Anthony and Cleopatra. Well built and well armed galleys, swift liburnians, these kept the seas open and kept down the numbers of pirates; and massive cargo ships fed Rome with Afican grain. Naturally, galleys and other types of ship made an appearance on many coins. These two chunky bronze coins are from the Roman republic, an as on the left (169-157 BCE) and a triens on the right (211-206 BCE). The front of a galley in a rather skeletal or diagrammatic form was a standard design on Republican bronzes. These examples are rather worn, which is quite typical.Caesar's Galley Model Ship
Roman warships were fearsome weapons and a major factor in the expansion of the Roman Empire. The ships were powered by sails and oars, and armed with the spears and swords of the soldiers on board. Protection was provided by many removable shields along the sides of the craft. A unique "proboscus" on the front of the ship was a reinforced ram often used to spear enemy ships. Whent an enemy ship remained skewered to the Roman ship, the soldiers leap aboard and engage in hand-to-hand combat.Roman Merchantman Boat Model
Dating from before the time of Christ and remaining in use for several centuries after, the merchant ships of the Roman Empire represented an important stage in the evolution of the cargo ship. Some of these vessels were very large, like the ones used for carrying grain from the fertile Nile valley to Rome. The could measure 180 feet long.Rome Reborn
Rome Reborn is an international project launched in 1996 at UCLA and since 2004 based at the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH), a research unit of the University of Virginia. The goal of the project is to create a real-time digital model illustrating the entire urban development of ancient Rome from the first settlement in the late Bronze Age (ca. 1000 BC) to the end of the Gothic Wars (552 AD)The Pompeii Forum Project
The Pompeii Forum Project is a collaborative research venture that is archaeologicaly based, heavily dependent upon advanced technology, and so conceived as to address broad issues in urban history and urban design. Evidence gathered to date challenges commonly held and widely published notions about the evolution of the forum, especially during the final years of the city's life. The goals are to provide the first systematic documentation of the architecture and decoration of the forum, to interpret evidence as it pertains to Pompeii's urban history, and to make wider contributions to both the history of urbanism and contemporary problems of urban design.Forum Romanum
The Roman Forum (Forum Romanum) was the political and economical centre of Rome during the Republic. It emerged as such in the 7th century BCE and maintained this position well into the Imperial period, when it was reduced to a monumental area. It was mostly abandoned at the end of the 4th century. The Forum Romanum is located in a valley between the Capitoline Hill on the west, the Palatine Hill on the south, the Velia on the east and Quirinal Hill and the Esquiline Hill to the north. The Velia was levelled in Antiquity.Ancient Roman Navy
The Roman Navy (Latin: Classis) operated between the First Punic war and the end of the Western Roman Empire. History and Evolution. The Roman navy was very much inferior, both in prestige and capability, to the Roman army. Before the First Punic War in 264 BC there was no Roman navy to speak of as all previous Roman war had been fought in Italy. But the war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power, forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors. The first few naval battles of the First Punic War were disasters for Rome, and it was not until the invention of the Corvus, a grappling engine which made it easier for Romans to board the Carthaginian vessels, that Rome was able to win the war. This meant that Rome could use her superior army in naval combat, and was a significant shift away from the tactics of all other navies at the time.Ancient Roman Ships
The location of Rome, protected amongst hills on the banks of the river Tiber, not far from its mouth to the Mediterranean sea is a defining element of Rome's naval and commercial strength based on the might of the ancient roman ships. The enormous strategic importance of Rome's local Geography was recognized by men such as Cicero who admitted that Romulus and the gods themselves would have found it difficult to make a better choice of location.Roman Galleons
Ancient Ships "" The Ship of Antiquity "" Roman Galleons A typical Roman war ship of the first Century B.C. this Bireme was driven by two rows of oars. Out riggers stabilized the ship and the whales protected the hull from the protruding bows of enemy ships. While fast under oar, this type of vessel capsized easily under too much sail. This ship was built with plank on bulkhead construction.Greek Triremes VS Roman Triremes
Warships have ignited the imagination of countless ages and innumerable authors. Few actually know the history of the warship, though. Purpose built warships originated in ancient Greece and Rome, two great Mediterranean powers. They both had invariably different navies, though. The construction of their warships were of different materials and had different needs and qualifications. They both had different methods to get their ships on the move. Finally, their ships performed quite differently in battle. The Roman navy's quinqueremes were far superior ships in many aspects than Greek, mainly Athenian, triremes.Best Preserved Warship of Ancient Times
Roman Warship found near Pisa's tower is "best preserved ship of ancient times" By Peter Popham in Rome. A long-vanished harbour 500 metres from the leaning Tower of Pisa has yielded its most precious treasure to date: an intact ancient Roman warship, 12 metres (40ft) long, "the best-preserved ship of antiquity ever found" according to the project director at the site, Andrea Camilli.Roman Trade Page
Trade was vital to Ancient Rome. The Empire cost a huge sum of money to maintain and trade brought in much of that money. The population of the city of Rome was one million and such a vast population required many things that could only be got from distant lands ,So people had to turn to trade to get these items. The Roman Empire was criss-crossed with trade routes. There were sea routes that covered the Mediterranean and Black Seas and numerous land routes using the roads built by the Romans. Trade and moving the Roman Army around were the two principle reasons for building roads. The Romans did what they could to make sea journeys safe - lighthouses were built as were safe harbours and docks. The Roman Navy did what it could to make the Mediterranean Sea safe from pirates.Ancient Roman Navy
The Roman Navy was always considered an inferior arm and was strictly under army control. But the, Romans proved itself capable of launching a fleet capable of checking an established naval power such as Carthage. Romans were no sailors though. They had no knowledge of ship building. Their ships were in fact built copying the example of captured Carthaginian vessels, combined with the expertise supplied by the Greek cities of southern Italy.The Etruscans and the Sea
Maritime Trading. There is no doubt that the Etruscan sea ports, or emporia were important international trading centres, and therefore of great economical and cultural significance for the Etruscans. Judging from the Greek and Phoenician sanctuaries found in Graviscae and Pyrgi respectively they were probably populated by mixed peoples, and attracted merchants and artisans from far afield. We have a historical example of such a trader in Demeratos of Corinth. Livy tells us that he sold Etruscan goods to the Greeks and Greek goods to the Etruscans, and that he brought with him a number of artists from Corinth. The presence of Proto-Corinthian and Corinthian ware in Caere and Tarquinia would appear to be consistent with this account.Roman Seas Photo
Roman Civil War: 41 B.C. Sextus Pompeius vs Octavian and Agrippa. Pompeius' ships attack a Roman convoy. Ship model photo of re-enactment of the ship battle.First Century Roman Corbita Photo
1st Century Roman Corbita PhotoBarbarians VS Rome Ship Set
Roman Seas: Barbarians VS Rome Ship Set Roman Seas: The Barbarian vs Rome Ship Set contains a set of high quality, professionally rendered PDF ancient Roman and Barbarian ship models by renown RPG and mapping artist, Eric Hotz. The Barbarian vs Rome Navy Set models are based on the ships from 68BC - 400AD. Just print out the files onto paper/card-stock from your own computer/printer and then start building. Make as many as you want, when you need them!Roman Fleet
The Roman Navy was always considered an inferior arm and was strictly under army control. But already during the First Punic War, Rome proved itself capable of launching a fleet capable of checking an established naval power such as Carthage. Romans were no sailors though. They had no knowledge of ship building. Their ships were in fact built copying the example of captured Carthaginian vessels, combined with the expertise supplied by the Greek cities of southern Italy. Rather unexpected success in battle was obtained by a logical Roman idea that a warship was little more than a floating platform on which the soldiers could be brought into close contact with the enemy.Roman Quinquereme
A picture of a Roman Quinquereme. This ship is very similar to the Greek Trireme. See the link below for a good explanation of the differences.Julius Caesar Bust
Was Julius Caesar a Friend of the Jews? The face of the Roman dictator, Julius Caesar. When Julius Caesar served as proconsul of Gaul (ancient France), he conquered countless Celtic and Belgic armies in the hundreds of thousands. He invaded Britain twice before it became a province in 43 A.D. under the Emperor Claudius. Later Pompey persuaded the Senate to force Caesar to retire as proconsul of Gaul when his term was up. Caesar immediately rebelled against them and crossed the Rubicon River in 49 B.C., and started a civil war. Though Pompey had a much larger army he was easily defeated by Julius Caesar on the plains of Pharsalus in northern Greece. Pompey fled to the great port of Alexandria, Egypt but he was murdered as he landed. Julius Caesar arrived a short time later and met Queen Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemaic rulers in Egypt, whom he became infatuated with. He actually met with great opposition in Alexandria and defeated them with the help of the Jews.Map of Imperial Rome at the Time of Augustus
Sites and places in the city of Rome at the time of Augustus.Augustus Caesar on Bible History Online
Augustus Caesar - Introduction , Overview , Background , His Adoption , Octavian , The First Triumvirate , The Second Triumvirate , Augustus Caesar , The Principate , His Empire , His Death , Dictionaries , Encyclopedias , Scriptures , Maps and Images , Timeline , Ancient Texts , Index , Conclusion ,Dining in Ancient Rome
The ancient Hebrews, Egyptians, and Greeks. used to eat sitting on mats spread on the floor. The Romans actually reclined on couches around a table. The couches were arranged forming three sides of a square.Aqueducts
Ancient Roman aqueducts were large bridges with pipes or channels set into them. These pipes carried water from rivers and lakes around the country, into Rome and other urban centers. One famous ancient Roman aqueduct that still remains today is the Pont du Gard in France.Ancient History - Nefer Seba
A list of online resources on Classical Studies, Latin language, and archaeology (Latin dictionaries, phrases and mottoes, Classical and archaeological organizations, excavation sites, encyclopedias on the topic, etc.)Here is another test
just testingFlavian Amphitheatre
The Colosseum was the largest and most famous of all Roman amphitheaters. It was originally constructed by the Emperor Vespasian just after 70 AD., and was dedicated by his son Titus in 80 AD. It was known in ancient Rome as the Flavian Amphitheatre, and was completed by Titus' younger son Domitian. The Colosseum was built in the valley between the Palatine, Caelian and Esquiline hills. It could accommodate 70,000 people, who came to watch the games. Many Christians were thrown to the wild beasts in the arena.testing
this is a testLink: http://www.google.com...
Atlas of the Greek and Roman World
Classical Atlas Project Univ. of North Carolina [Greece] [Maps and Geography]AUGUSTUS A Cistophoric Tetradrachm
struck between c. 19-18 B.C.at the mint in Pergamum. [Rome] [Coin Collecting]AUGUSTUS A Cistophoric Tetradrachm (reverse)
struck between c. 19-18 B.C.at the mint in Pergamum. [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Coponius (6 - 9 AD)
Coins relating to the Roman Procurators : Coponius (6 - 9 AD) AE Prutah 6 AD Hendin 635, SGIC 5606 17 mm. 1.91 gm. Die position=12h Procurator under Augustus reverse Obverse: Ear of barley; KAICAPOC. Reverse: Eight-branched palm tree bearing two bunches of dates; date in field L[lambda][stigma] (year 36). [Israel] [Coin Collecting]Coponius (6 - 9 AD) reverse
Coins relating to the Roman Procurators : Coponius (6 - 9 AD) AE Prutah 6 AD Hendin 635, SGIC 5606 17 mm. 1.91 gm. Die position=12h Procurator under Augustus reverse Obverse: Ear of barley; KAICAPOC. Reverse: Eight-branched palm tree bearing two bunches of dates; date in field L[lambda][stigma] (year 36). [Israel] [Coin Collecting]Marcus Ambibulus (9 - 12 AD)
Coins relating to the Roman Procurators :Marcus Ambibulus (9 - 12 AD) AE Prutah 9 AD Hendin 636, SGIC 5607 17 mm. 1.86 gm. Die position=12h Procurator under Augustus obverse Obverse: Ear of barley; KAICAPOC. Reverse: Eight-branched palm tree bearing two bunches of dates; date in field L[lambda][theta] (year 39).[Israel] [Coin Collecting]Mark Antony Denarius Reissued
Relating to the Middle Empire (Adoptive Emperors) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Commodus A.D. 177-192
Relating to the Middle Empire (Adoptive Emperors) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]3 Republican Denarii - Same or Different
Unlike modern coins, it is common for ancient coins to be available with a great variety of minor variations. In some cases this is an accident caused by individually hand cut dies each being a little different even when every attempt was made to make them the same. In other cases, the differences were part of the plan to control mint operations and, by chance, provide collectors with both major and minor varieties for the collection. Relating to the Middle Empire (Adoptive Emperors) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Alexandria mint denarii
Commodus, Pertinax and Clodius Albinus [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Alexandria Denarii of Commodus, Pertinax & Albinus
Alexandria mint denarii. Commodus, Pertinax and Clodius Albinus Severan Period. (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Pescennius Niger Denarius
Severan Period (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Caracalla or Elagabalus?
Two Emperors Named Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius. Severan Period (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Roman Imperatorial coins of Calvinus
[Rome] [Coin Collecting]Worn out but rare coins
The collectors who own these coins love them for what they are. Would you be caught with these in your collection? Severan Period (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Roman Imperial Plated Coins
Severan Period (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Geta: The One Who Died A.D. 209-212
Severan Period (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Macrinus A Greek Imperial of Laodocea and two denarii
Macrinus attempted to rule well and made some effort to reduce expenses. This was always dangerous when dealing with soldiers and after a short reign of a little more than a year, Macrinus was killed by the army that had elevated him. The coup that defeated him was led by Julia Maesa, sister of Julia Domna, in the name of her fourteen year old grandson known to history as Elagabalus. This restored the Severan Dynasty which ruled Rome from 193 to 235 AD except for the brief reign of Macrinus. Severan Period (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Macrinus: An AE 30 Neocorate issue of Nikomedia, Bithynia
Severan Period (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Roman Imperial coins of Macrinus
Severan Period (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]`Unlisted` Denarii of Maesa & Elagabalus?
Two coins not found in the standard catalogs. Severan Period (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Imperial coins of Severus Alexander
Severan Period (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Bronzes of Severus Alexander
Severan Period (not Septimius or Domna) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Gordian III the Boy King
Gordian III became Emperor at the end of the confusion of 238 AD. That he was largely a figurehead is made obvious by his young age (about 15) but, compared to other `boy kings`, Gordian did a good job as ruler of Rome. The grandson of the respected Gordian I (and nephew of Gordian II), Gordian III was selected to restore peace following the deaths of all the contestants for power during that terrible year. Actual power during the reign fell to the Praetorian Prefects, first Timisitheus and later Philip the Arab. Under Timisitheus, Gordian married his mentor`s daughter Tranquillina. The death of Timisitheus resulted in his replacement by a man with a son of his own and no need to support a young puppet. Gordian III was killed and Philip I became Emperor. Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Gordian III, A.D. 238-244
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]3 Gordian III & Tranquillina Greek Imperial
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Philip the Arab & Family - coins of the First Family
The reign of Marcus Julius Philippus, Philip I, (244-249 AD - sometimes called "the Arab" after the origin of his family) is clouded in history by the way it began. Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Philip II Marcianopolis Bronzes
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Trajan Decius
Trajan Decius became emperor midway through the third century and near the beginning of the chaos that characterized the period between the relative stability of the Severans and the formation of the Tetrarchy by Diocletian. Silver coins of this period declined year by year until there was almost no silver content. The most common denomination was the double denarius or antoninianus first issued by Caracalla late in 214 AD. By the time of Decius, the coin was still struck in silver alloy of a silvery color but the weight had fallen off from the earlier issues. Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Agonistic Bronzes Coins Commemoratives of the Games
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Valerian II & Saloninus
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Postumus, Emperor of Gaul
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Revolt of Aureolus
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Reverse Brockages of the Gallic Empire
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Florian Politics, Succession and Death
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Probus Antoniniani - Looking Closely
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Probus Antoninianus A.D. 276-282
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Medusa on Probus` Shield
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]A Silvered Antoninianus of Numerian
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]`Coded` Antoniniani
The identification of joint Emperors Diocletian and Maximianus with the gods (respectively) Jupiter and Hercules was documented by a strange series of silvered antoniniani from the mint at Siscia. Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]XXI and Other Letters
Things Found on Roman Reverses of the Late Third Century AD. Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Maximinus, Maximianus etc.
Separating Coins of Maximianus, Galerius, Maximinus & Maxentius. Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]A Roman Coin of John Quincy Adams of Galerius Caesar
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Maximinus II, A.D. 309-313
Coins Relating to Military Emperors [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Constantine: the Road to Greatness
Coins Relating to the Constantinian Period (Christianity in Rome) [Coin Collecting]A Follis of Constantine I
Coins Relating to the Constantinian Period (Christianity in Rome) [Coin Collecting]Crispus (Caesar A.D. 317-326)
Coins Relating to the Constantinian Period (Christianity in Rome) [Coin Collecting]Delmatius (Caesar A.D. 335-337)
Coins Relating to the Constantinian Period (Christianity in Rome) [Coin Collecting]Stirrups? on a coin of Constantius II
Coins Relating to the Constantinian Period (Christianity in Rome) [Coin Collecting]Bavarian Collection
Coins Relating to the Constantinian Period (Christianity in Rome) [Coin Collecting]By This Sign, You Shall Be Victorious (Milvian Bridge)
Coins Relating to the Constantinian Period (Christianity in Rome) [Coin Collecting]Delmatius (Caesar A.D. 335-337)
Christogram Chi Rho standard. Coins Relating to the Constantinian Period (Christianity in Rome) [Coin Collecting]An AE4 of Theodosius I A.D. 379-395
Coins Relating to the End of the Empire (Valentinian and later) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Arcadius AE2 Inverted overstrike and the hand of God
Coins Relating to the End of the Empire (Valentinian and later) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]5th Century AD Roman Bronze
Coins relating to the End of the Empire (Valentinian and later) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Coins of Barbarians
"Barbarian" was a term applied to any people not of Greek or Roman origin. By the time of the late Roman Empire, what was considered barbaric in one generation would frequently become more civilized and be adopted into the Roman "family" to the point that Roman Emperors after the first century AD were rarely of Italian lineage. Coins relating to the End of the Empire (Valentinian and later) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Greek & Roman cast coins
Greek & Other Ancient Coins [Greece] [Coin Collecting]Tiberius, Tribute Penny
[Bible] [Rome] [Coin]Divus Caracalla - Bronze sestertius
- died 217 AD - Rome mint - 22g DIVO ANTONINO MAGNO / CONSECRATIO SC Bare head right / Funeral pyre of 4 steps topped with quadriga [Rome] [Coin]Coin of Caesar Augustus with Comet on reverse
A coin of Caesar Augustus that is wildly popular due to its reverse type. In 17 BC, a comet appeared in the sky and was interpreted as the Divine Julius Caesar returning to watch over Rome. The comet is shown as a star of eight rays with a feathery tail trailing behind. The legend is DIVVSIVLIVS [Rome] [Coin]Roman Imperatorial Coinage of Ahenobarbus
Ahenobarbus, Imperator in 42 BC, died 39 BC [Rome] [Coin]Septimius Severus Coins
Septimius Severus issued a Legionary Series of denarii naming all of the legions that supported his bid for power from the beginning. Of these, the hardest to find is Legion XXII Primigenia which was stationed at Mainz. To make matters worse, two varieties are known for this legion. This, the rarer, names the Legion LEG XXII PRI; the other is simply LEG XXII. [Rome] [Coin]Ancient Greek & Roman Coins - Overview for Beginners
Recommended reading for those who might be interested in collecting ancient coins [Rome] [Coin] [Greece]Abbreviations on Roman Imperial Coins
Abbreviations on Roman Imperial Coins SC TRP IMP COS etc. [Coin Collecting]Imperial Coin Denominations
Imperial Coin Denominations A survey of silver & bronze coins [Coin Collecting]Common Constantinian Copper Coins
from bulk lots and junk boxes [Coin Collecting]Valentinian & Theodosius Coins
the junk boxes: Part 2 [Coin Collecting]Septimius Severus, A.D. 193-211
Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Septimius Severus & His Wife Julia Domna
Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Septimius Severus `Emesa` Mint Denarii
Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Barbaric Coins of Septimius Severus
Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Legion III Coins of Septimius Severus
Rome and Alexandria. Legionary coins of the Alexandria, Egypt, mint honor the North African Legion III Augusta which `freed` Egypt from the clutches of Pescennius Niger at the very end of 193 AD. A good percentage of the coins of Septimius issued at Rome by this time were the Legionary standards type with legends honoring each of the legions that supported Septimius from the very beginning of his bid for the Empire. Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]GRADING: Conditions of Preservation
Other than wear, which is addressed by the currently popular grading standards, many thing could happen to an ancient coin on its travels into our collections. [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Septimius, Julia & Venus
More commonly special `feminine` types were created for use by the Augusta. These could honor personifications of feminine virtues (Modesty, Fertility, Piety etc.) or goddesses (Cybele, Vesta, Diana etc.). From the beginning of the reign of Septimius Severus, coins were issued in the name of his wife Julia Domna. Venus, patron goddess of the Julii, was the most common reverse of the early period of the reign (193-196 AD). Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Legion III Coins of Septimius Severus Rome and Alexandria
Legionary coins of the Alexandria, Egypt, mint honor the North African Legion III Augusta which `freed` Egypt from the clutches of Pescennius Niger at the very end of 193 AD. A good percentage of the coins of Septimius issued at Rome by this time were the Legionary standards type with legends honoring each of the legions that supported Septimius from the very beginning of his bid for the Empire. Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Minerva Athena
Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Coins of Septimius Severus
Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Fourree Mule Denarius Septimius / Caracalla
Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Septimius Severus Caesarea Drachm Greek Imperial - Year R
Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Septimius Severus
Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Julia Domna Alexandria Tetradrachm Greek Imperials
Second wife of Septimius Severus, who reigned AD 193-211, mother of Caracalla and Geta. Relating to the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (193 - 211 AD) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Cast Ancient Coins Aes Rude, Aes Grave & Greek cast coins
Relating to the Roman Republic [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Fourree Serrate Denarius
Claudius Nero 78-77 BC [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Comparing Three Republican Denarii
Relating to the Roman Republic [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Caesar/Augustus, Augustus and two Severans
Relating to the Early Empire (12 Caesars) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Tiberius: The Tribute Penny Render Unto Caesar......
Relating to the Early Empire (12 Caesars) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Indian Denarius of Tiberius A barbaric coin of good silver
Relating to the Early Empire (12 Caesars) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Nero A.D. 54-68
Relating to the Early Empire (12 Caesars) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Plated Denarii NUMUS MONETA
304 Roman Republican plated denarius (209 B.C.). In each case the original Greek word is a form of "denarius", although the term is variously rendered in modern translations in order to make it meaningful to the average modern reader. For example, the venerable King James Version renders the term as "penny", which is understandable when one considers that the modern British abbreviation for "pence" is "d", which originally was an abbreviation for the "denier", a descendent of the denarius. Relating to the Early Empire (12 Caesars) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Vespasian Bronzes of Lugdunum
Relating to the Early Empire (12 Caesars) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Flavian Mintmarked Denarii Three Eastern mint denarii
Relating to the Early Empire (12 Caesars) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]A Denarius of Domitian - The dolphin of Neptune & more
Titus Flavius Vespasianus ("Vespasian") survived the civil wars of 68-69 AD as undisputed ruler of the Roman world. He had two sons: The elder (with the same name) is known to history as "Titus" succeeded his father and ruled for two years before his death in 81 AD. The younger brother, Titus Flavius Domitianus, then became emperor ruling until 96 AD. Relating to the Early Empire (12 Caesars) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Imperial Plated Coins
Relating to the Middle Empire (imperial) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Hadrian An overview of a popular ruler
Among the most popular choices for collectors who select a single Emperor as a speciality is Hadrian. Ruling from 117 to 138 AD, Hadrian was the adopted son of Trajan and continued the adoptive line by selecting Antoninus Pius as his successor. Coins of Hadrian are especially varied with a `complete` collection numbering well over 2000 items. I will show a few samples of his coins that might be considered representative of the thousands not shown. Relating to the Middle Empire (Adoptive Emperors) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]A Fourree Brockage of Hadrian
Relating to the Middle Empire (Adoptive Emperors) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Antoninus Pius Caesar - The politics of succession on coins
Relating to the Middle Empire (Adoptive Emperors) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]Antoninus Pius, A.D. 138-161
Relating to the Middle Empire (Adoptive Emperors) [Rome] [Coin Collecting]The Roman Army
The core of the Roman legion consisted of heavily armored infantry. Disciplined and well trained these soldiers fought in closed ranks. At every level the men of a legion fought together toward ultimate victory. In contrast most of the armies Rome faced were warrior based where each man fought for personal glory. This combination of superior organization and disciplined armored infantry gave the Romans a tremendous advantage in battle. Training Formation, Organization, Armor, Arms (Weapons), Tactics.Siege Warfare Artillery and Fortifications
The Romans brought combat engineering to such an art that it wasn`t matched again until the Second World War. A high level of organization plus a determination to thoroughly address all aspects of battle led the Romans to integrate a wide range of tactics and tools into their fighting.Siege Warfare Artillery and Fortifications
Development of the Roman Legion from the late Republic to the height of the Empire. Campaigns and battles. Tactics and weapons of the Roman armies. Siege warfare / fortification. Profiles of the greatest military commanders. [The Glory That Was Rome]Roman Naval Warfare
The Quinquereme, The Corvus. Service in the fleet was for 26 years after which sailors received citizenship. Water ways were patrolled to control piracy and keep shipments of supplies and troops free to go where they were needed.The Commanders
Development of the Roman Legion from the late Republic to the height of the Empire. Campaigns and battles. Tactics and weapons of the Roman armies. Siege warfare / fortification. Profiles of the greatest military commanders.The History of Rome: Battles and Campaigns of the Empire
Battle of Cannae 216 BC... The Battle of Zama 202 BC... The Battle of Cynoscephalae 197 BC... The Jewish Wars 70 AD... Trajan's Campaigns Against Dacia 101-106 A.DRoman Emperors List
Emperors names (common and Imperial) dynasty, class and notes [The Glory That Was Rome]Timeline of The Republic
The Roman Republic - 509-31 B.C. [The Glory That Was Rome]Warfare in the Roman World
Bibliography; General Works The Army of the Republic Legions, Augustus to Diocletian Auxiliaries, Augustus to Diocletian The Late Roman Army Fleet Guard Troops Recruiting Equipment Pay Logistics Enemies Strategy Collections of Papers CommandCoin of Tiberius, 14-37 A.D.
TI CAESAR DIVI AVG F AVGVSTVS Rev. PONTIF MAXIM. Female figure seated r. hld. scepter and palm branch [Ancient Coins] [Rome]Coin of M. Junius Brutus
This coin was issued by Marcus Junius Brutus, the chief assasin of Julius Caesar, when he held the lower political office of moneyer during his early career. The types honor Brutus` ancestors who were involved in overthrowing tyrannies in the early Republic and are an allusion to his contemporary oppostion to Sulla. [Ancient Coins] [Rome]Coin of Nero, 54-68 A.D.
[Ancient Coins] [Rome]Coin of Nero (2), 54-68 A.D.
[Ancient Coins] [Rome]Roman Emperors and Rulers
A Brief History of Roman Emperors, Rulers, and Their Families [Ancient Rome] [People]Augustus the First Roman Emperor
63 B.C. - 14 C.E. [People in History] [Tools and Searches]Caesar By Plutarch
63 B.C. - 14 C.E. Written 75 A.C.E. Translated by John Dryden [People in History] [Tools and Searches]Caesar By Plutarch
63 B.C. - 14 C.E. Written 75 A.C.E. Translated by John Dryden [People in History] [Tools and Searches]Antony By Plutarch
(died 30 B.C.E.) Written 75 A.C.E. Translated by John Dryden [People in History] [Tools and Searches]The Rulers of the Roman World
The Roman Emperors, Imperators, and Caesars [People in History] [Tools and Searches]Neferchichi`s Tomb
Full of treasure for kids, teachers, & amateur Egyptologists: free clip art & fonts, e-postcards, gift shop, lesson plans, fun & games, and lots of information about Egypt. [People in History] [Tools and Searches]ROME & CHRISTIANITY TIMELINE
CHRISTIAN TRIALS AND TRIUMPHS [People in History] [Tools and Searches]The First Ladies of Rome
LordBest's Gallery of Roman Emperors and Empresses. Version 2.0 The Empresses Rome was host to many powerful women in its time, many of the female relations of the reigning Emperor exercised considerable power, others were mere pawns in political games. All of them, however, were the fashion setters of their time, influencing hairstyles and fashions all accross the empire. In chronological order.head of Costantine II statue
Italy, Rome, Palazzo dei Conservatori (Tony Stone Images)Roman Temple of Trajan
Turkey, Pergamum, Hellenistic Kingdom, (Tony Stone Images)Colosseum, section detail, illuminated at dusk
Italy, Rome, (Tony Stone Images)Roman Forum and Colosseum
Italy, Latium, Rome, View from Capitol Hill. The Colosseum was commisioned by the Roman Emperor Vespasian. The Forum started as a mix of food stalls and temples, before becoming the business and law centre of the Empire.(Tony Stone Images)Temple of Ceres
Italy, Campania, Paestum, The Temple of Ceres was built in a Doric style around the 6th Century BC. The city of Paestum was founded by the Greeks before being taken by the Romans in 273 BC.(Tony Stone Images)Roman Sculpture (Constantine Head)
Corbis Images [Ancient Rome] [Images]Roman Sculpture (Constantine Head)
Corbis Images [Ancient Rome] [Images]Constantine the Great, Roman emperor 307 - 337 AD.
[Coins] [Ancient Rome]Septimius Severus Coins
[Coins] [Ancient Rome]Septimius Severus Coins
[Coins] [Ancient Rome]Severus II
[Coins] [Ancient Greece]]Colosseum, Rome, Italy
Corbis Images [Ancient Rome] [Images]Colosseum, Rome, Italy (Interior)
Corbis Images [Ancient Hidalgo] [Images]Colosseum, Rome, Italy (Interior)
Corbis Images [Ancient Rome] [Images]Low-Earth-Orbit View of Malta and Sicily
Corbis Images [Ancient Rome] [Images]Colosseum, Rome, Italy (Model)
Model of Ancient Rome Showing the Colosseum and the Complex of Ludus Magnus Corbis Images [Ancient Rome] [Images]Empires and Cities (Rome)
Until this section is finished being indexed into the main database you can click here to see a list of links including the Bible History Online general resources on this subject, although many of these links are outdated. [Ancient Rome]ORB Online Encyclopedia--Late Roman Army
Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean. The birth of the Late Roman Army is usually taken to be the reforms of Diocletian (284-305) and Constantine (305-337). Their reforms were not completely innovative and forerunners of all their changes can be seen in the institutions and practices of the army of the third century AD. From the early fourth century, the army was a remarkably stable institution with few changes in practice or structure, suggesting that contemporaries were satisfied with its effectiveness. [Warfare] [Rome]ORB Online Encyclopedia--Collapse of the Roman Empire
Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean. The Collapse of the Roman Empire--Military Aspects. Hugh Elton. Modern historians explain the collapse of the western Roman empire in the fourth and fifth centuries in one of two ways. One group follows an institutional approach, which finds the reasons in the long-term and looks closely at internal structures. A second group has adopted a political approach and looks at short term causes of collapse. [Warfare] [Rome]ORB Online Encyclopedia--Barbarization
The term `barbarization` is used to describe the use of soldiers whose origins were outside the Roman Empire in the late Roman army. It has been argued (especially by Ramsay MacMullen) that this caused the army to decline in efficiency, though this is a view that is coming under some revision. There were two types of this `barbarization`. [Warfare] [Rome]The Armies of The Roman Empire
Development of the Roman Legion from the late Republic to the height of the Empire. Campaigns and battles. Tactics and weapons of the Roman armies. Siege warfare / fortification. Profiles of the greatest military commanders. [Warfare] [Rome]Roman Military Sites in Britain
[Warfare] [Rome]The Legio X Gemina Homepage
This is the homepage of the Gemina Project, a Dutch reenactment society that portrays Roman soldiers and civilians as they would have appeared in the last quarter of the first century AD when the legio X Gemina was stationed at the castra of Nijmegen. [Warfare] [Rome]Papyrus: Letters of soldiers
[Warfare] [Rome]ARMAMENTARIVM: the Book of Roman Arms and Armor
[Weapons and Warfare] [Rome]Warfare in the Ancient World (Bibliographies)
[Weapons and Warfare] [Rome]Famous People of Ancient Rome
Information about CAESAR, ANTONY, CICERO, MAECENAS, MARCUS AURELIUSCaesar's Campaigns in Gaul (58-50 BC)
[Athena Review Image Archive]A Gazetteer of the Roman World
A very large collection of info, images, and resources.A Gazetteer of the Roman World
A very large collection of info, images, and resources.LacusCurtius: into the Roman World
A very large collection of info, images, and resources.4 pages at The Museum of Ara Pacis
The Ara Pacis is one of the city's great sights: the great sacrificial altar consecrated by the Emperor Augustus himself in 9 BC is enclosed in a magnificent frieze of Roman portraiture at its best. It is essentially intact. [ 4 pages of images ]The Palatine Hill
The Palatine Hill is a sort of 2800-year-old palimpsest of landscaping. Called the cradle of Rome because they found and raised babies in it -- Romulus and Remus, according to tradition -- it has by turns been the seat of the rich and powerful, an abandoned waste, a luxury escape for Renaissance popes, and now, less successfully, a mass of excavations. This rather weak subsite teases you with the so-called House of Livia and the Farnese Gardens. [ 3 pages, 8 images ]The gardens of the Villa Borghese
The gardens of the Villa Borghese are on yet another hill: a beautifully landscaped large park with just the right density of tempietti, fountains and statues. If you are a non-Italian visitor to Rome, you're probably not even giving this place a thought -- mistake. The place to get some cool air surrounded by Roman families on their day off. [ 3 pages, 10 images ]Trajan's Column
built in the early 2d century AD to commemorate the emperor's campaigns in Dacia, this 30m column was once the centerpiece of a major urban complex including libraries, a temple, a basilica, and markets: only these last remain in anything like their ancient state. The column, however, is virtually intact. Recognized as the single best extant example of Roman monumental sculpture, it is also a storehouse of information on the Roman army, trade in the empire, and daily life. [ 3 pages, 37 images ]The Arch of Constantine
The Arch of Constantine: built in the early 4th century AD to commemorate Constantine's tenth year in power, the arch was intended as yet another great monument of Roman propaganda. Over the long term, however, it fails miserably: in cobbling together for it some excellent sculpture of previous centuries and adding a few crabbed friezes of its own, the Romans created a fascinating comparative art gallery -- in which the Constantinian age does not come out well. 70 picturesThe Pantheon
The best-preserved of all Roman temples, and an astonishing feat of engineering. (Other than a major scholarly article cribbed from an 1875 book, this is a rather weak site for the moment, put up on 2/10/99.) [ 3 pages, 7 images ]The Amphitheatrum Castrense
The Amphitheatrum Castrense is one of those flukes of archaeology: built by Elagabalus, this brick amphitheatre was very likely one of many in ancient times. Today, however, it's a rarity, having survived because it was incorporated into a great work of fortification. [ 1 page, 3 images ]A Topography of Ancient Rome
A Topography of Ancient Rome by Samuel Ball Platner (as revised by Thomas Ashby in 1929), is a solid resource now in the public domain. A scholarly encyclopedia with hundreds upon hundreds of articles on the remains of antiquity within the city of Rome, it is an excellent reference work for hills, streets, roads and monuments of all kinds, providing ancient sources and modern bibliographies. I'm putting a small selection of articles from it online. [ 2/28/99: 7 articles ]A Topography of Ancient Rome
A Topography of Ancient Rome by Samuel Ball Platner (as revised by Thomas Ashby in 1929), is a solid resource now in the public domain. A scholarly encyclopedia with hundreds upon hundreds of articles on the remains of antiquity within the city of Rome, it is an excellent reference work for hills, streets, roads and monuments of all kinds, providing ancient sources and modern bibliographies. I'm putting a small selection of articles from it online. [ 2/28/99: 7 articles ]Language Map of Ancient Italy
Shows where in Italy: Gaulish, Greek, Oscan, Ligurian, Messapic, Etruscan, Umbrian were spoken. Aeq.- Aequian; Aur.- Auruncan; Fal.- Faliscan; Hern.- Hernican; Lat.- Latin; Marr.- Marrucinian; Mars.- Marsian; Nov.- Novilara; Pael.- Paelignian; Vest.- Vestinian;The Roman Colosseum
The Coliseum in Rome, the site of gladiatorial combats and other spectacles in Ancient Rome. [Corbis]Colosseum (Flavin Amphitheater)
Roman (Flavian period): Colosseum (Flavin Amphitheater): exterior view from N. ca. 70 - 82 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Colosseum (Flavin Amphitheater): Detail
Roman (Flavian period): Colosseum (Flavin Amphitheater):exterior, detail of superposed Corinthian, Ionic, and doric architectural orders. ca. 70 - 82 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Colosseum (Flavin Amphitheater): Street Level
Roman (Flavian period): Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater): exterior, detail of arcaded construction of entrance at street level. ca. 70 - 82 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Colosseum (Flavin Amphitheater): Entrance Passage
Roman (Flavian period): Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater): arena interior, view through entrance passage. ca. 70 - 82 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Colosseum (Flavin Amphitheater): Arena Interior
Roman (Flavian period): Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater): arena interior, view towards E. showing substructure. ca. 70 - 82 A.D. A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Arch of Titus, Rome
Roman Empire: Arch of Titus, Rome: view from W. [through the forum]. ca. 81 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Arch of Titus: showing
Roman Empire: Arch of Titus, Rome: detail of C. arch [from W.], showing "Triumph of Titus" relief panel. ca. 81 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Arch of Titus: showing "Triumph of Titus" relief panel 2
Roman Empire: Arch of Titus, Rome: detail of inner [N.] facing of arch showing "Triumph of Titus" relief panel. ca. 81 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Arch of Titus: Spoils of the Temple in Jerusalem
Roman Empire: Arch of Titus, Rome: Spoils of the Temple in Jerusalem: relief panel from inner facing of the Arch. ca. 81 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Trajan's Column
Roman: Trajan's Column: view from S. (through Basilica Ulpia). ca. 113 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Trajan's Column: Detail
Roman: Trajan's Column: detail, middle registers of frieze on E. side, Roman campaigns against the Dacians. ca. 113 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Trajan's Column: Detail 3
Roman: Trajan's Column: detail, lower registers of frieze on W. side, legionaries on campaign against the Dacians. ca. 113 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Trajan's Column: Detail 4
Roman: Trajan's Column: detail, lower registers of frieze on W. side, departure of legionaries from their garrison. ca. 113 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Trajan's Column: Detail 5
Roman: Trajan's Column: detail, bottom register of frieze on W. side, (River god Danuvius watching legionaries crossing a pontoon bridge). ca. 113 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Amphitheater (Arena), Pompeii
Roman (Campania): Amphitheater (Arena), Pompeii: interior view from SW.. orig. ca. 80 B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Portrait Bust of a Flavian Lady
Roman Empire (Flavian period): Portrait bust of a Flavian Lady: [L. profile]. ca. 90 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Portrait Bust of a Flavian Lady (Rear)
Roman Empire (Flavian period): Portrait bust of a Flavian Lady: [rear view, detail of coiffure]. ca. 90 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.The Tetrarchs
Roman Late Empire: The Tetrarchs: ca. 305 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.The Tetrarchs: Diocletian and Maximian
Roman Late Empire: The Tetrarchs: detail of the Augusti (Diocletian and Maximian). ca. 305 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.The Tetrarchs: Diocletian and Maximian (Detail)
Roman Late Empire: The Tetrarchs: detail of the Augusti (Diocletian and Maximian). ca. 305 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Constantine, Head and Fragments from a Colossal Statue
Roman Late Empire: Constantine, head and fragments from a colossal statue: on display in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Consevatori, Rome. ca. 313-315 (or 330) A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Constantine, Head and Fragments from a Colossal Statue 2
Roman Late Empire: Constantine, head and fragments from a colossal statue: on display in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Consevatori, Rome. ca. 313-315 (or 330) A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Sarcophagus, Relief: Dionysis Attended by the Four Seasons
Roman: Sarcophagus, relief: Dionysis attended by the Four seasons, Tellus (Earth) and Oceanus (River). ca. 220-230 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Aphrodite of Cyrene
Roman, after Hellenistic original: Aphrodite of Cyrene, 1st Century. Marble, H. 67 1/2 in. (171.5 cm.). Purchased with funds from the State of North Carolina and from the North Carolina Art Society. The North Carolina Museum of Art at North Carolina State University.Herakles
Roman, after Hellenistic original: Herakles, 2nd Century Marble, H. 65 in. (165.1 cm.). The North Carolina Museum of Art at North Carolina State University.Funerary Monument
Roman: Funerary Monument for Sextus Maelius Stabilio, Vesinia Iucunda, and Sextus Maelius Faustus, 1st Century. Marble. The North Carolina Museum of Art at North Carolina State University.Roman Gods and Goddesses Info
Goddess information, M Goddesses, Meditrina, Mutt, MinervaPortrait of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius
Roman: Portrait of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, Late 2nd Century, Marble, H. 26 5/16 in. "Marcus Aurelius ruled the Roman Empire from 161-180, the last of the five "good emperors" of the second century after Christ. The North Carolina Museum of Art at North Carolina State University.Roman Aqueduct
Roman Aqueduct: 1st to 2nd century AD. Segovia, Spain. [Image from Yale University]Five Roman Orders
Five Roman Orders: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, Composite. [Image from Yale University]Ruins of Roman Forum
Roman Forum: Ruins of Roman Forum; 203-608 AD. Rome. [Image from Yale University]Baths of Caracalla: Air View
Baths of Caracalla: Air View. c215 AD. Rome. [Image from Yale University]Romulus and Remus suckling
Etruscan: She-Wolf of the Capitoline: (Romulus and Remus suckling, Renaissance additions). ca. 500 B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Temple of Portunus
Roman (Republic): Temple of Portunus: (formerly known as the temple of Fortuna Virilis), Rome: exterior view from NE, [in L. background, Temple of Vesta]. ca. late 2nd to mid-1st century B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Temple of Portunus: Detail
Roman (Republic): Temple of Portunus (formerly known as the temple of Fortuna Virilis), Rome: exterior view from NE, detail of entoblature with Ionic capitals. ca. late 2nd to mid-1st century B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Temple of Portunus: Detail 2
Roman (Republic): Temple of Portunus: (formerly known as the temple of Fortuna Virilis), Rome: exterior view from NE, detail of podium and entrance stairs. ca. late 2nd to mid-1st century B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Temple of Portunus: Detail 3
Roman (Republic): Temple of Portunus: (formerly known as the temple of Fortuna Virilis), Rome: exterior view from NE, detail of engaged columns on E. side. ca. late 2nd to mid-1st century B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ara Pacis Augustae
Roman: Ara Pacis Augustae: detail of long R. wall and rear angle. ca. 13 - 9 B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ara Pacis Augustae: Detail
Roman: Ara Pacis Augustae: detail, Italia ("Tellus") relief from top register of rear wall. ca. 13 - 9 B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ara Pacis Augustae: Detail 2
Roman: Ara Pacis Augustae: detail, sacrificial procession from long R. wall. ca. 13 - 9 B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ara Pacis Augustae: Detail 3
Roman: Ara Pacis Augustae: detail, sacrificial procession from long R. wall. ca. 13 - 9 B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Villa of Livia, Primaporte
Roman (Augustan): Villa of Livia, Primaporte: courtyard with environmental garden murals. ca. 30 - 20 B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Maison Carree, Nimes
Roman (Gaul): Maison Carree, Nimes: exterior, view from NE.. ca. 20 B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Maison Carree, Nimes: Detail
Roman (Gaul): Maison Carree, Nimes: exterior, detail of engaged columns on W. side. ca. 20 B.C. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Pont-du-Gard Aquaduct
Roman (Gaul): Pont-du-Gard aquaduct: ca. 19 - 14 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Pont-du-Gard Aquaduct: Detail
Roman (Gaul): Pont-du-Gard aquaduct: detail ca. 19 - 14 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Pont-du-Gard Aquaduct: Detail 2
Roman (Gaul): Pont-du-Gard aquaduct: detail of arcade unit. ca. 19 - 14 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Pont-du-Gard Aquaduct: Water Channel
Roman (Gaul): Pont-du-Gard aquaduct: detail of topmost course showing (originally) covered and lead-lined water channel. ca. 19 - 14 A.D. AICT: Art Images for College Teaching.Ancient and Modern Inscriptions on the Arch of Titus
First, the ancient inscription on the E face of the monument. For nearly 2000 years it has been the first sight to meet the eyes of any Roman descending the Sacred Way: The inscription on the E face "" or, to be technical, the holes left now that the bronze letters of the actual inscription have gone. It is, as one might expect of a major monument to a victorious emperor at the entrance to the Sacred Way, perfectly carved; except to modern eyes, for the minimal spacing between words: but notice that the interpuncts are there to mark word division...and much moreRoman Deities & Mythological Figures
A quick glossary - gods, goddesses, heros, and other figures with a 1-2 line description. [Mythology and Religion]Encyclopaedia Mythica
Great resouce for many various ancient mythologies. [Mythology and Religion]Christus Rex et Redemptor Mundi
Vast resource, scholarly, and devotional [Mythology and Religion ]Mythography
Greek, Roman, and Celtic mythology in art and literature. [Mythology and Religion]Mythology in Western Art
Dr. Sonia Klinger of the Department of Art History, University of Haifa. [Mythology and Religion]Gaius Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was born on 12 July 100 BC in Rome, son of Gaius Caesar and Aurelia. Governor of Gaul 58-49 BC. Appointed dictator for ten years in 47 B, for life on 14 February 44 BC. Married initially to Cornelia (one daughter, Julia), then to Pompeia, alas to Calpurnia. Assassinated on 15 March 44 BC. Deified in 42 BC. Caesar was tall, fair-haired, well built and of sound health. though he did suffer from the occasional epileptic fit. [People in History]Priscus at Attilla's Court
Roman historian Priscus' encounter with the Huns, and Attila with unique profiles. [People in History]Prosopographia Imperii Romani: Stichwortliste: Suchmaske
search for individual and prominant Romans by name! [German] [People in History]Timeline: Ancient Rome
chrononology with hyperlinks, quotes, and images. [People in History]Byzantium: Timeline
Early, Middle, and Late Byzantium [People in History]Cleopatra's Children
Check out this unique series brought to you by Bible History Online Includes Real Audio. Trace the interesting history of the children of the great Queen of Egypt [Ancient Egypt Rome] [People] [Cleopatra]Ancient Warfare
Greek and Roman warfare. Essays. Texts. Pictures [Weapons and Warfare]Armamentarium: The Book of Roman Arms and Armour
glossary, search engine, bibliography, and more. [Weapons and Warfare]Armamentarium: The Book of Roman Arms and Armour
glossary, search engine, bibliography, and more. [Weapons and Warfare]Britannia: A Roman Military Bibliography
glossary, search engine, geography,opponent, weapon, and more. [Weapons and Warfare]DBM Miniatures Wargame Page
useful bibliography and related links [Weapons and Warfare]Roman Warfare and Army: Bibliography
[Weapons and Warfare]The Battle of Trasimeno
Hannibal's battle in text, maps, and pictures. [Weapons and Warfare]Core Values Internet Resource Library
Links to ancient weapons. [Weapons and Warfare]Brittanica Ancient Web sites
Provides vast resources chosen and rated by the editors [Ancient History]Attila the Hun
A biography of Attila in the context of his people and his time. ATTILA THE HUN BIOGRAPHY 406-453 Attila the Hun was an infamous, vicious barbarian King who attacked the Roman Empire and was so fierce he was named "THE SCOURGE OF GOD"! Attila the Hun was the legendary king of the Huns - a Mongoloid people who began invading the Roman Empire in the 300's. Attila was so furious in his attacks, he was named "SCOURGE OF GOD"! The Huns were originally from a tribe of Mongolians from Central Asia, who settled in the area known later as Hungary. Attila was born in 406 and in 434, at the age of 28, Attila succeeded his uncle as leader of the Huns. Attila at first ruled with his brother, Bleda, but murdered Bleda in 445 to take complete control. By the 5th Century, the Roman Empire was almost totally disintegrated and the Huns ruled a large empire. From 435 to 439, Attila conquered, pillaged and attacked his way through eastern and central Europe. The Eastern Emperor of the Byzantine empire was paying Attila an amount to keep the Huns from attacking his empire. But the emperor could not keep up the payments and Attila invaded the Byzantine Empires in 2 attacks in 441 and in 447. In 447, he led his horsemen to take over the Balkan Land, attacking Greece and threatening Constantinople, which was the center of the Roman Empire in the East. [People in History]Pelopennesian War (431-404 B.C.)
Wars and Military Historyhttp://www.cfcsc.dnd.ca/links/milhist/punic.html
Wars and Military HistoryThe Punic Wars
During the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, three wars were fought between Rome and Carthage. The name Punic, which is used to describe them, is derived from the Latin and Greek words for Phoenician. The city of Carthage, located in what is now Tunisia in North Africa, had been founded in 814 BC by Phoenicians from Tyre in Lebanon. The first two wars were long, lasting for 23 years and 17 years, separated by an interval of 23 years. The third war lasted nearly three years. It started 52 years after the end of the second war. All three wars were won by Rome, which subsequently emerged as the greatest military power in the Mediterranean Sea. The enmity of Carthage impelled Rome to build up its large army and to create a strong navy. The great military leaders of the war for Carthage were Hamilcar Barca and his sons Hasdrubal and Hannibal. Rome's outstanding leaders were Scipio Africanus and his adopted grandson, Scipio Aemilianus. The first war saw Rome fighting to break Carthage's growing hold on the chain of islands that enable it to control the W Mediterranean. The second war directly pitted the ambitions of the two commercial powers; the initial area of conflict was Sicily. The last war was the final, desperate attempt of Carthage to preserve its freedom. Wars and Military HistoryMilitary affairs in late antiquity
(bibliography supplied by Hugh Elton (Trinity College).Military affairs in late antiquity
Warfare in the Ancient World (BIBLIOGRAPHIES) Greece and Rome.The Roman Roads of the Mediterranean Region
Discover the different facets of the Roman roads in the Mediterranean region --The history, the geography, the practical and tourist information necessary. Engineering, Trade, Via Domitia; Via Egnatia; Via Flamina; Via Augusta; Roman roads; road; Roman; geography; climate; Languedoc; Roussillon; Mediterranean Sea; plain of Massif Central; shoreline; coast; lagoons; heathland; schist; granite; limestone; PyreneesThe Surgery of Ancient Rome
A Display of Surgical Instruments from Antiquity. Univ. of VirginiaThe Roman History
A history of ancient Rome from its founding to collapse including its leaders, emperors, philosophies and contribution to civilizationThe Roman army
Nowhere does the Roman talent for organization show itself so clearly as in its army. The story of the Roman army is an extensive one, demonstrated in part by the scale of this chapter. The first part of this chapter considers the history of the Roman army (concentrating on the legions), trying to explain as much background as possible. The later part of the chapter seeks to explain specific points such as various different units, the workings of the army, etc.Gaius Julius Caesar Coins
Gaius Julius Caesar rose from relative obscurity to supreme power in the late Roman republic. A brilliant general and formidable politician, he defeated all rivals to become dictator of Rome. Caesar achieved distinction relatively late in life. His early career is noteworthy for opposition of the aristocratic Senatorial conservatives in favor of the more "common" man. For years a protégé of the powerful and immensely wealthy Crassus, Caesar was able to capitalize on the rivalry of Crassus with the equally powerful Pompey. In 60 BC, the three men formed the First Triumvirate, a pact which effectively divided rule among them.Gaius Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (100 - 44 BCE) is the most famous Roman general and statesman, conqueror of Gaul (58 - 50 BCE) who brought about the effective end of the Republic. After building up an army in Gaul, Caesar marched against the Senate in 49 BCE, and defeated his rival Gnaeus Pompeus Magnus at the battle of Pharsalus. As dictator of Rome, he launched a series of political and social reforms before he was assasinated by a group of nobles in the Senate House on the Ides of March.Julius Caesar : Youth (100 - 78 BCE) ... Julius Caesar : Politics (77 - 59 BCE) ... Julius Caesar : Gaul (58 - 50 BCE) ... Julius Caesar : Insurrection (49 - 48 BCE) ... Julius Caesar : Dictator (47 - 44 BCE) ... Julius Caesar : Reforms (47 - 44 BCE) ... Julius Caesar : Final Act (44 BCE) ... Julius Caesar : Epilogue (43 - 31 BCE) ... Julius Caesar : References ... Julius Caesar : Reading
Every day life in Rome
Ancient Rome "" What was Daily Life Like? A day in Ancient Rome began with breakfast, and depending on whether you are upper class (patrician) or lower class (plebian), breakfast was dependent on what was affordable. After breakfast, adults might venture down to the Forum to do their shopping and banking. The Forum was the main marketplace and business center, as well as a place for public speaking, as ancient Romans were considered great orators. It was also used for festivals and religious ceremonies.Daily Life in Rome - Holidays and special days
Ancient Roman Holidays & Festivals at The Detective & the Toga.Religion
The Romans had a religion that had lots of gods: they were polytheists. They built buildings called temples to worship the gods. In the temples they had sacrifices to worship the gods. They believed that to worship a god you had to do it in exactly the right way to be heard by the gods. They had many gods. They had household gods such as Lar which was god of the house, They had a god called Janus which was for the doorway. There was also Vesta the goddess of households. The god Neptune was firstly god of fresh water but he then became god of the sea. The goddess of fertility was called Cybele. She was the symbol of earth. They made sacrifices and offered during that time. They used a flute player to drown the other sounds that could be heard. Every home had a shrine or altar so that they could pray without going to the temples. [ The Goddess Diana ] [ Mithraism ] [ Prometheus, creator of man ] [ Greek Mythology ]Ancient Roman Transportation
The streets in Rome and other large were crowded and narrow. Freight was delivered by wagons at night, as wagons were banned from the city by day because of the congestion. Travel within the cities was often done on foot by rich and poor alike. The proper way for a wealthy woman of Senatorial rank to travel was by carpentum, a large four wheel covered coach. [Ancient Rome]The great builders
[Ancient Rome]Art architecture and sculpture
The Romans developed or improved their art by copying the art from the Greeks for the statues. Statues were made from clay or marble. Metal was sometimes added to the statues so that they had added strenght. Statues were well made, were nude and they were made of gods or important leaders which were recognised . The fact that the statues had important people meant that they had to be done as well as possible since it was honouring their gods. [Ancient Rome]The Roman Baths
The Official Roman Baths Museum Web Site in the City of Bath, Somerset, United Kingdom, includes detailed information on Roman Britain, the Thermal Springs and an online Virtual Tour. [Ancient Rome]The Roman cities
[Ancient Rome]Rome: The Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires
While Rome was engaged in internal politics and the conquest of Italy, the Macedonian Greeks first conquered the Greek mainland and peninsula, and then, literally, the whole of the world. By 324 BC, when Rome still didn't control much of Italy and the city was still struggling with friction between the patricians and the plebeians, the entire world east of Rome, everything, was under the control of a single man, Alexander the Great. While there were numerous Greek cities on the Italian peninsula and while Rome was heavily influenced by Greek culture and thought, the Romans didn't seem to pay this ground-shaking development with much concern. Although the Hellenistic world fractured in pieces, nonetheless the end of the fourth century saw three great empires controlling the world east of Rome. The Romans, however, didn't seem overly concerned, occupied with problems of their own; the Romans, you see, were not particularly interested in world domination, but rather on their own immediate security. And the Hellenistic empires were not viewed as a threat. [Ancient Rome]Entertainment
[Ancient Rome]Slavery
[Ancient Rome]The Ancient City of Rome
[Ancient Rome]Pompeii
[Ancient Rome]Jerash, Jordan
Photos of Jerash, Jordan taken by Galen R. FrysingerAncient City of Damascus
Founded in the 3rd millenium B.C. it is one of the oldest cities in the Middle East. In the Middle Ages Damascus was the centre of a flourishing artisan industry (swords and laces). Amongst the 125 monuments from the different periods of its history, the 8th-century Great Mosque of the Umajjades is one of the most spectacular, built on the site of an Assyrian sanctuary. [Ancient Rome]Nyon, a Roman city in Switzerland
[Ancient Rome]Latin phrases and their meaning
A collection of usual phrases in Latin, with their approximate meaning. Latin Mottos, Latin Phrases, Latin Quotes and Latin Sayings. [Ancient Rome]Latin Mottos, Latin Phrases, Latin Quotes and Latin Sayings
A collection of usual phrases in Latin, with their approximate meaning. [Ancient Rome]Geography of the Roman empire
[Ancient Rome]ANCIENT ROMAN EDUCATION
The children studied reading, writing, and counting. They read scrolls and books. They wrote on boards covered with wax, and used pebbles to do math problems. They were taught Roman numerals, and recited lessons they had memorized. [Ancient Rome]Characters of Greek Mythology
This site provides a description of the gods, goddesses, nymphs, creatures, etc. of Greek Mythology, as well as fun stuff like planets, constellations, word origins, mythical clipart, and beautiful artwork to aid the imagination! [People in History]The Punic Wars
Nicely done.Hannibal Crosses the Alps
Punic Wars. The crossing of the Alps was a heroic effort. Many classical authors told the story; the account by Livy is as good as any. The mountains themselves were dangerous, of course, but they were made even more dangerous by the fact that local tribes cheerfully fought anyone who entered their mountains, so Hannibal had to fight his way over the mountains. He arrived in Italy with only 26,000 men and about two dozen elephants. So, while it is true that Hannibal brought his elephants across the Alps, he did so only at great loss. Most died either at the Rhone or in the Alps.First Punic War (Chronology of Events)
First Punic War (264-241 B.C.) Barbara Saylor RodgersOrigins of the Second Punic War
Punic WarsFirst Punic War (Chronology of Events)
First Punic War (264-241 B.C.) Barbara Saylor RodgersBattles of the ancient world: the Second Punic War
Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.)The Second Punic War
(218-202 BC). The Second Punic War, fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic from 218-202 BC, marked the end of major Carthaginian military opposition to Rome. The term "punic" comes from the Latin "poeni," which means "Phoenician" and refers to the Carthaginians. [North Park University]Silver Decadrachm (Chariot)
ca. 400&endash;375 BC Syracuse 29-126-41 "Racing four-horse chariot with a flying Nike personifying Victory crowning the driver. The space below is filled with captured Punic arms. This spectacular coin may commemorate the victory of Dionysius I over the Carthaginian general Himilcon and the deliverance of Syracuse from its Punic siege in 396 BC The reverse of the coin is signed by Euaenetus, one of the most renowned coin designers of antiquity. Commemorative types became especially popular in the Hellenistic period after Alexander´s death in 323 BC" Dia. 34.0 mm. Photo courtesy Public Information Office, Univ. of Pennsylvania MuseumThree Roman Slave Rebellion
The First Servile War of 135""132 BC was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily.SPARTACUS AND A DECLINE IN SLAVERY
A Roman soldier named Spartacus became an outlaw, perhaps after having deserted. For survival he joined drifters in bandit raids, and he was caught. For punishment, Roman authorities sold him as a slave. He became a prisoner at a training school for gladiator contests in the city of Capua. And there, in 73 BCE, he and seventy-seven other prisoners and slaves escaped and seized control of nearby Mount Vesuvius. As before, news of the revolt encouraged other slaves to revolt, and they joined Spartacus on Mount Vesuvius - an army of from fifty to a hundred thousand. Thus began what historians called the Third Servile War.Roman Pregnancy and Childbirth
Fertility,Pregnancy and Childbirth on the Coinage of Ancient RomeWomen in Ancient Rome
The Augustan Reformation , Intrigue and the Emperor's Women , Julia, Daughter of Augustus , Justinian's Law as it Applied to Women and Families , Legal Status of Women in Ancient Rome , Vestal Virgins , Women and Marriage in Ancient Rome , Women and Slavery in Ancient RomeTiberius Roman Emperor
The reign of Tiberius was damaged by treason trials, scandal, absence, indulgence, and his own personal orgies. The ancient writer Suetonius wrote many scandalous stories regarding Tiberius and his orgies, indulgences, and sadistic displays. Tiberius learned of the treachery of Sejanus in 31 A.D. and had him executed. Sometime around 30 A.D. Jesus of Nazareth was crucified under the rule of Sejanus' prefect, Pontius Pilate, a fact which was known by the Roman historian, Tacitus. © RomanEmperors.comWomen of Ancient Rome: Biographies
Women of the Roman Empire 31 BCE to 395 CE. Information on their lives, plus biographies of some of the key women who wielded power during the Empire.Romans - Families and Children
KS2 history - Information on family, home and school life for the Romans, together with activities and a quiz.Roman Family Law and Traditions
Roman Law One of the greatest legacies of Rome is their legal system. The development of Roman law began with the Twelve Tables in the mid-fifth century B.C. During a period of over 1000 years, the Roman jurists created a rich literature about all aspects of law: property, marriage, guardianship and family, contracts, theft, and inheritance. Roman law laid the foundations for much of Western civil and criminal law. The Roman Family The family came first for the Romans, before all other obligations; such as, civil, politic, and military obligations. The family was the vehicle for transmission of moral character. The institution of the Roman family was strengthened by a healthiness, a solidarity, and a spirit of uprightness and self-restraint superior to that of perhaps all other ancient peoples. Roman families were very diverse. The Basis of Roman civil law was the familia, a group consisting of a head, the paterfamilias, and his descendants in the male line. Free members and slaves, all under the guardianship and control of the paterfamilias, were also part of the familia. Free members were the wives, unmarried children (biological and adopted) and other dependents. The members of the familia had no voice in the Curiae, yet they were subject to its decisions and laws, as well as to the decisions made on the family level by the patriarch.Women on Roman Coins
Part 1: Octavia to Crispina Part 2: Manlia Scantilla to Galeria Valeria Part 3: Helena to Aelia VerinaWomen In Medicine
The shift from female control to male involvement came about largely because men were suspicious of women's reproductive autonomy. Female patients described in the Hippocratic treatises, and for that matter, in Greek literature in general, were often suspect by men. A wife's potential to sabotage her husband's lineage was a great source of anxiety for men. Thus, women's struggle to control their own bodies was a volatile issue in antiquity, even as it is today.Roman Religion
Roman Religion, including Early Religion, Coming of the Foreign Gods, Religion of Numa, Priestly Colleges, the College of Vesta, Religion of the Family, Devotion, State Religion, Revival, and the Imperial Age.What the Roman Lady Wears
Roman Clothing. The women of the Roman Empire were not considered important like the men were. This social distinction left an impact on the female clothing.Myths & Legends
Quite exhaustive Myths and MythologyOrigins of the Days of the Week
DAY of the Week Name Origin (Roman/Greek) Attribute Name Origin (Norse) AttributeSunday Sun's-day Helios: god of the sun prior to replacement by Apollo in late Greek and Roman mythology; Apollo: twin of Artemis; god of music, prophesy, poetry, healing, archery Sun's-day no known equivalent
Monday Moon's-day Selene: goddess of the moon prior to replacement by Artemis in late Greek and Roman mythology; Diana (Artemis):7: twin of Apollo; goddess of the hunt and the moon. Moon's-day no known equivalent
Tuesday Mars'-day Mars (Ares): god of war, battle rage and initiation; son of Zeus/Hera Tiw's-day Tiw (Tyr): god of battle and victory
Wednesday Mercury's-day Mercury (Hermes): god of commerce; Messenger of the gods; Trickster god; son of Zeus/Maia Woden's-day Woden/Wotan (Odin): Father and ruler of the gods and mortals; god of war, learning, poetry and the dead
Thursday Jupiter's (Jove's)-day Jupiter/Jove (Zeus): son of Kronos/Rhea; Supreme god, Lord of Heaven (Olympus) and mortals Thor's-day Thor: god of thunder and sky, and good crops; son of Odin and Frigg
Friday Venus's-day Venus (Aphrodite): goddess of sexual desire, love, beauty and procreation Frigg's (Friia's)-day Frigg (Friia): wife of Odin; great mother of the gods; goddess of married love
Saturday Saturn's-day Saturn (Kronos): god of fertility, agriculture, time; ruler of the Titans; father of first generation of Greek gods Saturn's-day no known equivalent
Cleopatra of Egypt
Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth, at The Field Museum. [People in History] [Tools and Searches]Warfare in Ancient Rome
[General Ancient War Links]The Seven Hills of Rome
Of Early Rome: Cermalus Cispius Fagutal Oppius Palatium Sucusa Velia Of Later Rome: Aventinus (Aventine) Caelius (Caelian) Capitolium (Capitoline) Esquiliae (Esquiline) Palatium (Palatine) Quirinalis (Quirinal) Viminalis (Viminal)Rome: Historical Background
The glorious Roman civilization had its origins in small groups of farmers and shepherds who settled along the banks of the Tiber, on the Palatine hills and the surrounding areas.The Roman Republic
from The Revolt against King Tarquin to Octavian the sole ruler of Rome. The Latin words res publica which are perhaps best translated as 'public affairs' are the source of today's term 'republic'. Before setting out on reading about the history of the Roman republic, please find here the various offices and assemblies which were created in order to rule of the Roman state.The Organization of the Roman Republic
The Romans never had a written constitution, but their form of their government, especially from the time of the passage of the lex Hortensia (287 B.C.), roughly parallels the modern American division of executive, legislative, and judical branches, although the senate doesn't neatly fit any of these categories. What follows is a fairly traditional, Mommsenian reconstruction, though at this level of detail most of the facts (if not the significance of, e.g., the patrician/plebian distinction) are not too controversial. One should be aware, however, of the difficulties surrounding the understanding of forms of government (as well as most other issues) during the first two centuries of the Republic.The First Triumvirate - Pompey, Crassus, Caesar
Although Sulla gets credit from moderns for resigning his dictatorship, the measures he undertook to ensure that the Republican system would continue to work were not adequate. Things had gone too far; all of the ominous trends which we have noticed in the previous two lectures, i.e political violence in the city, armies whose loyalty belonged in the first instance to individual commanders and only secondarily to the state itself, agitation for land distributions, and threats to the traditional prerogatives of the Senate, all these intensify in this period. [David L. Silverman] Classics 373The Jewish Diaspora: Rome
The Jewish community in the Roman Diaspora dates back to the second century BCE and was comparatively large. Several synagogues and catacombs are known. After the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the community remained at some distance from the new, rabbinical Judaism of Judaeae, maintaining several archaic traits. The history of the Jewish community of ancient Rome is known from several classical, Latin and Greek sources. Some additional information on cult practices can be found in the Talmud. The inscriptions found in the catacombs are valuable sources of information on the synagogues.The triumvirate
Britannica online encyclopedia article on triumvirate:in ancient Rome, a board of three officials. There were several types: Tresviri capitales, or tresviri nocturni, first instituted about 289 bc, assisted higher magistrates in their judicial functions, especially those relating to crime and the civil status of citizens.The History of Rome - Part One 743 - 136 B.C.
From the Dawn of Rome to the Third Punic War.The Mistresses and Prostitutes in Ancient Rome
Ancient Roman Prostitutes, harlots, and brothels - Notes on Roman Prostitutes from the Satyricon."Ancient Rome Daily Life
Ancient Rome for KidsCOOKING FOR THE GODS
The research coordinator and research associate at The University of Pennsylvania for this project have been Michael W. Meister and Pika Ghosh; the curator at the Newark Museum is Valrae Renolds; the exhibition draws on the Nalin collection in the Newark Museum and on the generous gifts of Dr. David Nalin to the University of Pennsylvania for preparation of the exhibition. Photographs are courtesy of Dr. Nalin.MEALTIME IN THE ROMAN HOUSE
AGE, GENDER, AND STATUS DIVISIONS AT MEALTIME IN THE ROMAN HOUSE: a synopsis of the literary evidence. From: Pedar W. Foss, "Kitchens and Dining Rooms at Pompeii: the spatial and social relationship of cooking to eating in the Roman household.Sample Plan of a Roman House
This reconstructed model of the House of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii shows the exterior of the house from the front, the back and one side. Click here for a cut-away drawing of a domus.Every day life in Rome
The Baths Entertainment Breakfast Siesta/Lunch Roman Families Clothing/Hair Styles Roman Houses Weddings The Forum Toys & Games Life in the Country School! Dinner Time Great BuildersBath's Sacred Spring (Ancient Roman Baths in Britain)
Bath's Sacred Spring by Bruce HeydtThe Roman amphitheatre
The Roman amphitheatre was the centre of entertainment in Rome, and all over the Roman Empire. Ruins of amphitheaters can be found all over the empire . The largest amphitheatre in the empire was the Colosseum. It could seat up to 50,000 people at once. The amphitheatre was the place where people went to see fights. These fights were between slaves, prisoners of war or criminals, and sometimes wild animals.These fights were so popular that schools were set up to train ordinary men as special fighters known as Gladiators This idea once started out as entertainment at funerals.Two fighters would begin and the crowd would watch. Eventually the crowds got so big, they had to build a place to hold them. This was not only the reason for building the amphitheatre. When the democratic system was changed to an imperial one, the emperors needed a way to keep the people happy, although they had lost the right to vote. The fights fulfilled this role. From the ruins of the Colosseum, archaeologists have put together an idea of what happend at these fights.The Johns (toilets) of Rome
This picture shows part of bank of toilet seats in public bathroom serving both the Roman Arena and the Roman theatre in Merida (Augustus Emeritus), Spain. This city was known as a retirement community for Roman military in Spain (it was the city from which Gladiator's Maximus supposedly hailed). Toilets were against wall, base of which is visible. This area of ruins was full of water channels for fresh and sewer water. ~Dan ReynoldsGreek and Roman Sculpture in Rome
Images. Not many words needed, the beauty speaks for itself. Examples of Greek and Roman sculptures, All in Roman MuseumsMr. Donn Ancient Rome Daily Life
Introduction The Baths Entertainment Breakfast Siesta/Lunch Roman Families Clothing/Hair Styles Roman Houses Weddings The Forum Toys & Games Life in the Country School! Dinner Time Great Builders [for kids] Lin and Don DonnRomanSites Home Page
Architecture Aqueducts Baths Buildings & Homes Calendar Clocks Clothing - Hair Styles Coins - Numismatics Culture Education Family - Marriage Food Language - Alphabet - Writing Medicine - Surgery Recreation - Sports & Games - Gladiators Roads Transportation Science - Technology Slavery Tattoo Volcanoes Mythology Gods And Goddesses Art & Artists - Glass Theaters Libraries Literature - Dramas - Epics - Mime - Livy - Naevius - More Rise And Fall Of The Roman Empire Roman Kings Law & Government Politics Julius Caesar Emporers Empresses - Women Military Navy Punic Wars Antioch Byzantine Empire Carthage Etruscans Religion Popes Christianity Mithraism Philosophy Current Archaeological DiscoveriesBaylor University : Classics Department
Baylor University, Waco, TexasROMARCH: Roman art and archaeology
The ROMARCH pages are the original crossroads for Web resources on the art and archaeology of Italy and the Roman provinces, ca. 1000 BC - AD 700. ROMARCH is sponsored by the Department of Classics and the Interdepartmental Program in Classical Art and Archaeology (IPCAA) at the University of Michigan.Roman Emperors
Images, photos, busts, statues, coins, information and more about the Roman Emperors.Forum Romanum
Forum Romanum is a collaborative project among scholars, teachers, and students with the broad purpose of bringing classical literature out of college libraries and into a more accessible, online medium. Toward this end, we host a number of materials for students of the classical world, including texts, translations, and other pedagogical resources.The Roman Empire at its Greatest Extent
This map of the Roman Empire was scanned from pages 16 & 17 of a 1925 reprint of the 1907 Atlas of Ancient and Classical Geography in the Everyman Library, published by J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd. and is, by Canadian copyright law, in the public domain, to the best of my knowledge.Heart of Wisdom Rome Links
WWW-VL HISTORY: ANCIENT ROME GENERAL SITESRomanSites - History
Greek and Roman History Links, Documents, NotesElectronic Resources in Classical Studies
Internet Resources by Subject. Art and Archaeology: Epigraphy: Geography: Greek and Latin Authors History Language Mythology and Religion Numismatics Paleography Papyrology Philosophy Science and Medicine Theatre and Drama Women Full-Text Databases Electronic Journal Web Sites Images and Exhibits Discussion Groups Organizations and Individuals Academic Programs in Classics Software in Classics, For Fun. The University Library, University of California, DavisGraffiti From the Walls of Pompeii
Each inscription begins with a reference to where it was found (region.insula.door number). The second number is the reference to the publication of the inscription in the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, Volume 4.Roman Slavery
Other slaves were forced to work deep underground in the mines, getting gold or silver or copper or iron or tin for the Roman government. They also suffered and died after just a few years. The Roman government, and private traders, owned many men who rowed ships as slaves, often chained to their oars. Many of these men were sentenced to the mines or to the ships because they were criminals. We don't use men to power ships anymore, and we don't send criminals to the mines, but miners still have difficult and very dangerous work.About The Everyday Lives Of Roman Slaves
Although some information survives to us about Roman slavery, and due to archeological conquests, a great deal of knowledge can be gathered about the general slave system, little is known about the everyday lives of slaves. However, enough is known to give general overview of slave`s lives. It is understood that slaves performed a wide variety of different jobs, ranging from economic to field labor roles, to being forced into gladiatorial combat like Spartacus. [Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N.Y]SLAVE-MISTRESS RELATIONSHIPS
"Marriage more shameful than adultery": slave-mistress relationships, "mixed marriages," and late roman law. JUDITH EVANS-GRUBBSBiography of Hannibal of Carthage
In 218 B.C., Hannibal of Carthage, 28, set off from Spain with 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry (estimates run as high as 40,000) and "a number of elephants"--the usual guess is 40. His goal was to besiege Rome by crossing the French Alps and entering Italy from the north through the Po River Valley.Rome: The Punic Wars
The seventh chapter of the learning module, Rome; this chapter narrates the history of the three conflicts between Rome and Carthage which left Rome in control of the Carthaginian Empire. [Richard Hooker]The Punic Wars
A Retelling of the Struggle between Rome and CarthageThe Aeneid of Virgil
The Aeneid By Virgil Written 19 B.C.E Translated by John DrydenGerman Tribes Invaded the Roman Empire
German Tribes invaded the Roman Empire and the Slavs occupied the Illyrian Provinces.Changing Concept of Roman Weapons and Tactics
Development of the Roman Legion from the late Republic to the height of the Empire. Campaigns and battles. Tactics and weapons of the Roman armies. Siege warfare / fortification. Profiles of the greatest military commanders. [Warfare] [Rome]Roman Military Sites in Britain
Legionary Forts Vexillation Forts Auxiliary Forts Marching Camps Fortlets Stations/Towers Practice WorksRoman Military Glossary
actuarius, ala(e), ala quingenaria, ala milliaria, armamentarium, Armilustrium, ascensi, auguratorium, Campestres, campus, cardo decumanus, cardo maximus, carnarium, cella, centuria , centurio, cippi, clavicula, contubernium, cornicularius, custos armorum, fabrica, Feriale Duranum, fossae, fossa fastigata, fossa punica, groma, gyrus, horrea, immunes, intervallum, latera praetorii, legatus, liberarii, lilia, papilio(nes), portae, porta decumana, porta praetoria, portae principales, portae quintanae, praefectus alae, praefectus annonae, praefectus castrorum, praefectus cohortis, praefectus praetorio, praefectus urbi, praefectus vigilum, praetentura, praetorium, principia, quaestorium, retentura, sacellum, scholae, signa, signifer(i), stabulum, tabularium, tertiata, thermae, titulum, tolleno, tribunal, turma(e), valetudinarium, vallum, veterinarium, viae, via decumana, via praetoria, via principalis, via quintana, via sagularis, viae vicinariae, vivariumThe Roman Army
Nowhere does the Roman talent for organization show itself so clearly as in its army. The story of the Roman army is an extensive one, demonstrated in part by the scale of this chapter. The first part of this chapter considers the history of the Roman army (concentrating on the legions), trying to explain as much background as possible. The later part of the chapter seeks to explain specific points such as various different units, the workings of the army, etc.Warfare in Roman Europe
Book. Despite the importance of warfare in the collapse of the Roman Empire, there is no modern, comprehensive study available. This book discusses the practice of warfare in Europe, from both Roman and barbarian perspectives, in the late fourth and early fifth centuries. It analyses the military practices and capabilities of the Romans and their northern enemies at policy, strategic, operational, and tactical levels, and covers civil wars, sieges, and naval warfare. Dr Elton analyses in depth the issue of barbarization, and shows that it did not affect the efficiency of the Roman army. Other sections of the book discuss organization, fortifications, and equipment.Collapse of the Roman Empire - Military Aspects
Modern historians explain the collapse of the western Roman empire in the fourth and fifth centuries in one of two ways. One group follows an institutional approach, which finds the reasons in the long-term and looks closely at internal structures. A second group has adopted a political approach and looks at short term causes of collapse. Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean. Hugh EltonManagement Plan for the Hadrian's Wall World Heritage Site
Hadrian's Wall and its associated features are the most complex and best preserved of all the frontier works of the Roman Empire comprising the Wall itself, the Vallum, which probably marked the rear edge of the Wall zone, 16 forts (surrounded by civilian settlements) along or near the Wall, the Roman towns of Carlisle and Corbridge lying behind the Wall, and outpost forts protecting the approaches from the north. There are also many earlier Roman military works such as marching camps and permanent bases along the east-west Stanegate road which may itself have begun as a control line before the decision was taken to build the Wall. The landscape of the Tyne-Solway isthmus is very varied. In the east, on Tyneside, the setting of the Wall is predominantly urban. In east Northumberland, the country is mainly arable and open while in the central sector the ground rises to over 300 metres above sea level and the land-use is pastoral. East Cumbria too is pastoral, except for the built-up areas of the City of Carlisle. West of Carlisle, the landscape changes again as the defences run along the edge of the Solway tidal marshes, and there are further differences along the west Cumbrian coast, part open, part industrial and urban.Roman Military Forts and Camps
The Roman Military in Britain. The Roman fortification, whether it was a temporary overnight camp in enemy territory, an auxilliary outpost fort set to guard a strategic location, or a large fortress to garrison the might of the Roman legions, all were posessed of an internal layout which almost invariably followed the same basic pattern. A Roman camp was always enclosed by a defensive system comprising at least three components; 1. At least one ditch or fosse. 2. An inner rampart or agger containing the ditch outcast. 3. A palisade or vallum surmounting the rampart.ARMAMENTARIVM: the Book of Roman Arms and Armour
A dynamic illustrated source book about Roman military equipment.Reenactment Roman army
Online community of students and enthusiasts of the ancient Roman Army. We aim to provide an encyclopedia about the Roman military, a translation of Ritterling's classic article 'Legio', a travelogue section and a database of images of Roman military tombstones with the picture of the soldier on it.Warfare in the Roman World
Topics covered on this site: Ancient Rome Medieval England Tudor England Stuart England Britain 1700 to 1900 World War One World War Two The role of British women in the Twentieth Century Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany Inventions and Discoveries of the Twentieth CenturyThe Development of the Roman Empire
The most marvelous witnesses to the character of Roman civilization are the Roman ruins east of the Jordan in Syria.The Siege of Masada
Flavius Josephus - AD 72 [text]The Hunterian Museum: Romans in Scotland
This exhibition tells the story of the Roman presence in Scotland in the first and second centuries AD, with emphasis on the Antonine Wall frontier and the life lived by the soldiers based in forts along its line.Barbarization in the Late Roman Army
Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean. The term `barbarization` is used to describe the use of soldiers whose origins were outside the Roman Empire in the late Roman army.Gaul -- Encarta® Concise Encyclopedia Article
Gaul (Latin Gallia), ancient Roman designation of that portion of western Europe which is substantially identical with France, although extending beyond the boundaries of the modern country. It was bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Pyrenees Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea, on the north by the English Channel, and on the east by the Alps and the Rhine River. The inhabitants, called the Gauls (Latin Galli), were among the most prominent of Celtic peoples and played an important role in the ethnic distribution of the early peoples of Europe. The first historic mention of Gaul occurs about 600 BC, when Phocaean Greeks founded the colony of Massalia (Marseille) on the southern coast. Greeks of a later period called the country Galatia, which in Roman times became Gallia.The Gracchi
Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus. The importance of the two Gracchan episodes can not be underestimated.Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix
(b. 138 BC - d. 78 BC, Puteoli), was the great Roman general who as dictator carried out remarkable constitutional reforms in an attempt to preserve the Republic, and reinforce the traditional power of the Senate. Yet in spite of these reforms, his most lasting impact was not the preservation of the Republic, but its destruction. For in the precedent of his dictatorship and his march on Rome, he paved the way for Julius Caesar and the rise of the Imperial Monarchy.Marius and Sulla
The domestic political scene during the period in between the death of Gaius Gracchus and the dictatorship of L. Cornelius Sulla, 120-81 BC. The ancient sources see the political situation in this period as ever more factionalized, with politicians belonging to one of two parties, optimates or populares.HWC, The Fall of the Republic
In this chapter, the lives and impact of Caesar, Octavian, Antonius (Antony) and even Cleopatra, along with the continuing stories of men like Pompey, Crassus and Cicero will be examined. The Fall of the Republic was more than a single man or event. It was a culmination of several individual actions or achievements, coupled with social conditions that weighed heavily on Roman society. Additionally, massive and rapid expansion from Rome's foundation as a fledgling city 700 years earlier until the mid 1st century BC, created monumental holes in the political and governing ability of the Senate. Periods of stability were mixed in with those of near collapse while powerful generals or inciters of the Roman mob jockeyed for position.Gaius Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (100 - 44 BCE) is the most famous Roman general and statesman, conqueror of Gaul (58 - 50 BCE) who brought about the effective end of the Republic. After building up an army in Gaul, Caesar marched against the Senate in 49 BCE, and defeated his rival Gnaeus Pompeus Magnus at the battle of Pharsalus. As dictator of Rome, he launched a series of political and social reforms before he was assasinated by a group of nobles in the Senate House on the Ides of March.The reign of Tiberius
TIBERIUS, AN UNPOPULAR BUT ABLE RULER. The reign of Tiberius (b. 42 B.C., d. A.D. 37, emperor A.D. 14-37) is a particularly important one for the Principate, since it was the first occasion when the powers designed for Augustus alone were exercised by somebody else. [[1]] In contrast to the approachable and tactful Augustus, Tiberius emerges from the sources as an enigmatic and darkly complex figure, intelligent and cunning, but given to bouts of severe depression and dark moods that had a great impact on his political career as well as his personal relationships. His reign abounds in contradictions. Despite his keen intelligence, he allowed himself to come under the influence of unscrupulous men who, as much as any actions of his own, ensured that Tiberius's posthumous reputation would be unfavorable; despite his vast military experience, he oversaw the conquest of no new region for the empire; and despite his administrative abilities he showed such reluctance in running the state as to retire entirely from Rome and live out his last years in isolation on the island of Capri. His reign represents, as it were, the adolescence of the Principate as an institution. Like any adolescence, it proved a difficult time.The Roman Empire
The Roman Army Roman Emperors Roman Clothing Roman Roads Roman Houses Women Gladiators Theatre Amphitheatre Map of Empire Trade The Collaseum Education Public Baths Chariot Racing Numerals Calendar Signs of Zodiac Cooking AquaductsTimeline of the Roman Empire
THE CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF THE ROMAN EMPIREROMAN EMPIRE AND DICTATORSHIP
ROME INTERVENES ABROAD. Frank E. Smitha [Roman Empire, Republic and Politics by Violence]JUDAEA AND CIVIL WAR
REVOLT, INDEPENDENCE, AND RELIGIOUS DIVISIONS. Frank E. SmithaCaesar Augustus
Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Born: 23-Sep-63 BC Birthplace: Rome, Italy Died: 19-Aug-14 AD Location of death: Nola, Italy Cause of death: unspecified Gender: Male Race or Ethnicity: White Sexual orientation: Straight Occupation: Royalty Nationality: Ancient Rome Executive summary: Roman Emperor, 23 BC to 14 AD Augustus (from augeo, increase, venerable, majestic), the title given by the Roman senate, on the 17th of January 27 BC, to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, or as he was originally designated, Gaius Octavius, in recognition of his eminent services to the state, and borne by him as the first of the Roman emperors. The title was adopted by all the succeeding Caesars or emperors of Rome long after they had ceased to be connected by blood with the first Augustus.The reign of Augustus as Emperor
Augustus had won the war, but the question (a question I think Vergil had) was whether he could win the peace.Augustus Caesar on Roman Emperors
27 years before Jesus Christ was born, the Senate of Rome bestowed upon Octavian the title Augustus. Augustus became the first "Emperor", which comes from the military title imperator. In actuality he became no more than first senator, but he skillfully combined within himself all the powers of consul, tribune, and other offices, and he really had no rival.Collapse of the Roman Empire - Military Aspects
Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean. Modern historians explain the collapse of the western Roman empire in the fourth and fifth centuries in one of two ways. One group follows an institutional approach, which finds the reasons in the long-term and looks closely at internal structures. A second group has adopted a political approach and looks at short term causes of collapse. Hugh Elton.Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
Detailed Table of Contents (with links to quotations). The "Best of" Edward Gibbon`sBibliomania: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
Full text of History of The Decline And Fall of The Roman Empire by GibbonWhy Rome Fell
Western New England College.Caen - Scale Model of Rome
Plan de RomeRomans
Important People / Main Events / Town Tour / Web Links A Child's Life / Military / Art & Craft / Fun & GamesThe Roman Empire
Aenas Ascanius Aggripina Augustus Bathhouses Caesar, Julius Caligula Claudius Clientes Colosseum Domus Food and games Forum Romanum Gladiators Houses Ilium Imperator Insulae Iulian - Claudian House Jesus of Nazareth Julius Caesar Nero Octavianus Paedagogus Patriciër Patronus Pax Romana Roads Salutatio Seianus Senate Senators Sportula Storage accommodations of the villa-complex Tiberius Toga candida Toga picta Toga praetexta Toga virilis Troy Veni, vidi, vici Villa-complex Villa rustica Villa urbana VitruviusTimeline of the Roman Empire
A comprehensive timeline of the Roman Empire.Link to Ancient Rome
History Link 101's Ancient Rome page connects you to the best of Art, Biographies, Daily Life, Maps, Pictures, and Research on Rome.Romans
KS2 history - Information and activities on the Romans and the Roman EmpireThe Roman History
Roman History The Land and People The Etruscans The Roman Kingdom The Roman Republic The Conquest of Italy The Punic Wars The Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires The Republican Crisis Julius Caesar Augustus Imperial Rome, 14-180 AD The Calamitious Century. 180-284 AD The Late EmpirePax Romana Home Page
Starting with the reign of Augustus and ending with that of Marcus Aurelius was a period of Roman peace that is known as the Pax Romana (literally "The Roman Peace"). Its stand-out characteristic is the polyglot origins of its emperors (known as the "five good emperors" who ruled between 96 and 18 A.C.E. and then the Severan dynasty until 235 A.C.E.). The tranquility spread throughout the Mediterranean world (as far as North Africa and Persia). Every province was protected and governed (with their own laws as long as they accepted Roman taxation and military control). This period of change spanned over 200 years; throughout the large empire there was unity, peace and national stability for all of the Romans.Ancient Roman Civilization Links
Roman Archaeology - Roman Pottery - Roman Medicine - Roman HousesRoman and Latin
Latin was brought to Italy about 1000 BC by Indo-European immigrants from Northern Europe. It began, as all languages do, as an isolated local tongue of a small territory on the Tiber River called Latium. As the people in Latium developed into an organized community, the city of Rome was eventually founded in, according to legend, 753 BC.Latin Quotes and Phrases
Over 1,900 Latin Mottos, Latin Phrases, Latin Quotes and Latin Sayings with English Translations. Bis vivit qui bene vivit He lives twice who lives well.Steel in Ancient Greece and Rome
The melting point of pure iron is 1540°C. Landels points that even by Roman times European furnaces were not producing heat much over 1100°C[9]. Smelting of iron, unlike the smelting of the lower melting point metals, copper, zinc and tin, did not involve the iron turning to the liquid state. Instead, it was a solid state conversion requiring chemical reduction of the ore. Ore was placed in a pit and mixed in a hot charcoal fire. Air was forced into the dome covered structure via bellows through a fireproof clay nozzle called a tuyere. After a sustained temperature of 1100°-1200°C, slag (oxidised non-metallics) fell to the bottom leaving the spongy mass containing the iron. Holes forming the sponge texture were a result of the removal of the non-metallics when the slag melted out. The spongy mass is called a bloom by some[10, 11]. This spongy mass was then pounded, usually while still hot, and more slag dropped out as the metal was concentrated into a denser mass. The pounded metal was called wrought iron.Roman Health and Medicine
Ancient Roman medicine was a combination of some limited scientific knowledge, and a deeply rooted religious and mythological system.Antiqua medicina: Etruscan and Roman Medicine
Pliny, in his Natural History, says that the first doctor (medicus) to come to Rome was Arcagathus. He arrived from the Greek Peloponnese in 219 BCE and was well received. Arcagathus was accorded the rights of citizenship and a medical shop was set up at state expense for his use. Prior to this time, Rome had no physicians and only home remedies were used. Because Arcagathus was an expert wound surgeon (uulnerarius), he immediately became popular; however, his popularity did not last. His vigorous use of the knife and cautery soon earned him the title "Executioner"(Carnifex). Over 100 years lapsed before we hear that another Greek physician (Asclepiades of Bithynia, ca. 100 BCE) had taken up residence in Rome.Antiqua Medicina: Surgery
Surgery and Surgical Instruments. Recovered surgical instruments used during the Roman Empire indicate that the art of surgery progressed and proliferated greatly during this time. Both Galen and Celsus emphasized the importance of surgery in the training of the conscientious physician, although they came from divergent medical traditions (Celsus, prooemium VII; Galen, II, 272). Technical competence in surgery became better as new medical tools were devised. New metals and alloys were found to provide sharper edges and cheaper equipment. Most instruments were made of bronze, or occasionally of silver. Iron was rarely used because, as in most ancient cultures, it was considered a religious taboo by both the Greeks and Romans. The full repertoire of Roman surgical equipment is still far from completely known.Antiqua Medicina: The Doctor in Roman Society
As a profession, medicine was more highly regarded in Greece than in Rome. Physicians were basically craftsmen, probably enjoying some esteem among their customers, but not being part of the socio-political elite. Roman doctors did not fare so well. Many doctors were freed Greek slaves, hence the social standing of doctors was quite low. Because recovery rates were so low, many people were skeptical or even scornful of doctors. Their skepticism is easily understood. Roman literature tells us much about the reactions of individuals to medicine and doctors. Listening to the Roman authors, we hear tales of quackery and chicanery at all levels of society. There were no licensing boards and no formal requirements for entrance to the profession. Anyone could call himself a doctor. If his methods were successful, he attracted more patients; if not, he found himself another profession. Medical training consisted mostly of apprentice work. Men trained as doctors by following around another doctor. Plutarch grumbles that practitioners used all sorts of questionable methods to gain patients, ranging from escorting the prospective patient home from bars to sharing dirty jokes with him.SLAVE-MISTRESS RELATIONSHIPS
"Marriage more shameful than adultery": slave-mistress relationships, "mixed marriages," and late roman law. JUDITH EVANS-GRUBBSThe Deification of Roman Women
The Deification of Roman Women Marleen B. Flory (Gustavus Adolphus College) The Ancient History Bulletin 9.3-4 (1995) 127-134The FORUM ROMANUM - The Centre of Power
The Forum Romanum, the Roman name for what we usually call the Roman Forum, was the place where the victorious legions held their triumphal marches, where the deaths of famous persons were made public, where the corpses of emperors were burned, where the heads of emperors rolled, in short the centre of power of the Roman empire. At this web site you find a description of the Roman Forum between 100 BC and 100 AD. The Roman Forum was the centre of ancient Rome. At this web site the Forum is the centre of exploration. It will be the starting point for a great variety of wanderings. Many interesting aspects of Rome and its inhabitants can be met. Descriptions and views of many historic buildings can be found. The most important social, political, cultural and religious functions of the Roman Forum are dealt with. Attention is paid to the celebrities of that time and the roles they played in public life. All this is put against the background of the Roman Forum. The site presents emperors, senators, writers, artists and architects. Those works of art that originate in the Roman Forum but that are to be found in various museums are presented as well.Hellenistic / Roman Religion & Philosophy
The Jewish Roman World of Jesus. Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls | Christian Origins and the New Testament Ancient Judaism. James D. TaborAncient Roman Education
In the early Roman society, before the 6th century BC, children were taught by their parents. The mothers taught their daughters to do housework and anything else the mothers thought might be useful for their daughters to know. The mothers also taught their sons before the age of seven. After the age of seven, boys moved under the control of their fathers. The father would decide what his son needed to know in order to succeed in life, and would give his son lessons. Learning by following examples was considered important, so the son accompanied his father on all important occasions.Later in the history, Romans adopted Greek educations principals. By then, Greek was the international language spoken by many Roman neighbors. From the 2nd century BC a Roman was considered fully educated only if he received the same education as a native Greek in parallel with instructions in Latin.Roman Children
As soon as a child was born, it was laid at its father's feet. If he raised the child in his arms, he was acknowledging as his own and admitting it to all rights and privileges of membership in a Roman family. If he did not take it out, the child was an outcast, without family or protection. If a child was to be disposed of, it was exposed; that is, taken from the house by a slave and left by the roadside. This likely did not often occur. No actual instances of exposure are known during the Republic.The Re-Creation of a Young Roman Girl
At seven years old this young, upper-class1 Roman girl, daughter of a prominent political figure, is posing for a portrait of her face. Her father is demanding her whole family have one done so that everyone can see their family displayed for years to come. As predicted by her father, Roman art historians are very interested in these portraits and the past they represent. In 1998 this bust is a rare and exceptional find among art collectors. This portrait is now one of twenty-one sculptures found in the Riley Collection of Roman Portrait Sculpture at the Cedar Rapids Museum of Art.Roman Boys becoming Men
Did young people in ancient times with their responsible public functions mature earlier, or were they fickle, sometimes idealistic, adolescents? In the book Jeugd in het Romeinse Rijk (Young People in the Roman Empire), Leiden historian Johan Strubbe and his colleague from Leuven, Christian Laes, analyse a current debate. Do literary sources and inscriptions contradict one another?Roman Holidays
The ludi were not holidays (feriae), as such, although they did have their origins in religion and ritual, and the days of their celebration were considered dies festi. The oldest and most famous of the public games were the Ludi Romani (Roman Games), which originally were vowed in honor of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, whose temple was dedicated on September 13, 509 BC, as a votive offering if victory were won in battle. They were celebrated in the Circus Maximus following the triumphal procession (pompa) from the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. By 366 BC, they had become an annual event, no longer associated with the triumph, and were held for several weeks in September.School Time and Play Time for Roman Children
Most Roman kids did not go to school. Like their parents, they worked in the fields hoeing and weeding and plowing as soon as they were old enough. Their parents needed them to work, to get enough to eat. They did not learn to read or write or do math.Roman Gods and Goddesses of Children and Childhood
Gregory Flood's Roman Gods and Goddesses.Family Values in Ancient Rome
The Romans had their own evolutionary story about family mores, and it had nothing to do with the invention of affection, which they took to be natural and eternal in the family. However, their story did contain elements of the decline of paternal authority and the stable family. Roman authors--all men--often lamented that in the late Republic wives no longer played the ideal role that they had fulfilled for centuries. According to the Roman writers of the first century BCE and first century CE, divorce became increasingly frequent after 200 BCE, initiated easily by the husband or the wife. In addition, wives had their own property, which they could sell, give away or bequeath as they liked. As a result, women became more liberated and less dependent on their husbands. In fact, by the late Republic a rich wife who could divorce and take her wealth with her had a real threat against her husband and could wield influence over him. The sense of independence also showed up in increasing sexual promiscuity and adultery.TRAJAN'S ROME: The Man, the City, the Empire
Produced in conjunction with the Getty Education Institute for the Arts, this unit's six lessons use both primary source texts and the visual arts to situate Roman art in a broader context of social, cultural, and political meaning. Grades 6""9. National Center for History in the Schools, 139 pages.History House: Stories: Circus Maximus-Rome's Astrodome
The races were on, a type of spectacle which has never had the slightest attraction for me. I can find nothing new or different in them: once seen is enough, so it surprises me all the more that so many thousands of adult men should have such a childish passion for watching galloping horses and drivers standing in chariots, over and over again.... When I think how this futile, tedious, monotonous business can keep them sitting endlessly in their seats, I take pleasure in the fact that their pleasure is not mine. And I have been very glad to fill my idle hours with literary work during these days which others have wasted in the idlest occupations. - Pliny the YoungerScipio Africanus Personality
Scipio Africanus : Princeps (200 - 190 BCE). "It was said that the people had once been rebuked by Scipio for wishing tomake him consul for an indefinite period and dictator; that he had forbidden the erection of statues to himself in the Comitium, on the Rostra, in the Curia, on the Capitol, in the shrine of Jupiter; that he had also forbidden a decree that a likeness of himself in in triumphal costume should be represented coming out of the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus." - Livy, The History of Rome from its Foundation XXVIII.57The Roman Navy
The Roman navy was very much inferior, both in prestige and capability, to the Roman army. Before the First Punic War in 264 BC there was no Roman navy to speak of as all previous Roman war had been fought in Italy. But the war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power, forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors. The first few naval battles of the First Punic War were disasters for Rome, and it was not until the invention of the Corvus, a grappling engine which made it easier for Romans to board the Carthaginian vessels, that Rome was able to win the war. This meant that Rome could use her superior army in naval combat, and was a significant shift away from the tactics of all other navies at the time. Rome was able to use her superior army in preference to her navy in most of the wars she fought afterwards. By the late Empire Roman control over the Mediterranean coast meant that there were no non-Roman navies to fight. Indeed, Rome's last major naval battle was fought between Romans, Octavian and Marc Antony, at Actium. However, she still maintained a large navy which patrolled not just the Mediterranean, but the various major rivers in the empire. Although the quality of the navy did degrade into the later imperial period, emperors such as Diocletian put significant effort into rebuilding the navy. The average estimate of manpower strength of the navy ranges from 50,000-100,000.Roman Navy
The Roman Navy (Latin: Classis) operated between the First Punic war and the end of the Western Roman Empire. History and Evolution The Roman navy was very much inferior, both in prestige and capability, to the Roman army. Before the First Punic War in 264 BC there was no Roman navy to speak of as all previous Roman war had been fought in Italy. But the war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power, forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors. The first few naval battles of the First Punic War were disasters for Rome, and it was not until the invention of the Corvus, a grappling engine which made it easier for Romans to board the Carthaginian vessels, that Rome was able to win the war. This meant that Rome could use her superior army in naval combat, and was a significant shift away from the tactics of all other navies at the time. Rome was able to use her superior army in preference to her navy in most of the wars she fought afterwards. By the late Empire Roman control over the Mediterranean coast meant that there were no non-Roman navies to fight. Indeed, Rome's last major naval battle was fought between Romans, Octavian and Marc Antony, at Actium. However, she still maintained a large navy which patrolled not just the Mediterranean, but the various major rivers in the empire. Although the quality of the navy did degrade into the later imperial period, emperors such as Diocletian put significant effort into rebuilding the navy. The average estimate of manpower strength of the navy ranges from 50,000-100,000.List of Roman Emperors
From Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Augustus) to Flavius AnastasiusA Visual Compendium of Roman Emperors
The goal of this page is to present an illustrated list of Roman Emperors. While I was in Rome In July of 1995 the idea for this page hit me at some point in the Vatican museum. I had seen lists of emperors on the net and I figured these lists would be much more interesting if they had pictures as well. Thus, I tried to snap pics of as many emperors as I could find in various museums.Family Rule frm Tiberius to Nero
TIBERIUS, AN UNPOPULAR BUT ABLE RULER. Frank E. SmithaDe Imperatoribus Romanis: Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors
DIR is an on-line encyclopedia on the rulers of the Roman empire from Augustus (27 BC-AD 14) to Constantine XI Palaeologus (1449-1453). The encyclopedia consists of (1) an index of all the emperors who ruled during the empire`s 1500 years, (2) a growing number of biographical essays on the individual emperors, (3) family trees ("stemmata") of important imperial dynasties, (4) an index of significant battles in the empire`s history, (5) a growing number of capsule descriptions and maps of these battles, and (6) maps of the empire at different times. Wherever possible, these materials are cross-referenced by live links.More Greek and Roman Links
This page contains links to sites devoted to history, law, society, commerce and biography.CALIGULA: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Barbara F. McManus, The College of New RochelleRoman Emperors - The Imperial Index
the emperors are listed in a chronological table in order of their dates of rule. The name of each emperor for whom a biographical essay is complete offers a live link to the essay.Constantine: The First Roman Emperor to Sponsor Christianity
Constantine's Christianity. Constantine was a key figure in Roman, Christian, and Byzantine history. He was born in February in the late 280`s A.D., in what is now the city of Nis, in Yugoslavia. His father had risen to the rank of Caesar or deputy emperor and had served under Maximian in the west. When his parents were divorced, Constantine was brought up in the court of Diocletian in the eastern part of the empire. [Alice Jagger]Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
Rome, 1st century, A.D. -- The porcine Roman emperor had a succession of singularly unpleasant relationships with women. Perhaps it was because he was a feral, sadistic, sexually depraved, homicidal lunatic.Lead and the Fall of Rome: A Bibliography
Since the nineteenth century, there have been sporadic suggestions that the large-scale use of lead in antiquity contributed to the fall of Rome through heavy-metal poisoning.The End of the Roman Empire Revisited
The Fall of the Roman Empire Revisited: Sidonius Apollinaris and His Crisis of Identity By Eric J. GoldbergLead and the Fall of Rome: A Bibliography
Since the nineteenth century, there have been sporadic suggestions that the large-scale use of lead in antiquity contributed to the fall of Rome through heavy-metal poisoning.History of Tunisia: Carthaginians and Romans
In ancient times Tunisia was part of the mighty Carthaginian Empire. Its chief city, Carthage, was reputedly founded in 814BC by Phoenician traders, who had previously established several small trading posts along the North African coast. The site of Carthage, which became the largest and most famous of these Phoenician settlements, is thought to have been slightly to the north-east of the modern city of Tunis. The Carthaginian Empire dominated most of North Africa, as well as parts of the Iberian Peninsula, Sardinia and Sicily. By the third century BC, however, trouble was brewing for the Carthaginians, in the shape of the fast-expanding Roman Empire.Hannibal The African Warrior
In 218 B.C., Hannibal began the most daring military move in history, that of invading Rome by way of the Alps. But why did this African military genius decide to war against Rome? Before Hannibal's birth, the Romans ruled Italy, and the Carthaginians ruled Carthage in North Africa. The Carthaginians also ruled the Mediterranean Islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Syracuse (now know as Sicily). The Carthaginians were content as things were, but the Romans were military expansionists. So the Romans broke their treaty with the Carthaginians by expanding their empire into Sicily, and the First Punic War began (264 B.C.). In 247 B.C., Hamilcar Barca took command of the Carthaginian army and his son, Hannibal, was born. Hannibal was born to one of the most distinguished families in Carthage--the Barcas.The First Roman Emperor to Sponsor Christianity
Constantine was a key figure in Roman, Christian, and Byzantine history. He was born in February in the late 280`s A.D., in what is now the city of Nis, in Yugoslavia. His father had risen to the rank of Caesar or deputy emperor and had served under Maximian in the west. When his parents were divorced, Constantine was brought up in the court of Diocletian in the eastern part of the empire.ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY and JUDAISM
In ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY and JUDAISM, Manfred Davidmann proves what Jesus really taught: The social laws of the Torah have to be followed. These social laws guarantee equality, social justice and security, and a good life for all members of the community. These laws protect people from exploitation, oppression and enslavement through need. Early Christians, being mostly Jews, followed these laws. Manfred Davidmann then proves how these essential social laws of the Torah were bypassed and ceased to be observed, in Judaism and in Christianity at the same time.Pompey`s War
Wars between the Jews and Romans: the subjugation of Judaea (63 BC)The Early Church
Church history - extensive notes covering the period up through the Reformation.The Ecole Initiative: Early Church History of the Web
Hypertext Encyclopedia of Early Church History on the World-Wide WebEarly Church Fathers
Christian Classics Ethereal Library at Calvin College.Early Sources of Christianity
The official Roman dislike of Christianity was surprising, for the Romans were usually quick to adopt the gods of other faiths into their own religion. For instance, when Rome conquered Greece, the Romans readily accepted the Greek gods and goddesses and their myths, and altered many established Roman deities to resemble their Greek counterparts. The Roman god Jupiter, for example, took on many traits of Zeus, the Greek god of the heavens.Roman Architecture
Roman Architecture: Arches, Columns, Temples, Theaters, Amphitheaters, Baths, Basilicas that the great architects that built them. As far as Roman Architecture goes, it is difficult to compare it with that of other nations, because the Romans applied architecture to so many and such varied purposes, and so constructed monuments involving both architectural and engineering skill, as to make it doubtful to what class they belonged. The Romans were the first people to treat architecture as a minister to the numberless needs of a great nation. Before them, except in the Greek theatres, it had served the gods, the royal families, and the dead, alone.ROMARCH: Roman art and archaeology
The ROMARCH pages are the original crossroads for Web resources on the art and archaeology of Italy and the Roman provinces, ca. 1000 BC - AD 700. ROMARCH is sponsored by the Department of Classics and the Interdepartmental Program in Classical Art and Archaeology (IPCAA) at the University of Michigan.Monuments of Ancient Rome
Rome, the capital city of Italy since 1871, is a city with an incredibly rich history. It was the main city of the vast Roman Empire, whose control reached from Rome to places as far away as England. The Roman Empire left an enduring legacy throughout Western civilization -- and many enduring ruins throughout Rome.Roman Women And their Houses
What were Roman houses like? Through excavation we know what these houses looked like and how people lived. ALAE ATRIUM CUBICULUM CULINA EXEDRA HOUSE LARARIUM PERISTYLIUM ROMAN WOMEN TABERNAE TABLINUM TRICLINIUM VESTIBULUMRoman Architecture: Construction Techniques
The recognition Ancient Romans did not receive from art historians came from modern engineers who investigated and admired the construction techniques the Romans used to build roads, aqueducts, baths, tribunals, circuses, walls and obviously temples and houses.Roman Art and Architecture
Roman art is traditionally divided into two main periods, art of the Roman Republic and art of the Roman Empire (from 27 bc on), with subdivisions corresponding to the major emperors or to imperial dynasties. When the Republic was founded, the term Roman art was virtually synonymous with the art of the city of Rome, which still bore the stamp of its Etruscan past. Gradually, as the Roman Empire expanded throughout Italy and the Mediterranean and as the Romans became exposed to other artistic cultures, notably that of Greece, Roman art shook off its dependence on Etruscan art; during the last two centuries before Christ a distinctive Roman manner of building, sculpting, and painting emerged.Roman Colosseum
The Roman COLOSSEUM , Flavian amphitheater built over the remains of Nero's "Golden House" in Rome, c. 80 AD. The primary function of an amphitheater was to house spectacles of blood sports--gladiators combats and hunts of wild animals. Early Roman Christians were persecuted in this manner in the Colosseum. The design of an amphitheater basically requires the construction of two semicircular theaters placed face to face. Tiers of seats were supported by vaulted substructures constructed of tile and mortar. Elevators raised and lowered animals to the floor of the arena from caged areas below. Seating capacity of the Colosseum is estimated around 50,000.The Historical Coliseum
The Coliseum (Coloseum, Colosseum), was built during the reign of Emperor Vespasiano c. 72 AD and dedicated in 80 AD by his son Titus. The popular name of Coliseum came about because the immense oval stadium was situated next to a colossal statue of Nero. The original name of this ancient Roman sports arena, the largest arena of its kind, is The Amphitheatrum Flavium.The FORUM ROMANUM - Exploring an ancient market place
The Forum Romanum, the Roman name for what we usually call the Roman Forum, was the place where the victorious legions held their triumphal marches, where the deaths of famous persons were made public, where the corpses of emperors were burned, where the heads of emperors rolled, in short the centre of power of the Roman empire. At this web site you find a description of the Roman Forum between 100 BC and 100 AD. The Roman Forum was the centre of ancient Rome. At this web site the Forum is the centre of exploration. It will be the starting point for a great variety of wanderings. Many interesting aspects of Rome and its inhabitants can be met. Descriptions and views of many historic buildings can be found. The most important social, political, cultural and religious functions of the Roman Forum are dealt with. Attention is paid to the celebrities of that time and the roles they played in public life. All this is put against the background of the Roman Forum. The site presents emperors, senators, writers, artists and architects. Those works of art that originate in the Roman Forum but that are to be found in various museums are presented as well.Ancient Rome: The Roman Forum
The Roman Forum is a square which is surrounded by some of the most ancient Roman monuments. The Forum is also the origin of the first Latin population 2600 years ago.The Roman Forum: Through the Ages
The Forum in the Time of the Kings and the Early RepublicThe Forum in the Time of the Republic, the Civil Wars and the Age of Augustus
The Forum in the Time of the Empire: From the Julio-Claudian Dynasty to the Antonine Dynasty and the Time of Hadrian (including Imperial Fora)
The Forum in the Late Empire: From Hadrian to the Sack of Rome by the Vandals
The Forum Today: The Archaeological Record
The Role of the Forum in Everyday Life; Conclusion
