From Prehistoric Times to the Roman Era: Portugal's Historical Milestones

Portugal, situated on the westernmost edge of the Iberian Peninsula, has a rich and complex history that spans thousands of years. From its prehistoric roots, through Celtic and Phoenician influences, and culminating in the transformative Roman occupation, each period in Portugal’s ancient past has left lasting imprints on its cultural and societal landscape. This journey through the milestones of Portugal's history offers insights into how early communities, tribal societies, and dominant empires shaped the foundations of one of Europe’s oldest nation-states.

1. Prehistoric Beginnings: The Paleolithic Era (500,000 BCE - 8,000 BCE)

Portugal’s history dates back to the early Paleolithic, where evidence suggests the presence of early humans living in coastal and inland regions:

Human Settlements and Tools: Archaeological sites such as the caves in Figueira Brava contain traces of early human activity dating back half a million years. Stone tools, including axes and scrapers, give insights into their hunting and gathering lifestyle and their survival skills.
Rock Art and Symbolism: Artifacts like the engravings in the Côa Valley show that early humans used symbolism and primitive art to represent their world, beliefs, and environment. These artworks, some of the oldest in the world, reveal a burgeoning cultural expression among prehistoric communities in the region.

2. Transition to the Neolithic Era (6,000 BCE - 3,000 BCE)

The transition to the Neolithic period marked a major shift in the way of life, as communities adopted farming and formed settled societies.

Agriculture and Domestication: The emergence of farming communities along the Sado and Tagus rivers marked a significant development in Portuguese prehistory. These early agricultural societies cultivated grains and domesticated animals, which allowed for more stable, sedentary lifestyles.
Megalithic Structures: The Neolithic era in Portugal is particularly notable for its impressive megalithic architecture. Sites like the Almendres Cromlech near Évora, one of Europe’s largest stone circles, and the dolmens in the Alentejo region reveal a sophisticated understanding of construction and possibly spiritual or celestial beliefs. These structures point to social organization and ritual practices that were key components of community life.

3. The Copper and Bronze Ages (3,000 BCE - 700 BCE)

During the Copper and Bronze Ages, technological and social advancements reshaped Portuguese societies, bringing significant innovations in metalwork, trade, and warfare.

Introduction of Metalworking: The advent of metalworking, particularly copper and later bronze, transformed everyday life. Bronze tools and weapons became widespread, enabling more efficient farming and enhanced defense mechanisms for local communities.
Formation of Hill Forts (Castros): The Bronze Age saw the emergence of castros, fortified hilltop villages, particularly in northern Portugal. These settlements, such as those found in Citânia de Briteiros, were strategically located for defense and provided a safe environment for communities to thrive.
Trade and Exchange: Portugal’s proximity to the Atlantic facilitated maritime trade, allowing for the exchange of metal goods, pottery, and other resources with neighboring regions. This trade helped integrate Portuguese communities into broader cultural and economic networks, paving the way for future influences from Mediterranean civilizations.

4. Celtic Influence and the Formation of the Lusitanian Society (800 BCE - 218 BCE)

Around the 8th century BCE, Celtic tribes began to arrive in the Iberian Peninsula, introducing new cultural elements and forging the foundations of Lusitanian society.

Celtic-Lusitanian Culture: The Celts intermingled with local Iberian populations, creating a unique Celtic-Lusitanian culture. They introduced ironworking, which allowed for more advanced weaponry and tools, and they established social hierarchies and warrior classes that became integral to Lusitanian society.
Lusitanian Tribes and Resistance: The Lusitanians, one of the most prominent tribal groups, inhabited much of present-day Portugal. Known for their warrior spirit, the Lusitanians frequently resisted outside forces, a trait that would later define their interactions with the Romans.
Religious Beliefs: Lusitanian beliefs were deeply connected to nature, with gods and goddesses representing the land, animals, and elements. Deities like Endovelicus and Ataegina were worshipped in sacred sites throughout the region, reflecting a vibrant religious life that was both Celtic and uniquely Iberian in character.

5. Phoenician and Carthaginian Influence (8th - 3rd Century BCE)

The arrival of the Phoenicians and later the Carthaginians brought significant economic and cultural changes to Portugal’s coastal regions.

Establishment of Trade Ports: The Phoenicians established trading posts along the Atlantic coast, bringing goods like wine, textiles, and luxury items from the eastern Mediterranean. The cities of Olisipo (modern Lisbon) and Tavira became bustling centers of trade, connecting Portugal to broader Mediterranean networks.
Carthaginian Influence: Following the decline of the Phoenicians, Carthage expanded its influence in Iberia. The Carthaginians not only controlled trade routes but also left a mark on the region’s military strategies and coinage systems. This influence would become a catalyst for conflict with Rome in the Punic Wars, which eventually led to Rome’s conquest of Iberia.

6. Roman Conquest and the Province of Lusitania (218 BCE - 5th Century CE)

The Roman arrival marked one of the most influential periods in ancient Portugal’s history, as the region was integrated into the Roman Empire and transformed into the province of Lusitania.

Romanization of Portugal: The Romans introduced advanced engineering, law, and urban planning to Portugal. Cities like Olisipo (Lisbon), Emerita Augusta (Mérida), and Bracara Augusta (Braga) were established as administrative and cultural centers, complete with theaters, baths, and aqueducts. These cities became hubs of Roman culture and governance.
Lusitanian Resistance and Viriathus: One of the defining moments of early Roman rule in Portugal was the resistance led by Viriathus, a Lusitanian leader. Known for his tactical brilliance, Viriathus organized a formidable resistance against Roman forces, which continued until his assassination in 139 BCE. His efforts made him a legendary figure and symbol of Portuguese resilience.
Economic and Social Integration: Under Roman rule, Portugal saw economic expansion, including agriculture, mining, and fishing. The introduction of Roman currency and trade routes facilitated commerce across the empire, while social structures adapted to align with Roman governance.
Spread of Christianity: Christianity began to spread in the Iberian Peninsula during the Roman era. By the 4th century CE, Christianity had become the dominant religion in Lusitania, leading to the establishment of Christian communities and churches, many of which influenced later Portuguese religious practices.

7. The Fall of Rome and Visigothic Rule (5th - 8th Century CE)

As the Roman Empire declined, the Visigoths, a Germanic people, assumed control over Lusitania. Their rule represented both continuity and change, blending Roman practices with new traditions.

Visigothic Integration: The Visigoths maintained many Roman administrative and legal practices but introduced Germanic elements into governance and social customs. They reinforced Christianity as the state religion, building churches and monasteries that became centers of learning and cultural preservation.
Legal and Cultural Shifts: The Visigothic Code, a unified legal system, was implemented, merging Roman law with Visigothic traditions. This system laid the groundwork for legal practices in medieval Portugal and set the stage for later developments in Portuguese law.

The ancient history of Portugal, from its prehistoric beginnings through the Roman era, is marked by a rich tapestry of cultural, social, and economic milestones. Each era, from the early hunter-gatherers and megalith builders to the Celts, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Romans, contributed to the development of a unique Portuguese identity. These early influences formed the foundations of Portugal’s language, art, architecture, and religious traditions. As the Roman Empire waned, the Visigoths carried forward this legacy, bridging the ancient and medieval worlds.

Today, traces of these early cultures can be seen across Portugal, from the megalithic monuments in Évora to the Roman ruins in Lisbon and the Visigothic churches that dot the landscape. Portugal’s early history is a testament to the resilience and adaptability of its people, as each period built upon the last, creating a legacy that endures in Portuguese culture to this day.