metals Summary and Overview

The Hebrews, in common with other ancient nations, were acquainted with nearly all the metals known to modern metallurgy, whether as the products of their own soil or the results of intercourse with foreigners. One of the earliest geographical definitions is that which describes the country of Havilah as the land which abounded in gold, and the gold of which was good. #Ge 2:11-12| "Abram was very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold," #Ge 13:2| silver, as will be shown hereafter, being the medium of commerce, while gold existed in the shape of ornaments, during the patriarchal ages. Tin is first mentioned #Nu 31:22| and lead is used to heighten the imagery of Moses' triumphal song. #Ex 15:10| Whether the ancient Hebrews were acquainted with steel, properly so called, is uncertain; the words so rendered in the Authorized Version, #2Sa 22:35; Job 20:24; Ps 18:34; Jer 15:12| are in all others passages translated brass, and would be more correctly copper. The "northern iron" of #Jer 15:12| is believed more nearly to correspond to what we call steel [STEEL] It is supposed that the Hebrews used the mixture of copper and tin known as bronze. The Hebrews obtained their principal supply from the south of Arabia and the commerce of the Persian Gulf. #Jos 7:21| The great abundance of gold in early times is indicated by its entering into the composition of all articles of ornament and almost all of domestic use. Among the spoils of the Midianites taken by the Israelites in their bloodless victory when Balaam was slain were earrings and jewels to the amount of 16,750 shekels of gold, #Nu 31:48-54| equal in value to more than $150,000. Seventeen hundred shekels of gold (worth more than $15,000) in nose jewels (Authorized Version "ear-rings") alone were taken by Gideon's army from the slaughtered Midianites. #Jud 8:26| But the amount of treasure accumulated by David from spoils taken in war is so enormous that we are tempted to conclude the numbers exaggerated. Though gold was thus common, silver appears to have been the ordinary medium of commerce. The first commercial transaction of which we possess the details was the purchase of Ephron's field by Abraham for 400 shekels of silver. #Ge 23:16| The accumulation of wealth in the reign of Solomon was so great that silver was but little esteemed. #1Ki 10:21,27| Brass, or more properly copper, was a native product of Israel. #De 8:9; Job 28:2| It was plentiful in the days of Solomon, and the quantity employed in the temple could not be estimated, it was so great. #1Ki 7:47| No allusion is found to zinc; but tin was well known. Arms, #2Sa 21:16; Job 20:24; Ps 18:34| and armor, #1Sa 17:5,6,38| were made of copper, which was capable of being so wrought as to admit of a keen and hard edge. Iron, like copper, was found in the hills of Israel. Iron-mines are still worked by the inhabitants of Kefr Hunch, in the sought of the valley of Zaharani.

MET'ALS . The Hebrews were from ancient times acquainted with all the principal metals - gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead. They produced them from their own soil or procured them by commerce with foreign nations. Palestine and Syria are rich in copper and iron, and mining operations, as well as the various processes in the manufacture of metals, such as smelting, calcining, refining, etc., are often alluded to. Job 28:1-11; Ex 20:5; Ex 32:2-4, Isa 32:20; Isa 1:25; Isa 40:19-20; Isa 44:12; Mal 3:3 . Whether they knew steel is uncertain. The Hebrew word thus translated in 2 Sam 22:36; Job 20:24; Ps 18:34; Jer 15:12 is translated "brass" in all other places, and means probably bronze. The "northern iron" of Jer 15:12 seems to correspond more closely to what we call steel. As zinc is not mentioned in the O.T., it is probable that composition of zinc and copper called brass was not known at all to the Hebrews. Where our translation has "brass," probably bronze, a composition of copper and tin, is meant. Gold was not found in Palestine, but was brought thither from Ophir, 1 Kgs 9:27-28, Parvaim, 2 Chr 3:6, Raamah, Eze 27:22, Sheba, 1 Kgs 10:2, 1 Kgs 10:10; Ps 72:16; Isa 60:6, and Uphaz. Jer 10:9. It was plentiful. Abraham was very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold. Gen 13:2. The army of Gideon took 1700 shekels of gold in nose-jewelry from the slaughtered Midianites. Jud 8:26. David gathered 100,000 talents of gold and the shields of gold from Hadadezer. 1 Chr 22:14; 2 Sam 8:7. The throne of Solomon was overlaid with gold, and his drinking-cups were of pure and solid gold. 1 Kgs 10:18, 1 Kgs 10:21, The Hebrews used gold, not as money, but only for ornaments - bracelets. Gen 24:22; chains, Gen 41:42; signets, Ex 35:22; necklaces, Ex 35:22 - for embroidery, Ex 39:3; 2 Sam 1:24, and for decoration, especially in the temple. 1 Kgs 6:21-22. Silver was obtained from Lydia, Thrace, and Tarshish, 1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21; Jer 10:9; Eze 27:12, and in the days of Solomon it was as common in Jerusalem "as stones." 1 Kgs 10:21, 1 Kgs 10:27, It was lavishly used in the temple for the sockets of the boards. Ex 26:19; Ex 36:24, the hooks, fillets, and capitals of the pillars, Ex 38:10, 2 Sam 21:17, the bowls and chargers, Num 7:13, the trumpets, Num 10:2, the candlesticks and tables. 1 Chr 28:15-16, etc. Its principal use, however, was as money; though it was not coined until the middle of the eighth century b.c. In all the commercial transactions spoken of in the O.T. up to the taking of Samaria, in b.c. 721, silver, not gold, is used as payment as by Abram at the purchase of Ephron's field. Gen 23:16; by Abimelech in compensation to Abram, Gen 20:16; by the Ishmaelite merchants when they bought Joseph. Gen 37:28, etc. Copper and iron were found in Palestine - "a land whose stones are iron and out of whose hills thou mayest dig brass," Deut 8:9; Job 28:2, The former, however, was much more used than the latter; arms, 2 Sam 21:16; Job 20:24; Ps 18:34, and armor, 1 Sam 17:5-6, 1 Sam 17:38, were made of it. Tin is first mentioned among the spoils of the Midianites, Num 31:22; like lead, it came from Tarshish, Eze 27:12, and it was principally used in the production of bronze. Lead found manifold applications in practical life - for inscriptions, being poured into the hollow letters carved in the stone, Job 19:24, for weights, etc.

Gold of Havilah is mentioned as early as Genesis 2:11. The first worker of instruments of copper ("brass") and iron was Tubal-cain (Genesis 4:22). Abram was rich in silver and gold (Genesis 13:2). Instruments before Tubalcain (born according to Hebrew chronology 500 years after Adam and contemporary with Enoch from Seth; 1,000 according to Septuagint chronology) were apparently of flint, bone, and hard wood, such as uncivilized nations now use. Races that have degenerated into barbarism fall back upon flint; then advance to bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, harder than either: and then brass; and lastly iron. The oldest European races used only flint weapons, which are found in the gravel; but this is no proof they were unknown to Adam's early descendants. Isolation would soon reduce the distant emigrants to savagery. Silver was used for commerce, as "money" (Genesis 23:16; Genesis 17:12; Genesis 20:16), gold for ornament.

Gold, silver, brass, iron, tin, and lead were among the spoils taken front Midian (Numbers 31:22). In Job 20:24 for "steel" translated brass. Also Psalm 18:34, "a bow of steel" should be brass, which, or bronze, was used to strengthen arms, as for instance the Egyptians' bows. But God so taught David to war relying on Him that, no weapon could prevail against him; so Isaiah 54:17. In Jeremiah 15:12, "shall iron break the northern iron and the steel?" the metal meant is copper mixed with iron by the Chalybes near the Pontus far N. of Israel; i.e., can the Jews, however iron-like, break the hardier steel-like northern Chaldees (Jeremiah 1:14). Common iron, as then prepared, was inferior to the Chalybian iron and brass combined. Thus explaining, we solve Henderson's difficulty that KJV makes iron not so hard as brass, and we need not transl, as he does "can one break iron, even northern iron, and brass?"

In Nahum 2:3, "the chariots will be with flaming torches," translated rather "with fire flashing scythes," literally, "with the fire (glitter) of scythes" or steel weapons fixed at right angles to the axles, and turned down, or parallel, inserted into the felly of the wheel. (On Ezra 1:4 "amber," Revelation 1:15 "fine brass". (See AMBER.) The first payment of gold is in 1 Chronicles 21:25. (See ARAUNAH.) Gold was imported from Ophir, Sheba, Parvaim, and Uphaz (1 Kings 9:27-28; 1 Kings 10:2; 1 Kings 10:10; 2 Chronicles 3:6; Jeremiah 10:9). The hills of Israel yielded copper (Deuteronomy 8:9). Job 28 hints at the fact that gold is more superficial, iron lodes yield more the deeper you go: "there is a vein (a mine from whence it goes forth, Hebrew) for the silver, and a place for gold (which men) refine (it is found in the sands of rivers, and its particles have a superficial range in mines); iron is taken out of the dust (or earth, ore looking like it), and copper is molten out of the stone."

Copper is easier found and wrought than iron, so was in earlier use. Copper alloyed with tin formed brindle, of which Napier (Metal. of Bible) thinks the domestic vessels, the arms, etc., in Scripture were made, as it tarnishes less, takes a finer polish, and admits of a keen, hard edge (2 Samuel 21:16). Israel derived their skill in metallurgy from the Egyptians. Tin (bdiyl) was doubtless imported through the Phoenicians from Cornwall to Tarshish, and thence to Israel (Ezekiel 27:12; Ezekiel 22:18-20; Isaiah 1:25); the Assyrian bronze bowls, having one part tin to ten copper, now in the British Museum, consist of metal probably exported 3,000 years ago from the British isles. (See BOWLS.)