?_ El!1:The History Of Rome2001 Bible History Online#RR("mmsystem","sndPlaySound","Su")3CB("btn_glossary","&Glossary","JI(`',`GLOSSARY')")ZmainThe History Of RomeZhlpwnd02Table of ContentsZhlpwnd03History of Rome - Part 1Zhlpwnd04Timeline( Zhlpwnd05Dates in History=Zhlpwnd06Window 6  /&;)z4UU|CONTEXTi|CTXOMAP|FONT.|KWBTREE |KWDATA|KWMAP|SYSTEM|TOPIC<|TTLBTREE:|bm0 |bm1{|bm10w|bm11w|bm12|bm13 |bm140 |bm15|W |bm16z |bm17 |bm18О |bm19i |bm2|bm20<^ |bm21r |bm22 |bm23E |bm24! |bm25C |bm26 ^ |bm27_ |bm28 |bm29P |bm3|bm30 |bm31WY|bm32|bm33|bm34|bm35β|bm36|bm37|bm38|bm39A|bm4|bm40|bm41N|bm42|bm43;|bm44B|bm45n|bm46w |bm47.|bm48l>|bm49`|bm5|bm50p{|bm51ɴ|bm52|bm53'|bm54GZ|bm55|bm56|bm57|bm58` |bm59?|bm6|bm60||bm61 |bm62|bm63_|bm64|bm65|bm66|bm67H|bm68H|bm69+|bm7|bm70)|bm71<|bm72|bm73K|bm74F|bm75eS|bm8O|bm9v c2o1oWelcome!PI(`',`GLOS_BKA_40_x_Registered_Version')G F \w("1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)= o91 R 9 IntroductionE X""History is very near to poetry, and may be considered in some sense to be poetry in prose." -Quintillian2910 .Jesus came in the "fulness of time" according to the Bible. Unconscious to the builders yet framed by the handiwork of an almighty maker of the ages, the world was ready for the gospel to be preached to all nations and history records a world that was "turned upside down" with the message about Jesus Christ.Adventurers like Philip of Macedon, conquerors like Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar, philosophers like Socrates and Plato, military leaders, administrators, soldiers, merchants, slaves and all kinds of people who knew so little and cared less about God's plan and the promised Jewish Messiah, yet were the unconscious builders of a bridge between east and west which the great gospel of the Kingdom of God would pass on to achieve world dominion.. *The general rise and fall of empires were all predicted by the ancient Jewish prophet Daniel, who might be considered the "empire predicting prophet" because while he was living in Babylon as a wise man in the palace of king Nebuchadnezzar (Nabu-kudurri-usur II) he prophesied by the Word of the Lord concerning the rise and fall of many world governing empires that would appear after Babylon, namely Persia, then Greece, then Rome, and sometime far into the future (the last days) there would be a second Roman Empire. He even went so far as to give the exact time that the Jewish Messiah would die (be "cut off"). According to Daniel chapter 9 there would be 69 weeks or sabbatical years (7 year periods) after the proclamation of Artaxerxes Longimanus (ruler of Persia) for the Jews to restore and rebuild Jerusalem (cf. Neh 2:5). According to history, Jesus died on Passover of that same year.71 3 4 Daniel also spoke of the Kingdom that would ultimately one day rule the world:Dan 7:13-14 "I was watching in the night visions, and behold, One like the Son of Man, coming with the clouds of heaven! He came to the Ancient of Days, and they brought Him near before Him. Then to Him was given dominion and glory and a kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve Him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and His kingdom the one which shall not be destroyed." / ,My purpose in this general survey of ancient Rome is to give a simple panorama of the history and events that took place in forming Rome and her empire. I've tried to make all of my help programs simple, somewhat informative, and honest. But what really matters is what they do for you. Please let me know what you think. The easiest way is to use email: rusty@bible-history.com]7 . & n". . . God be gracious to you . . ." (Gen 43:29)g? ( ~1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)A. 1H CThe Dawn of Romes I "t"v ?N"d8" "Remember, Roman, that it is for thee to rule the nations. This shall be thy task, to impose the ways of peace, tospare the vanquished, and to tame the proud by war." -- Virgil's Aeneid X@6 :&YThe traditional date for the founding of Rome was 753 BC. Rome is located near the center of the Italian Peninsula, which is neIX@ ar the center of the great Mediterranean Sea. (see Prehistoric Italy)5I@/ ." PX@B6 :5yyAlong with all of her hills and the wonderful mountains called the Appenines and the Tiber River close by, were very rich and fertile places for farmers to settle and grow all kinds of crops including wheat, olives, and grapes. It was in this area that a small group of Latin peoples emerged and the city of Rome would spread from seven small hills on the Tiber to encompass an Empire of several million square miles. Along with a common bond of government and a great network of 300 major roads Rome would become a world city.@C4 6In the words of a poet, Rome had: "made one City, where once was a world."1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)BBC1R CbDTable of ContentsECbD< H"1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)BCD1 ?DsRomulus and Remus#bDEE~ ̀N" $"v ?N"d8" &DkE# OEE-Fs  `ȵPFhPI(`',`GLOS_Shewolf_Statue') " The Legend of Romulus and Remus(Traditional Date - 753 BC)>kEHP nlm%" D[0hAccording to an ancient legend, the powerful Greeks had come to the city of Troy (located near the west coast of modern Turkey) to wage a big war and killed almost everyone. A prince from Troy (Trojan prince) named Aeneas, ran away and escaped to the Mediterranean sea and found a ship and sailed to Italy. He landed at a city called Laurentum on the west coast of Italy. He made a friend with a man there named Latinus who was the king there and the Latins all around the area. They made a treaty together and Aeneas married the kings daughter Lavinia. {-FdK. *@,Aeneas' son Ascanius decided to build a new city and he named it Alba Longa. He was the king there and many kings came after him ruling for about 400 years. Afterward, the last king was attacked and overthrown, and his twin grandsons Romulus and Remus were placed next to the River Tiber and left to die. But something interesting happened, a she-wolf found them and took care of them. When the twins grew up they came back to the wonderful place by the river where they had almost died and they decided to build a new city right there on the spot so that others who were homeless like they had been might have a place to live. HkN( They argued with each other over where the exact spot had been and so in the evening they decided to hold a sacred ceremony where they would watch for an omen (a sign from the gods) and let the gods decide. Early in the morning when the sun was coming up Remus looked up in the sky and saw 6 vultures flying by. But something interesting happened. While the sun was coming up he noticed that there were now 12 vultures. He told his brother all about it but they had a bad argument over what it may have meant and Romulus went into a rage and killed his brother Remus. He then went to the spot that he had chosen and started building the city. Once he had built the city he named it "Rome" after himself and became its first ruler.2dKO9 @&mThe historian Livy wrote:"Remus, by way of Jeering his brother, jumped over the half-built walls of the new settlement, whereupon Romulus killed him in a fit of rage, adding the threat, "So perish whoever shall leap over my battlements."M#kN * $F -Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 29 BCO bDg?Os( ~1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com); 1kThe Latins%sm S" G"v ?N"d8"&m "Go," he said, "and tell the Romans that by heaven's will my Rome shall be capital of the world. Let them learn to besoldiers. Let them know, and teach their children, that no power on earth can stand against Roman arms." -Livy, History I, xvi %i KF[D[yyAs`ȵPI(`',`GLOS_Language_Map') It was in Latium that an Indo-European group, the Latins, (ancestors of the Romans) migrated and settled near the Tiber River. Their first city, called Alba Longa, was built about 1000 BC. Their most important city, Rome, was founded in 753 BC by Romulus. (see Language Map)<m74 8" &? La ҉|dʼnThe Seven Hills They settled in an area known as the seven hills. Palentine Hill was one of the first places where villages were built. (see Latium and Geography):7`3 6";&c w [0`=yRJ7The Earliest Settlements in ItalyArchaeologists have found remains of human settlements evidences of peoples in Italy long before the Roman or Greek civilizations began. The earliest cultures date back to over 3000 BC who lived in villages and farms. Latin tribes from the south and the Sabines in the north settled here in small circular villages on the hilltops around the eighth century BC.. (see Invaders from the North)During the time period of 2000 -1000 BC there was a wave of Indo-European immigrants who had engulfed the area. These peoples included the Umbrians in the north, Oscans in the south, and the Latins in between them in the central plain called Latium (Lay-see-uhm). The most mysterious of these peoples were known as the Etruscans. (see Etruscan, Phoenician, and Greek Influences)mA`k, (1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)C1?^Rome's First KingsIk .":"v ?N"d8"""" "However lawless and tyrannical Tarquin may have been asmonarch in his own country, as a war leader he did finework. Indeed, his fame as a soldier might have equaled thatof his predecessors, had not his degeneracy in other thingsobscured its luster." -Livy, History I, xxxiii l#I `G `ȵ&mKThe Seven KingsThe early history of Rome has always been an interesting mixture of heroic legend and fact. According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC. Romulus was Rome's first king and after him there were 6 more kings. The period traditionally lasted for 244 years (753-509 BC) and is known about through the historian Livy who compiled his Great History of Rome in a single narrative during the rule of Augustus, which indicates that he ascertained his information through various myths and legends. (see Rome's Early Kings)&9# 4m/ . "9w; D" Livy records that the kings were vitally important in the early growth of the state. He said that the people at this time were, "a rabble of vagrants, mostly runaways and refugees, unrestrained by the power of the throne, would no doubt have set sail on the stormy sea of democratic politics." He mainly tells the story of them groping thmwkeir way to political maturity when writing of the seven kings. Their names were (click on each name): mGE XPI(`',`GLOS_Romulus') PI(`',`GLOS_Numa_Pompilius')  PI(`',`GLOS_Tullus_Hostilius')  PI(`',`GLOS_Ancus_Martius') "PI(`',`GLOS_Tarquinius_Priscus') PI(`',`GLOS_Servius_Tullus') #PI(`',`GLOS_Tarquinius_Superbus') RomulusNuma PompiliusTullus Hostilius Ancus MartiusTarquinius PriscusServius TullusTarquinius SuperbusiwL fgd(note: If you go to Rome today you can see parts of the Servian Wall which was once believed to have been built by Servius Tullius).Romulus was known as a warrior-king and the great builder of Rome's first army and of her first government.Numa Pompilius, Rome's second king, brought a new kind of peace to the land and founded the Roman religion.The kings had special advisors who were known as the "Senate" (Latin for "old men"). They were a council of elders from Rome's most prominent families. The citizens would assemble and vote on whatever decisions were made by the king and the "Senate."5G1< F⊡֙RTheir religion greatly affected their decisions. In fact the king was also a chief priest to the gods and he chose more priests from among the Senate. They would gather together and perform religious ceremonies and they would also interpret whatever omens had been given.Around 500 B.C., the Etruscan tyranny provoked these Latin peoples to active opposition and then a revolt, the Etruscan king and his followers were driven into exile. Thus, there was ushered in a new era of Roman history.&W# b18 @lClick here to read some quotes by Livy regarding each king:Livy About Rome's Early KingsmAW^, (1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)> 16 The EtruscansL^ 耇"6L"v ?N"d8" "Some races wax and others wane, and in a short space the tribes of the living are changed, and like runners hand on the torch of life" - Lucretius(S tp!PI(`',`GLOS_Ancient_Italy_Map') While Rome was at her beginning stages, and their kings were establishing the direction that the cities were going in, their were very powerful neighbors living in the north country at Etruria, and they were known as the Etruscans. They were a very wealthy and educated culture and had been expanding their territory from Etruria all through the western Mediterranean, building city-states and eventually they expanded down toward Rome. (see Ancient Italy Map)&6# ^W ~$PI(`',`GLOS_Etruscan_Sarcophagus') "6. *Y Around 575 BC. the Etruscans inhabited Rome and their kings (an aristocratic family known as the Tarquins) ruled Rome for the next 66 years. Rome had really benefited from their influence because they were so advanced. They taught the Romans their alphabet and how to build their houses with tile roofs. They also taught them many other building techniques, including the famous "arch" which had, later on, been attributed to Rome for its invention. The streets were laid out over the once mosquito infested swamps, and at the center of the city was the great square called the Forum, which became the seat of Roman government and law. The Tarquins also built temples and taught the Romans their many religious rituals.Y, &Rome had finally began to emerge as a highly civilized culY^ture, and what was once a bunch of small villages with huts and straw roofs, now had become a great city with large walls and paved streets. In fact, Rome had gained fame very quickly for her tremendous building feats that far surpassed that of her teachers, the Etruscans and they became one of the wealthiest cities in Italy. XQ rPI(`',`GLOS_Circus_Maximus') "EY2< Fއ\ ⊡֙They built the Circus Maximus (an arena for games that held seats for thousands of spectators), the Temple of Jupiter (to honor their greatest god), and the Cloaca Maxima (a sewage system that is still being used today).Rome was prospering and advancing very fast until her 7th and last Roman king, Tarquin the Proud, had come to power. He was a very cruel dictator, and he despised the Senate as well as the voice of the people. In 509 BC. the people rebelled and overthrew him and cast him out. The people unanimously agreed "we will never again be ruled by a king."g?( ~1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)C21ALatium & Geography# O"kSQ"v ?N"d8"&m "Go," he said, "and tell the Romans that by heaven's will my Rome shall be capital of the world. Let them learn to besoldiers. Let them know, and teach their children, that no power on earth can stand against Roman arms." -Livy, History I, xvi N*G \F[ cKNLatiumDuring the period of the first kings around 509 BC there were actually very many cities in Italy and Rome was just one of them. The Italian Peninsula is located right in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea. Rome is located right in the heart of Italy on a large plain known as Latium. (see The Geography of Italy)4^/ . " *K E XS"D[R This area was a very fertile area with great weather and many places for farmers to settle and grow various crops such as wheat, grapes, and olives. There have been many discoveries made by archaeologists of people living back as far as 1100 BC who were farmers and herders just like most of their neighbors around the Mediterranean. The people of Latium were called Latins and they all spoke the same language. In the north were the Etruscan city-states, and in the south were the Greeks. Together the Etruscans and the Greeks traded with other cultures from all over the whole Mediterranean Sea. They were very rich and the area was perfect for their lifestyles. ^`4 6yypRome was right located between them. Rome lay 12 miles inland from the sea on the Tiber River, the border between Latium and Etruria and the Latium plain was ideal for them as well. In fact the ancient Roman historian Livy who lived from 59 BC to 17 AD said some interesting things about Rome, that it was placed in the center of the world, and when he described the area he said that there was a good reason that men and the gods chose this spot. He went on to say that it was a very well protected area from any attackers because it was situated on seven hills and the famous Tiber River was very close by, around 15 miles, and if you went down the river it wouldn't take long to journey right into the big Mediterranean Sea. W+K , &WRome was truly an ideal location, being near the mouth of the Tiber where they could cross its narrow yet firm banks easily. Her steep hills and marshy valleys made each area very isolated and the whole area a hard place to attack. Flocks and herds could graze in the wooded slopes in peace. 4` @/ . " @A5 85Italy was indeed close to all their big neighbors, Spain in the west, Greece in the east, and Africa in the south. Over the centuries Rome expanded its borders all the way to each of these places believing that "the gods destined Rome to rule the world." They even gave the Mediterranean Sea a new name, "Mare Nostrum" which means "our sea."1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)G @"B1 a "BLPolitical InstitutionsHAjD y"%"v ?N"d8"  "When a commonwealth, after warding off many great dangers, has arrived at a high pitch of prosperity and undisputed power, it is evident that, by the lengthened continuance of great wealth within it, the manner of life of its citizens will become more extravagant, and that the rivalry for office, and in other spheres of activity, will become fiercer than it ought to be." -Polybius, Historiesf"BF@ N<⊡֙Because the Romans began as a conquered people under the rule of the Etruscans, they created political institutions to help protect themselves from someone rising up as a dictator and taking over. When they finally became a free people they decided to give all the power to two groups: the Assembly and the Senate even though there were kings.4jDDF/ . "NFHF Z  The AssemblyThe Assembly consisted of all male citizens of military age. They would agree and approve on certain decisions and they could veto any important decision made concerning war, peace and justice. The SenateThe Senate was a council of elders who were chosen as members because of how important their family was. They were mainly very conservative, very privileged, very wealthy, and owned lots of land. They would choose who should be the next king, and they would protect the Law of Custom, in case of any danger from a king or a decision made by the assembly.lDFDLZ %R  /=This was the method of checks and balances that made up the Roman government when Rome first became free in 509 BC when the Etruscan kings were finally cast out for good.Democratic RomeSince 509 BC the Roman government was under the control of two consuls. By the middle of the 4th century BC one of those consuls had to be a plebeian (see The Republican Government). The ConsulsBy the third century the consuls had similar authority as the early kings except for the fact that they could only serve in office for one year. This would put a limit on the possibility of a dictatorship. In fact if one consul thought the other was getting too powerful he could veto the other consul's actions. We get our word "veto" from the Latin word which means "I forbid." g?HL( ~1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)DDLL1  LEarly Roman Society|LkN "7"v ?N"d8"&m "Brutus, the founder, made the people swear never to allow any man to be king in Rome. He promoted national unity and lessoned the friction between the patricians and the plebs" -Livy&LN# [kNNT x!PI(`',`GLOS_Straw_Roofed_Huts') "7N/W | F(h YR 5~ The Family The family was the most important part of Roman society. The main person in charge legally of the family was the pater or father. He even had the power of life or deatN/Lh within the family. If the matron, the woman of the house, was of a dignified social status, the power of the father was somewhat restrained. Originally called by the Latin title of paterfamilias, the father evolved into the patron of Roman Republican and early Imperial society.&NU# _/X %PI(`',`GLOS_man_and_wife_painting') "iUoR r  d⊡֙Class Divisions In Rome there were various class divisions that were very stringent. Under the Etruscans, a new wealthy aristocratic class had come into Rome known as the patricians. The PatriciansThe patricians were great land-owners and of a noble Latin birth. Once the Etruscans were driven out the patricians declared Rome a republic (a community by which people elect their leaders). They served in the Senate and were very privileged. They controlled the offices within the army, and they governed the important events that happened within society such as the public religious ceremonies.= 2 2}뉀Patricians were people who belonged to one of the original 35 gens, or tribes. The people who were not of the Patrician class were the Plebeians. The important aspect of class was familial relation to the original tribes, and secondarily, property ownership.WoP pPI(`',`GLOS_Farmer_Figure') "w>z9 @} <The PlebeiansThere were also the Plebeians who made up the majority of Rome's inhabitants. Plebeians were a class of citizens who were usually non aristocratic farmers, artisans and shopkeepers, and some were wealthy. They did have rights, such as the right to serve in the Assembly and the right to vote, trade, hold property, and administer judicial self defense. They were not as privileged as the patricians and could never marry one. They could not hold a public office and could never receive entry into the Senate and there was no recorded bill of rights.&# VzO nPI(`',`GLOS_Slave_Mosaic') " ҋE X/ ݆ 4 The Clients and the SlavesThe Clients were peasant farmers who rented land. They would follow a certain patron and perform political duties, including assassinations, and lying in court, if it would help further his patron's political career. In return, the client often received money, a job, or an invitation to dinner at the patron's house. A dinner invitation may not seem like much to us today, but in Roman times it could mean a great place in society if he appeared at the right dinner parties. His prestige in society would be much more enhanced if he were seen by the rich and famous at only one dinner party hosted by a powerful patron. C TA This patron-client relationship led to many interesting situations in ancient Rome. Sometimes candidates for various government magistracies would travel around Rome with several hundred or even a few thousand of their clients. Lastly were the Slaves, who had no freedom or rights whatsoever unless it was bestowed upon them by their master.1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Aҋ1ra 3Religion of Rome:0& ( Religion of Rome II ` fReligion is what really the adhesive that bonded all classes. It was not about priestly descent in early Roman religion but about civic activities, though there were specially devoted people and holy men, such as the haruspices who inspected the animal sacrifices, and the augurs who interpreted omens. Early GodsThe most poplar deities that prevailed within the farms and houses 0Iof the people were:Janus (The spirit of the doorway)| 0\ A-fi%릀SXVesta (The spirit of the hearth)The Penates (The guardians of household stores)The Lares (The guardians of family property)The Genius (The guardian angel or spirit)The Romans were very materialistic in their religious devotion. They would make bargains with the gods and devote themselves wholeheartedly to their contract. They were so serious about this that there were certain laws against breaking one's contract with a god. There was also the taboo that would follow the promise-breaker of his bargain with his god.IX ~_ Later GodsLater during the time of the monarchy certain gods became predominant such as:Jupiter (The sky-god and chief over all)Juno (Jupiter's wife and protector of matrons)Minerva (The diety of the artisans)Mars (the god of war)Though the religious devotion of early Rome was mainly within the household, it wasn't long before the worship of the gods became cultic and was performed within the temples.g?3( ~1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Ex1   xThe Fifth Century BC3 "!.~"v ?N"d8" "It is through the ways of old and through the heroes of old that Rome stands fast." -Ennius0x( Rome had believed in early times that she was destined to rule the world even though there were many hostile peoples around her. She fought hard and survived. By the sixth century Rome had thrown out her last king and the Republic was founded around 510 BC. 4/ . ""ZKb   (jie'FfFrom City-State to Nation-StateFor the next two and a half centuries the small city-state of Rome expanded its boundaries gradually until it ruled the entire Italian peninsula. This protected them from many of their hostile neighbors.The Latin LeagueThe power of the Etruscans was diminishing yet they had an extremely large army of Italian tribes prepared for war along with two other powerful neighboring armies, the great mountain tribe armies of the Aequi, and the Volsci. Rome was in great danger because of them. Rome was also in danger because the Latin cities had formed a league to threaten the newly formed republic in Rome and she had to defend herself against this alliance for many years. (see The Latin League and Rome)qH ^vՉ6S8"{HRome, who had been mainly an army of farmers defending their land, decided to regroup and organize and they finally won a tremendous victory at Lake Regillus in 486 BC and they became the dominant partner in the league. They all became allies so that they could defend themselves against the armies of the Etruscans, the Aequi, and the Volsci. Meanwhile the northern Sabellians were invading the lands of the Aequi, and the Volsci which drove them down into Italy to attack Rome. Two great Roman leaders defeated them one named Coriolanus defeated the Aequi and another named Cincinnatus defeated the Volsci.K6 :After this Rome made more attacks on the Etruscans and doubled her territory which eventually brought them to a place as leader of the Latin League.1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)FZ1? Z@The Fourth Century BC= a"#i"v ?N"d8"  Z "Every single step the Celts took...being commended to them by the heat of passion than by cool calculation ---PolybiusbZH ^5(jF[The fourth century started out as a terrible time for the Romans and yet by the end of the century they had defeated the combined armies of the Latin League and Rome became the capital of all of Latium and her armies defended its borders. (see also The Roman Legions)\ $PI(`',`GLOS_Barbarians_and_Heads') "$Some of these barbarian tribes wouldcut off the heads of their enemies and place them around their neck to ward off evil spirits since they believed that the soul dwelt within the head even after death. They would even throw a detached head at their enemy in order to terrify the enemy and also ward off evil spirits. I ` Rf&mThe GaulsAround 387 BC a barbarous tribe in the north part of Europe known as the Gauls defeated the Romans at the River Allia and invaded Italy and sacked Rome. According to the historian Livy, most of the people had fled Rome in terror. Only a handful of soldiers and some Roman senators had remained and the Gauls provoked the senators to defend themselves and when they did the Gauls brutally slaughtered them. (see Barbarian Wars and the Gauls)Q\ J byz s5After the destruction only the Capitoline Hill had held her ground and the Gauls decided to attack at night secretly but some Geese made their presence known and after some bribery the Gauls finally left. Most of the Latin cities were very happy to see Rome overthrown. Camillius With their city destroyed a leader named Camillius attempted to rebuild Rome and raise strong walls around her seven hills. Around 380 BC he organized what was left of the army and introduced new tactics and weapons made of iron. He even developed new laws regarding Roman citizenship. They began to regain their lost territory and, with the help of the Samnites, a tribe from central Italy, they conquered the area again and this made them the most powerful people in Latium.B  . ,(  The Samnites4\  / . "%  F ZYA8m 3Rome was determined to defend herself against future attack from the Gauls, and by 330 BC the Samnites became a big threat and had been attacking Campania. Naples, a city in southern Italy, had pleaded with Rome for help against the Samnites. When Appius Claudius heard of this he strengthened the army and built a navy and prepared for war.Rome went to war against the Samnites along with their allies the Gauls and the Etruscans. After a series of wars lasting 40 years Rome finally defeated the Samnites and this made Rome a bigger threat than ever to the Latin League and they united against her for war and were crushed. (see The Roman Conquest of Southern Italy)b! &A PC _^Rome now became the capital of all of Latium and was requiring citizenship to all of the surrounding colonies under her dominion. Rome had won many strategic victories and soon dominated northern and central Italy.The Appian WayAppius Claudius constructed the first of Rome's great military highways called The Appian Way. It was the first strand of what was to become a great web of paved highways throughout the whole Mediterranean world. There was nothing like it and without it Rome could not have won its tremendous empire.& L# T&M jPI(`',`GLOS_Appian_Way') "&mAL@, (1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-hi@story.com)E^@1^@4NThe Third Century BC6@%B u"'"v ?N"d8" "Come, help us, O lares. Let neither blight nor ruin hasten upon the people. Be satiated , fierce Mars, leap the threshold, stay the scourge. Summon in turn the gods of the harvest. Come, help us, O Mars. Triumph, triumph, triumph, triumph, triumph!" -Ancient Hymn^@8D2 2'mBy the turn of the third century Rome had a powerful army, a new navy, and a great military highway, with strong garrisons of soldiers at strategic borders. Rome was well organized in her efforts to maintain a unity within her territory. The statesmen would discourage internal strife by providing generous land grants to the army, as well as the spoils of war and democratic rights. They also forced their victims to join their armies. (see More Conquests of Central Italy)&%B^D# 48DD/ . "(;^DGh  +s5bBZ QD?`!L The Battle of SentiumThe Samnites and all of her allies were severely defeated at the Battle of Sentium in 296 BC. Many of Rome's enemies were being weakened by continually fighting each other. Now with Rome's effective policies for preserving unity they were destined to succeed. Rome was prepared to conquer all of Italy. (see Roman Military Organization)Rome Conquers All Italy In the south of Italy there were mainly Greek cities. In 282 BC Thurii, A Greek city in the south had asked Rome for help from the Lucanians, allies of the Samnites. Rome came to their aid and soon many other cities had also called upon Rome for assistance. Soon the Greeks resented this and war was inevitable. DJi IPI(`',`GLOS_Pyrrhus_Bust') ")⢺=z}b! One Greek city, Tarentum, fired up a major quarrel with a Roman delegation, and so they called upon King Pyrrhus of Epirus (in Greece) to come to their aid since they were mainly a commercial city and not able to match armies with Rome. He came with full force and brought his fearful elephant cavalry along with 20,000 soldiers and barely won a brutal victory at Heraclea in 280 BC. Pyrrhus had won the victory but at the expense of a major part of his army. He said, "If we win one more victory against the Romans we shall be totally ruined." This is where the term "Pyyhric Victory" originated where the winner suffers more loss than that which he gained.&GJ# JK ހ #PI(`',`GLOS_Elephant_Copper_Bar') "*PI(`',`GLOS_Pig_Copper_Bar') "+ 9JM> Jȉbh**.Rome was not discouraged. They called upon their powerful allies from Carthage, which was located at the top of North Africa on the Mediterranean Sea. Together they defeated Pyrrhus's army at the Battle of Beneventum and drove Pyrrhus out of Italy in 276 BC and four years later Tarentum surrendered along with the rest of southern Italy. By 264 BC Rome occupied Italy from the Toe River to the Po River and was considered a major power in the Mediterranean. (see The Conquests of Southern Italy)g?K4N( ~1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)BMvN1B vNRoman CitizenshipW4NO 耝",{"v ?N"d8" "Remember, Roman, to guide the nations with authority. Let these be your arts: impose the laws of peace, And spare the humbled and lay low the proud." -VergilvNɀ2 2}"Oɀ4NCitizenship was extremely important in Rome's attempt to preserve her unity. When Rome conquered a city they would offer it alliance and would write up various terms of the treaty. 4O/ . "-`ɀ]g  -$o+'H  4 Classes of CitizenshipWhen Rome conquered a city the defeated people would fall into one of four classes. Citizens, Municipia, Latin Allies, and Italian Allies. Other areas maintained their domestic independence but Rome dictated their foreign policies.Citizens had full rights and full privileges.Municipia received Roman citizenship without the right to vote. They were allowed a local self-government and the rights of trade. They also served in the army and paid taxes.rU x    Latin Allies had no citizenship but were allowed the rights of trade, they also equipped Rome with foreign legions and were self-governed.Italian Allies were Roman protectorates. They sent troop levies to Rome, and they shared in the spoils of war.Advantages and Disadvantages For the Italian TribesThere were many advantages for the Italians being under the protection of Rome even though they had lost their independence: J]t  a) The Pax Romana (Roman peace), b) Protection from many foreigners and multiple tribal wars ceasing, c) Partial freedom and the possibility of full citizenship, d) A better economye) The use of Rome's architecture: (bridges, aqueducts, roads, etc.)f) Sharing in the glory of RomeThe disadvantages were:a) Roman taxesb) Required military servicec) Only partial freedomd) The eventual loss of any former identity, culture or language9r; DBöGradually the Latin language and the Roman way of life permeated the entire Italian Peninsula and Rome was becoming quickly unified as they had hoped. (see Rome's Methods of Domination)1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)J?1{?The Republican Governmentъ "._j"v ?N"d8"&m "Now we trace the history in peace and war, of a free nation, governed by annually elected officers of state, and subject not to the caprice of individual men, but to the overriding authority of law" -Livy`?~M h RdWD~The Roman RepublicIn 509 BC. the Romans rebelled against their Etruscan overlords replacing kingship with a republic (A country governed by the elected representatives of its people) and the Patricians organized the government of the republic into an executive branch and legislative branch. (see Rome's Development of a Constitution)aъߌZ 'PI(`',`GLOS_Local_Magistrate_Statue') "/^~=? L?/=⊡֙The ConsulsTwo patrician officials known as the consuls (because they had to consult each other before acting), were the chief executive officers and ran the cities daily affairs. They were elected to serve in office for one year terms. Each consul could veto (Latin word meaning "to forbid") the others decisions. The consuls maintained order among the executive officials (praetors, judges, censors, tax collectors, etc.). They presided over the Senate and were commander in chief during wartime. They were also supreme judges.+ߌtR r T<The DictatorWhen Rome was in a time of crisis they would temporarily appoint a dictator (one whose word =twas law), and only he could override the decision made by the consuls. The SenateThe Senate were also a body of patricians, 300 citizens from the wealthiest families of Rome.They also maintained the treasury as well as foreign policy and they served for life. They outweighed the Assembly of Centuries and advised the consuls, proposed laws, and approved new construction of roads, temples and military defenses. They were supposedly an advisory body but in actuality they were the center of all policy decisions concerning foreign affairs, military matters, finances, public land, and state religion. 6=A PK& Checks and BalancesThe consuls were in charge of government and also of the army. The 300 citizen Senate advised them at all times. In the history of the Roman Republic the Senate was always the most powerful group. Only the Assembly could approve or disapprove of one of their laws and only the assembly elected Candidates for the office of consul. There was always a basic concept of checks and balances.The modern US constitution is based on these basic concepts of checks and balances within the ancient government of the Roman Republic. Whether it be the President, the Congress, or the courts, none can dominate the government. Each branch has a way to check the actions of the other and the actions of each branch balance the others. Ztk  隐{ŵDThe Middle Class and PoorThe middle class and poor were represented in 2 assemblies:The Assembly of CenturiesThere was also a body of patricians within the legislative branch known as the Assembly of Centuries (named for a military formation of 100 men "centum") and these were elected into office. They could declare war.The Assembly of Tribes A legislative assembly of elected officials called tribunes and questors who passed laws and conducted minor trials.HLf )PJպVzm_The CensorsThere were also 2 Censors (ex-consuls) who took the census, assessed the taxes, named senators, etc. Aediles and Quaestors4 Aediles served as mayors of the city and 8 Quaestors acted as treasurers.The plebeians felt that they did not have any real power in the new republic and in 494 BC they went on strike, threatening to leave the army and start a new republic of their own. The patricians then agreed to hear the voice of the Tribunes. _D V}뉀The TribunesThe 10 Tribunes, elected by the Plebeians, protected the rights of the people from the decisions made by the senate. They had power to veto any government decision. The Plebeians' demanded that the patricians would hear the tribunes and because of the fear of losing their military and labor forces the patricians agreed. They became so protected that anyone injuring a Tribune could be put to death.The Judiciary Branch of Governmenth-L; D[ The judiciary branch of government were the 6 Praetors (elected for 2 years) who were the high judges.The 12 Tables of LawThe Plebeians still felt inferior because they really never knew exactly what the laws were. The laws had never been put into writing and were only known by the patricians. The Plebeians insisted that the government write down the laws. Finally in 451 BC the patricians agreed to engrave the laws on 12 bronze tablets and to set them in the Forum for all to see. These 12 Tables became the basis for all future Roman law._? LiY{`YThe Plebeians had soon won the right to serve in some public offices and in 287 BC they won a great victory, they were given the right to make laws for the republic in the Assembly of Tribes. Rome was close to becoming a true democracy. But by the 2nd Cent. BC. more power was in the hands of the senate and they were becoming corrupt. (see Moving Toward Democracy)1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)L1 n The Punic Wars (264-146 BC)+= %"0J"v ?N"d8""1 "It is through the ways of old and through the heroes of old that Rome stands fast." -EnniusW # C_@h!PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Punic_Wars') ȉThe Punic Wars (264-146 BC) Click to See MAPFor the next 120 years Rome's attention would be dominated by Carthage, the biggest competitor over the trade routes around the Mediterranean, especially the western side, and history records their conflicts in a series of three wars:The First Punic War 264-241 BCThe Second Punic War 218-201 BCThe Third Punic War 149-146 BC&=}# \WU z"PI(`',`GLOS_War_Gallery_Relief') "2]"}6; DE CarthageCarthage was located at the northern tip of Africa right across the Sea to the south of Sicily. It was founded in 814 BC by the Phoenicians, a middle eastern people and they dominated the western Mediterranean for some three centuries.. Their massive navy closely policed all of the trade in the Mediterranean and made it into a "closed sea." Rome saw all of this as a threat to their economy and security. The boundaries of Carthage also extended into Italy and they also engulfed all of the areas along the coast of North Africa from Libya to Gibraltar, setting up trading posts all along and in the Mediterranean islands, especially Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. In fact Carthage was so wealthy from her trade that she could hire defensive mercenaries to help maintain order. &\# 46/ . "3\n A P;mu@When Rome conquered southern Italy they became a threat to Carthage and all policies of friendship were discontinued. Carthage moved to take over the important Straits of Messina in Italy and Rome took action and this marked the beginning of the Punic Wars (Latin "bella Punica), after the word "Phoenician" in Latin. (see Rome and Carthage) 1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)D 1S ǃ ]FThe First Punic WarWn   耝"4u=~"v ?N"d8" "Remember, Roman, to guide the nations with authority. Let these be your arts: impose the laws of peace, And spare the humbled and lay low the proud." -VergilO Xm  C_@h!PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Punic_Wars') ȉmuThe First Punic War (264-241 BC) Click to See MAPWhen Carthage moved into Messina in northern Sicily the local Greek cities under Rome's protection cried out to Rome for help. Rome sent an army to Sicily and the wars began. Carthage was larger and wealthier than Rome yet Rome was superior in its manpower and its loyal citizenry. The biggest threat to Rome was not in the land battles but in the Sea battles because of Carthage's huge navy and her naval skills.& ~# PXI bPI(`',`GLOS_Corvus') "5~AE X   Rome's Naval StrategyRome, being very inferior and inexperienced in sea battles had to think quickly. After finding an abandoned Carthaginian warship they built 100 duplicates in 60 days. They soon built over 200 warships and won An huge victories at sea. They also developed a strategy where they invented a large hook like drawbridge called the Corvus or Raven and would thrust it out and catch a hold of the enemy ship which would then allow 120 soldiers to march onto the vessel. This tactic would turn their naval battle into a land battle and it proved successful for Rome , who had won every major sea battle of the first Punic War. &A# `A2BY &PI(`',`GLOS_Infantry_Warship_Mural') "6AD0 .3After winning many victories the Romans lost 200 of their ships and 100,000 men to very violent storms off Camarina in 255 BC. They soon regrouped and defeated Carthage in 241 BC with a third fleet of warships. It took approximately 20 years for the Romans to drive the Carthaginians out of Sicily. This would mark Rome's first overseas territory. Not very long after the Romans took the islands of Sardinia and Corsica from Carthage in order to have more control over the sea. After 23 years Carthage sued for peace and a peace treaty was signed. The Carthaginians had to pay a large sum of money known as an "indemnity" to Rome for the costs of the war. b#2B]F? LG:The Romans soon dominated the Mediterranean Sea and built a merchant fleet. All the trade and customs would be monitored by Rome and they patrolled the sea continually against Pirates. (see Illyrian and Gallic Invasions)1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)EDF1FLFThe Second Punic Waru]FH "7x _0"v ?N"d8" Nothing seems to me a nobler ambition than to be able to hold by you eloquence the minds of men, to captivate their wills, to move them to and fro in whatever direction you please." -CiceronFJ Ѐ C_@h!PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Punic_Wars')  €ȉ NRfThe Second Punic War (218-201 BC) Click to See MAPThe second Punic War was dominated by one man, Hannibal of Carthage, who had dedicated himself at the age of 9 to the total destruction of Rome (see Hannibal and Hamilcar). He invented an ingenious plan while Rome was off fighting the Gauls by land and the Illyrian (Greek) pirates on sea. WH]JP pPI(`',`GLOS_Hannibal_Coin') "8sJ L= H k Hannibal's PlanCarthage was not going to give up easily. A determined leader of Carthage, Hamilcar Barca directed his attention to Spain where they could get control over the mineral resources there and create an army from the people there that would match the Roman legions. His son Hannibal was committed to ruin Rome and created a military base in Spain.W]JdLP pPI(`',`GLOS_Elephant_Coin') "9c LM, &Hannibal devised an ingenious plan. His intention was to make a surprise attack upon Italy herself. He led his new army consisting of 60,000 men, 6,000 horses and 37 war elephants over the River Rhone (with his elephants on rafts), then across the Pyrenees mountains, then through southern Gaul and they finally arrived at the Alps after 5 months. 4dL'N/ . ": M<a Q[t4&m_S ʕ Only 1/2 of his army had survived. The Greek historian Polybius described the scene. (see Polybius and Hannibal). Hannibal finally arrived in Italy and went a severe rampage against the Romans. The Roman historian Livy describes Hannibal's leadership. (see Livy and Hannibal)Hannibal's Military GeniusHannibal's military brilliance was unsurpassed and he sk'N<]Fillfully maneuvered his armies along with strategic use of his elephants and he demoralized the Romans when they came to stop him at Lake Trasimene and Cannae. Hannibal trapped the Roman legions between the hills and the lake at Trasimene forcing them back into the water where many of them drowned.O'N0 .?The worst defeat for Rome was at Cannae (216 BC) where Hannibal surrounded the entire Roman army and killed 50,000 men while only losing 6,000 of his own soldiers. This proved to be Rome's worst military disaster. Hannibal's manpower was great, but they were not large enough nor did they have enough equipment to invade the city of Rome or maintain a long siege. Hannibal remained undefeated for 12 years and his army went anywhere they wanted in Italy and ravaged the countryside for 4 more years when he was called back to Africa. <9 @ mHannibal is DefeatedRome could not defeat Hannibal in Italy so she retaliated by conquering Spain and then attacking Carthage. Under the leadership of Cornelius Scipio Africanus a Roman army sailed to Africa and attacked Carthage. Hannibal was recalled to Africa in 203 BC to defend his homeland and he was defeated by Scipio in 202 BC at Zama Regia, 80 miles southwest of Carthage. This was Hannibal's first defeat. He escaped to Greece but for Carthage the war was lost. &υ# o>U z6PI(`',`GLOS_Scipio_Bust') "; Scipio Africanusq*υG \UwCarthage surrendered and gave up her fleet and all her overseas territory, including the Spanish colonies, and paid another large indemnity.Now Rome was clearly the master of the Mediterranean Sea. (see Hannibal and Scipio)1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)D>1ǃ\The Third Punic War %"<"v ?N"d8" "The fall and ruin of the world will soon take place, but it seems that nothing of the kind is to be feared as long as the city of Rome still stands intact. But when the capital of the world has fallen . . . who can doubt that the end will have come for the affairs of men and for the whole world? It is that city which sustains all things." -Lactantius&4#  Hk  C_@h!PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Punic_Wars') ȉThe Third Punic War (149-146 BC) Click to See MAPIn 149 BC Rome decided to end things with Carthage once and for all. As Carthage was gaining her wealth back through trade in olives and wine Rome could not forget how desperate had been her struggles for victory and they sent an army to destroy her forever.44/ . "=xE3 4 Carthage Destroyed The third Punic War ended with the destruction of Carthage. When Carthage defended herself against the aggressions of the Numidians of North Africa, Rome declared that she had violated her treaty arrangements and after a three-year siege upon Carthage it finally fell (146 BC). The Romans plowed through and leveled everything including houses and walls. Then they sowed salt on the fields (to guarantee that nothing would ever grow there again) and 50,000 people were sold into slavery. Thus Rome made certain that she would have no rival in the West.P2 2\FjqThe territory was annexed and became the first of Rome's provinces in the province of Africa. Rome's territory becomes tremendous.4/ . ">P\G \ [NEXT]Rome: From the Early Empire to Tiberias \Caesar1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com); 1pLRead FirstM\&B T"?Thank you for downloading BKA #40a The History of Rome - Part I8, &There is no charge for viewing this program although if you find it useful and decide to keep it the registration fee is $7.95. By registering you will help make it possible for me to produce many more programs as this one.&- (aThis program contains part one of a four part series spanning Roman history from 1000 BC to 400 AD. These programs include a general overview of Roman history with maps, timelines, photos, illustrations and a glossary. They will assist the student of Biblical history in understanding the Roman era, with an emphasis on God working in this time period, as well as the triumph of Christianity.!8i qInstructions are very self explanatory. Information is easily accessible and searchable. My thanks to my friend Georgina for her artwork and support. You can visit my webstore at: http://www.bible-history.com/store Or you can send a check through mail:Rusty Russell28362 Laura La Plante Dr.Agoura Hills, CA 91301If you have any questions or comments please feel free to email me at: rusty@bible-history.com8 >or you can visit my website at:http://www.bible-history.com1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)=  1*  eBibliography:C3 6"@  N ڀ               A dictionary of the Roman Empireby Bunson, MatthewPublished by Oxford University Press,1995An ancient Rome chronology, 264-27 B.C.by Matz, DavidPublished by McFarland & Co.,c1997Ancient Romansby Starr, Chester G.Published by OXFORD UNIV PRESS Ancient Romansby Vickers, MichaelPublished by SCHWARTZ, ARTHUR & CO Ancient Romeby Davison, MichaelCax 7            Published by Abbeville Press,c1980Ancient Romeby Payne, RobertPublished by MCGRAW-HILL INC Ancient Rome :an introductory historyby Bement, LelandPublished by University of Oklahoma Press,c1998Ancient Rome :history of a civilization that ruled the worldby Liberati, Anna MariaPublished by Stewart, Tabori & Chang,[1996] Ancient Rome An Introductory Historyby Zoch, Paul ANs   p      -$     Published by UNIV OF OK PRESS Art Of Etruria & Early Romeby Mansuelli, G APublished by GREYSTONE PRESS Building Of Eternal Romeby Rand, Edward KennardPublished by HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRCitizens of Romeby Goodenough, SimonPublished by Crown Publishers,1979Civilization before Greece and Romeby Saggs, H W FPublished by Yale University Press,1989ax 7            Civilization of the ancient Mediterranean :Greece and Romeby Grant, MichaelPublished by Scribner's,c1988Classical mythology :the ancient myths and legends of Greece and Romeby Cotterell, ArthurPublished by Lorenz Books,c1999Classical Romeby Clare, JohnPublished by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1993Daily Life In Ancient Romeby Carcopino, JeromePublished by YALE UNIV PRESS s~ ʀ           C_@h  Education In Ancient Rome From The Elderby Bonner, Stanley FredPublished by UNIV OF CA PRESSEmergence Of Rome As Ruler Of The Westerby Starr, Chester G.Published by CORNELL UNIV PRESS Everyday life in ancient Romeby Casson, LionelPublished by The Johns Hopkins University Press,c1998First Punic Warby Lazenby, JohnPublished by STANFORD UNIV PRESS T vk       Greece & Rome Builders Of Our Worldby National GeographicPublished by NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Greece and Rome at warby Connolly, PeterPublished by Greenhill Books ;Mechanicsburg, PA :Stackpole Books,c1998Greek and Roman naval warfare;a study of strategy, tactics, and ship design from Salamis 480 B.C. to Actium 31 B.C. by Rodgers, William Led Published by Annapolis, Md.,United States Naval Institute[c1964] w )    €       Handbook to life in ancient Romeby Adkins, LesleyPublished by Oxford University Press,1998, c1994Hannibal :enemy of Romeby Cottrell, LeonardPublished by Da Capo Press,1992Hannibal's war :a military history of the Second Punic Warby Lazenby, J FPublished by University of Oklahoma Press,1998Hannibal's war with Rome :his armies and campaigns 216 BCby Wise, Terrence  ܀               Published by Osprey,1999Hellenism & The Rise Of Romeby Grimal, PierrePublished by DELACORTE PRESS History Of Liberty Pt 1 Ancient Romansby Eliot, SamuelPublished by LITTLE BROWN > & COMPANY History Of Romeby Grant, MichaelPublished by SIMON & SCHUSTERHistory Of Romeby Le Glay, MarcelPublished by AIDC History Of The Roman World 753 To 146 Bc  %            &m  by Scullard, H HPublished by METHUEN UK In search of ancient Romeby Moatti, ClaudePublished by Abrams,1993Law & Life Of Romeby Crook, JohnPublished by CORNELL UNIV+PRESS Life & Literature In The Roman Republicby Frank, TenneyPublished by UNIV OF CA PRESSLivy Hannibal The Scourge Of Romeby Lake, E./ Porter, F.Published by FOCUS PUBLISHING R PULLINS CO   ڀ     [퉀         Marvels Of Ancient Romeby Scherer, Margaret RPublished by PHAIDON PRESS LTD (ENGLAND)Polybius on Roman imperialism :the histories of Polybiusby Polybius.Published by Regnery/Gateway,c1980Religions Of The Roman Empireby Ferguson, JohnPublished by CORNELL UNIV PRESS Rise Of Romeby King, GordonPublished by DOUBLEDAY DORAN & CO INC Roman Empire|   ڀ              by Charlesworth, M PPublished by OXFORD UNIV PRESS Roman Empireby Wells, ColinPublished by STANFORD UNIV PRESS Roman Historiansby Mellor, RonaldPublished by ROUTLEDGERoman Political Ideas & Practiceby Adcock, Frank Ezra,Published by UNIV OF MI PRESS Romans An Introduction To Their Historyby Christ, KarlPublished by UNIV OF CA PRESS   @ ܀              Romeby Fowler, W WardePublished by OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS (NY) Rome & The Classical Westby Roberts, J.m.Published by OXFORD UNIV PRESS Rome & The Enemyby Mattern, Susan PPublished by UNIV OF CA PRESSRome and Her Empireby Cunliffe, Barry W. (Oxford)Published by McGRAW-Hill BOOK CO (NY)Rome Late Republic & Principateby Kaegi, Walter Emil  @ Bm 5           Published by UNIV OF CHICAGO + PRESS Rome Republic & Empire Volume 1 The Republicby Household, H WPublished by J M DENT & SONS LTD (ENGLAND) Scipio Africanus & Rome's invasion of Africa :a historical commentary on Titus Livius, book XXIXby Smith, Philip JPublished by J.C. Gieben,1993Scipio Africanus :greater than Napoleonby Hart, B H LiddellPublished by Da Capo Press,1994  @ Dw -            Social Conflicts In The Roman Republicby Brunt, P.a.Published by NORTONStudies in Roman propertyby Finley, MiPublished by Cambridge University Press,1976The ancient civilization of the Etruscans.by Bloch, RaymondPublished by New York,Cowles Book CoThe atlas of the classical world :ancient Greece and ancient Romeby Bardi, PieroPublished by Peter Bedrick Books,c1997B.Fq ;           The classical Roman reader :new encounters with Ancient Romeby Atchity, Kenneth JPublished by Oxford University Press,1998The historians of Greece and Romeby Usher, StephenPublished by University of Oklahoma Press :Bristol, U.K. :Bristol Classical Press,1985The histories.by PolybiusPublished by Cambridge,Harvard University Press,1954The imperial Roman armyby Le Bohec, Yann D6Hb M         Published by Hippocrene Books ;London :B.T. Batsford, c1994The making of the Roman Army :from Republic to Empireby Keppie, LawrencePublished by University of Oklahoma Press,c1998The message and the kingdom :how Jesus and Paul ignited a revolution and transformed the ancient worldby Horsley, RichardPublished by Grossett/Putnam,c1997The Oxford history of the classical worldby Boardman, John.FHJx 5            Published by Oxford University Press,1988The Oxford history of the Roman worldby Boardman, JohnPublished by Oxford University Press,1991The Penguin dictionary of ancient historyby Speake, GrahamPublished by Penguin,1995The Penguin historical atlas of ancient Romeby Scarre, ChristopherPublished by Penguin Books,1995The Roman art of war under the republicby Adcock F.e.6HeLx K            Published by W. Heffer ;New York :Barnes & Noble,1960The Roman conquest of Italyby David, Jean MichelPublished by Malden, Mass. :Blackwell Publishers,1997The Roman war machineby Peddie, JohnPublished by Combined Books,1996The Romansby Welch, Kathryn/ LazePublished by Rizzoli,1998The war with Hannibal :books XXI-XXX of The history of Rome from its foundationby Livy/de SelincourtZHJN ܀              Published by Penguin Books,1972, c1965The wisdom of ancient Romeby Otoole, JohnPublished by Abbeville Press,1996The world of Romeby Grant, MichaelPublished by New American Library, 1960These were the Romansby Tingay, GPublished by Dufour Editions,1989Topography & Monuments Of Ancient Romeby Platner, Samuel BPublished by ALLYN & BACONWarfare in the classical world :war and the ancient civilisations of Greece and Rome7eLec o        by Warry, JohnPublished by Salamander Books,c1998Wealth Of The Roman World Gold & Silverby Kent, J P CPublished by BRITISH MUSEUM PRESS Womens Life In Greece & Romeby Lefkowitz, Mary RPublished by JNeOHNS HOPKINS UNIV PRESS 1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)8N1v' ۃCredits:e׀3 6"Az Grateful Appreciation to:Jesus ChristGeorgina Mata for using her God-given gift of artFred BunnMicrosoftAdobeMacromediaSonyLibrary of CongressPALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORI, ROMEMUSEO DI VILLA GIULIA, ROMEMUSEO NAZIONALE, NAPLESBRITISH MUSEUMMUSEO ARCHAEOLOGICO, FLORENCEVATICAN, ROMETHE ART MUSEUM, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY׀ۃF ZKBIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE, PARISARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM, PALESTRINA HOUSE OF VETTII, POMPEII1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)G"1 \ "The Dawn of Rome Facts4ۃV/ . "B"@A PS   R-The Romans reckoned each year as the . . .th from the founding of the city.- In accordance with their custom of explaining the origin of the foreign peoples they encountered by connecting them with the wanderings of one of their own mythical heroes, such as Jason and the Argonauts, Heracles, or Odysseus, Greek writers from the 5th century BC onward invented at least 25 different myths to account for Rome's foundation. - The Romans welcomed all deities they could appropriate, the more the merrier, especially during times of war. The main deities were Jupiter, Juno and Minerva and a large Etruscan style temple was built on the Capitoline Hill in their honor.GVʼn> J  yy The main deities were borrowed from the Etruscans, who borrowed from the Greeks, who borrowed from the Phoenicians.- During the first millennium BC while Rome was just a city-state on the Tiber River, the Celts (pronounced Kelts) inhabited many territories from central Europe to the Iberian Peninsula stretching over 1600 miles.- The celts and Romans were very different. The Romans were orderly and disciplined while the Celts were barbarious warriors and for thje most part, headhunters. These two cultures would clash and become fierce enemies over many centuries.!@F Z  F[  - The Celts were loyal to their own tribe and never to any form of government or state.- By the seventh century BC the various villages around Latium joined in a religious festival called "Septimontium" which referred to the seven mountains or hills. - By 600 BC the villages had grown into a large flourishing city with a population of maybe 60,000 people. - Workers and farmers did their trade at the great "forum" which was an established center market.dʼnC T ȉ  - The power neighbors known as the Etruscans were mainly farmers and mining of metal ores. They traded with Greece, Carthage and other Phoenecians- By the end of the republic, it was generally accepted that Rome had been founded in 753 BC and that the republic had begun in 509 BC.1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)HՍ1'  Ս#Romulus and Remus Facts4 / . "B6ՍKe  `ȵ v} Ns_   - When societies began to form the earliest civilizations, an all-powerful ruler or king governed them. - Early rulers like Hammurabi, Senn7A acherib, Xerxes, and Pharaoh Ramses I held immense power while their subjects had few rights except, of course, the right to obey their rulers. - The king would dress in a purple trimmed cloak and high - topped boots of red leather. He sat upon a throne of ivory known as a curule chair. These are often seen in reliefs and on the reverse of coins and were constructed using crossed elephant tusks for legs.N7.E6 :  ⊡֙- The kings were accompanied by twelve lictors as he traveled about the city. The lictors each bore a fasces, a bundle of rods which symbolized the power over life and death held by the King of Rome. The axe symbolized the power to execute quicly and mercifully, while the rods symbolized the power to punish with beatings.- Though the king was commander in time of war, high priest, and judge, he did not have absolute power when it came to governing Rome. He needed the agreement of a governing body in order to make such important decisions as going to war. The Comitia Curiata was formed of representatives from each of the thirty curiae, or groups of family clans. If approved by the Comitia Curiata, the act still had to be approved by the Senate, originally one hundred of Rome's wealthy men who served as advisors to the king. FAtG0 .-   - It is an interesting fact of Roman history that there are no written records dating before 350 B.C. that have ever been discovered. - After that time, records began to be kept by the priests, the Consuls' names were recorded, and laws were written down. Later three men, Ennius, Naevius and the famous historian Q. Fabius Pictor began to write histories based on ancient legends and their own records of current events. Because of this, the seven kings of Rome possess a status somewhere between legendary and historical. .EwI; D v} - There probably were seven kings bearing these names, but the events ascribed to their reigns before Servius Tullius are probably legendary and allegorical in character. The warlike character of Tullus Hostilius stands in contrast to the religious emphasis on the events in King Numa's reign. - According to epic legend, Tarquin was overthrown because he had raped Lucretia, a virtuous Roman matron and the daughter of an important citizen. mAtGI, (1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)5wIJ1 JMMaps.IGJ& MapsJXLf W6PI(`',`GLOS_Map_x_Italian_Peninsula_x6th_Centx_BCx') PI(`',`GLOS_Language_Map') !PI(`',`GLOS_Ancient_Italy_Map') #PI(`',`GLOS_Map_x_Mediterranean') 'PI(`',`GLOS_The_Seven_Hills_of_Rome') !PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Punic_Wars') Italian Peninsula(6th Century BC)Language MapPowers Of Ancient Italy(800 BC)The MediterraneanSeven Hills of RomePunic Wars2GJM &PI(`',`GLOS_Map_of_Roman_Expansion') C_@h#PI(`',`GLOS_Modern_Map_of_Italy') Roman Expansion(After 3rd Punic War)Modern Map of Italy1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)IXLM1) m  M\Latium & Geography Facts4MN/ . "B9MS ts     `ȵPFh- Archaeologists have determined that early villages began to develop around Rome from before 800 BC on the Palatine, Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline hills.- Palatine Hill became the center of Rebublican Rome and the site of important temples and palaces.- The seven hills of Rome were no higher than 60 yards but had steep slopes that rose above the flat marshland. - Several small streams flowed between theNM seven hills.- At the western foot of the Palatine Hill was the Lupercal Spring, where the wolf is said to have nursed Romulus and Remus.N5 8   - The Italian Peninsula is a narrow boot shaped area that kind of divides the Mediterranean almost in half. It was an ideal location for trade among the three continents: Asia, Europe, and Africa.- All of the mountains around Italy were actually a good thing. The mountains drove them westward where they felt very protected and safe. The Greeks did not have the same advantage. This allowed the Romans to grow and develop new ideas and ways to live.- The large open land areas in the north and the big Mediterranean Sea all around made it easy for enemy armies to try to come in and make war with the Romans. This made the people of Rome very prepared for war at all times from the very start.%5 8   - Italy has very rich and fertile soil and very mild weather. The soil was enriched by silt deposits of mountain streams and therefore vegetables, fruits, and grains thrived.- The silt filling the short shallow rivers sometimes became blocked and thus the mouths became like swamps and infested with mosquitos which also carried many diseases like recurring epidemics of malaria.- In the earliest times the peoples of Italy traded among themselves because of the mountainous topography.Z\I `     - The Alps in the north blocked Italy from Europe, its only land connection. - Italy's coastline was long, rocky and marshy and lacked good harbors.- In order to increase trade Rome mastered the ways of the great sea but until then they remained attached to the land.- 1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)M1 Political Institutions Facts4\݇/ . "BA P ⊡֙  - The story of the Roman Senate goes way back to a time before there was an accurate written history for Rome. - The Senate was composed of leading citizens who were members of the original aristocratic families in the old Republic. - The original purpose of the Senate was to advise the King. This worked well during the first two centuries of Romes existence when Rome was little more than a city-state built on seven hills and ruled by a king. ݇> J  ߉ - The Senate originally had one hundred members chosen from amongst the Patrician class but the early kings soon increased its size to three hundred members. - After the expulsion of the last Tarquin, Tarquinius Superbus, the Senate formed the main governing body of the Roman Republic. The two consuls, the chief ruling Magistrates of the Republic were chosen by the Senate, which served as the advisory body to the consuls. - Cornelius Sulla was the first to use an army to usurp the power of the Senate. He had many members of the Senate murdered who opposed his regime. He also increased the number of senators from 300 to 600. |tD V d  - Many of these new senators appointed by Sulla were not Patricians, but instead members of the Equestrian Order who had supported Sullas takeover of the government.LATER HISTORY- The Roman Republic was a form of government that worked well with a city-state or even a group of powerful city-states in control of a region. With the annexation of Spain, Macedonia, Greece, the East, and North Africa in the Second Century BC, Rome had come to control a vast empire and the Republic with its two consuls, senate, and small group of magistrates was not an adequate government for an empire of the size Rome had acquired. +0 .  - Many of the early senators were great orators and we have their words preserved for us tt\oday by contemporary historians. Cato the Censor, Cicero, and others sometimes swayed the opinion of the entire population of Rome with their fine oratory and persuasive arguments. - The early years of the First Century BC ushered in a long period of civil war that began with the struggle between Sulla and Marius and reached a climax with Octavians defeat of Marcus Antonius at the Battle of Actium in 31 B. C. During that period, the Senate steadily lost power to the imperators, or generals of large Roman armies who controlled the government. In 27 B. C., the Senate voluntarily gave much of its power to Octavian, whom they had given the title of Augustus. ltG0 .  - While most of the early emperors tried to involve the Senate in the governing process and actively sought its counsel, most of the Senates real power was gone by the reign of Tiberius. Domitian was hostile to most of the Senate and Septimius Severus openly thumbed his nose at this once powerful Roman governing body. - During the later Roman Empire, the Senate had become more of an elite club for members of old aristocratic and equestrian families. It had no real governing power and its approval of acts of the emperor his laws was purely ceremonial. By this time, there were over one thousand senators. 9 @%  -The Roman Senate survived even after the fall of the Roman Empire in the West when Rome had sunk to the status of a medium sized Italian city. Boethius, the Sixth Century advisor and close friend to Theodoric the Ostrogoth declared that the thing that made him happiest in his life was when his two sons were made Roman Senators. 1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)JG\1  v \EEarly Roman Society Facts4/ . "Bx1\G \c   dS - Still today in Italian culture the father, grandfather, or great grandfather has the greatest authority and respect. The eldest father, or patriarch is similar to a mafia Godfather.- The father of the Roman family had the power over everyone and everything in the home. He could sell his wife or children into slavery and order their deaths at will. He could extend this power to his slaves and tenant farmers as well. -The Roman father also had the duties of pietas, or offering proper sacrifices to the household gods at the right times. e-m8 >[   - The family gods were the lares, or gods of the fields and the penates, or gods of the household stores and food supply. - Education of children in the Roman world was done much differently from the way we educate our own children today. Though athletic training and sports were done in groups the essential learning skills were never done in groups like we do today. Much of the Roman education of children was adopted from the Greeks.- Education varied with social class despite their efforts to provide a uniform education to all citizens. v> J    - There were three phases to a proper Roman education, primary instruction, reading of literature (called grammar by the Romans) and formal schooling in rhetoric.- Mythology was popular, and the works of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek scholars were important in the education of the young Roman.- A son of a rich merchant of the Equestrian class would receive an education that included personal training in business management. A noblewoman's education would prepare her for administration of a large estate and hundreds of slaves during her husband's absence. The sons of craftsmen would be apprentices, either in their father's shop or in the shop of another local craftsman of the same trade. m< F uf_  - The father in the traditional Roman home was a very stern figure, and beliveved his sons shouldn't be pampered but must build character. It was important that the young man develop gravitas, a serious and sturdy sense of purpose.- The little amount of comfort and physical love the child was allowed came from his mother or his nurse, who might be either male or female. This nurse often remained the boy's loyal servant even after he had grown up.3vD V  -b[f  - A child might never see his mother and father except in the evenings for a formal dinner with the family. - As the boy grew, he was given a pedagogue or private tutor. The pedagogue was responsible for teaching the child basic reading ad writing skills and also prepared him for learning the important art of rhetoric, or public speaking.- Writing was done on a wax tablet with an ivory, bone, or metal stylus with an eraser (smoother) on the opposite end to correct mistakes.: B 1s ⊡֙- The Grammaticus taught the sons of craftsmen and merchants correct sentence structure and speaking form. He had the right to swat the child across the back with a stick if he made grammar mistakes. In early times the Grammaticus was not always highly respected in Roman society and during the Republican period, the Senate banned all philosophers and grammaticii from Rome because they corrupted the minds of young Romans by teaching them to be "lazy and overly clever."0 .  - Great universities also existed in the Mediterranean world. The best were at Athens and alexandria, and also Rome herself, although Rome had the best schools for the practice of law and government. In Athens, a student could get a classical education studying Greek dramas, poetry, logic, mathematics, or philosopy (science, mathematics, and other branches of knowledge).- Children always learned rigorous military discipline which included the arts of war, swordsmanship, hand to hand combat, and the way of life in an army camp. Basic training was very harsh and the boy learned quickly to endure cold and hunger in order to teach him to survive while in a war. This stern training was valued by all Romans. t H ^  h݀ ╺g - Some families provided an education to their girls and others considered an educated woman to be lacking in the feminine virtues. - The first and last name of a Roman were similar to the way we use them today. The first two names, the praenomen and nomen, were much like first and last names in our time. The nomen was the family name, passed from a father to all of his children. Just like today, certain family names carried more prestige than others. A boy was given a praenomen name at birth and was known by it to his family and close friends. Many boys were given exactly the same praenomen and nomen. ? < F   - It is almost always noticed that most Roman names end with the letters "us", all the truly Roman praenomen and nomen ended in the letters "us," even the ones often given different endings in modern translations. - The cognomen was the third name and usually was given later in life as a title of distinction, for example Gaius Julius Caesar, or might refer to some physical characteristic, for example Rufus meant "red-haired". The cognomen might be handed down to a man's children, or it might not. L h@8 >   - Most popular praenomina were always represented on official documents and inscriptions with a standard abbreviation.- Women carried, as their legal names, only the feminine form of their father's nomen. For example, all the daughters of all the Julius family were legally named Julia. A woman might also use a form of her father's cognomen and so be known as Julia Caesaria. - A slave freed by his master adopted the master's first two names and added his own slave name as cognomen. h@For example, Marcus Tullius Tiro was the freed slave secretary of Marcus Tullius Cicero. n C> J 4  - Women were usually Noble Ladies, Warrior Queens, Soldiers' Wives, Farmer's Daughters, and Slaves.- Food for the common people consisted of wheat or barley, olive oil. a little fish, wine, home grown vegetables, and few owned a goat or cow or chickens. The grain was ground into flour and baked into loaves of bread, much like the round Italian loaves today. - Round loaves have been popular amongst almost all Mediterranean people since ancient times. They were baked in round ceramic bowls, like the plaster casts of loaves found at Pompeii which was destroyed in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.h@E< F    - Barley was considered the food of slaves.- Roman soldiers carried their grain (high gluten wheat) and flour grindstones with them on the march. At night, after their 20 mile daily march they would have pasta and baked bread. They preferred this even over meat. When they did eat meat they considered it to be "barbarian food." - Plaster casts of Roman bread from Pompeii can be seen today exactly as they came from the oven 1913 years ago. g?CE( ~1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)KEE1J !EtThe Fifth Century BC Facts4EE/ . "BNEHS t F[ie' (j - The plain of Latium began to be threatened by the fierce mountain tribes in the north (Sabines, Aequi, and Volsci), who experienced overpopulation and tried to acquire more land, they ruthlessly attacked Roman farms for years.- Rome's external affairs during the 5th century largely revolved around its military assistance to the Latin League to hold back these invaders.- The regal period (753-509 BC) and the early republic (509-280 BC) are the most poorly documented periods of Roman history because historical accounts of Rome were not written until much later. EhK< F  D[R- The law code was inscribed upon 12 bronze tablets and publicly displayed in the Forum. Its provisions concerned legal procedure, debt foreclosure, paternal authority over children, property rights, inheritance, funerary regulations, and various major and minor offenses. Although many of its provisions became outmoded and were modified or replaced in later times, the Law of the Twelve Tables formed the basis of all subsequent Roman private law.- Toward the end of the 5th century, while Rome and the Latins were still defending themselves against the Volsci and the Aequi, the Romans began to expand at the expense of Etruscan states.H?NL f Rfs5   - Romans living on the frontier may have strongly favoured war against restless neighbours, such as Gauls and Samnites. - Rome's relentless expansion was more often responsible for provoking its neighbours to fight in self-defense. - Roman consuls, who led the legions into battle, often advocated war because victory gained them personal glory. - The Romans waged war for many reasons and they often used religious means to assist their war effort. The fetial priests were used for the solemn official declaration of war. According to fetial law, Rome could enjoy divine favour only if it waged just wars (wars of self-defense). ShK@ N'    - Rome's first major war against an organized state was fought with Fidenae (437-426 BC), a town located just upstream from Rome. After it had been conquered, its land was annexed to Roman territory. - Rome next fought a long and difficult war against Veii, an important Etruscan city not far from Fidenae. - During the wars against Fidenae and Veii, Rome increased the numb?NEer of military tribunes with consular power. - In 406 BC Rome instituted military pay, and in 403 BC it increased the size of its cavalry. ?Nt@ N- p - The conquest of Veii opened southern Etruria to further Roman expansion.1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)L1v m "The Fourth Century BC Facts4t/ . "BK d{ _^ bhpRf- The Appian Way gave the Romans a great advantage when they needed reinforcements during their many battles.- Before Roman strength increased further, a marauding Gallic tribe swept down from the Po River valley, raided Etruria, and descended upon Rome. The Romans were defeated in the battle of the Allia River in 390 BC, and the Gauls captured and sacked the city; they departed only after they had received ransom in gold. Y UL f  s5<뉀  - After this the Romans greatly feared and respected the strength of the Gauls. - Much of the fighting during this time consisted of three wars against the Samnites, Oscan-speaking tribes of the central and southern Apennines. - The Samnite tribes united, no doubt, to resist Rome's expansion.- Both the rugged terrain and the powerful Samnite soldiers proved to be difficult challenges, which forced Rome to adopt innovative military methods that later became important for conquering the Mediterranean..T v   D[ (j - Once invited in, Rome usually absorbed the allied state after defeating iany of their enemies. - Campania was a major addition to Rome's strength and manpower.- The absorption of Campania provoked the Latins to take up arms against Rome to maintain their independence. - Since the Gallic sack of Rome in 390 BC, the city had become increasingly dominant within the Latin League. - In 381 BC Tusculum was absorbed by being given Roman citizenship. UL fk  F[   - In 358 BC Rome created two more tribes from territory captured along the Volscian coast. - The Latin War (340-338 BC) was quickly decided in Rome's favour. Virtually all of Latium was given Roman citizenship and became Roman territory, but the towns retained their local governments. - The large states of Praeneste and Tibur maintained somewhat of an independence by becoming Rome's military allies. - The Latin League was abolished; but the legal rights that the Latins had enjoyed among themselves were retained by Rome as a legal status, the Latin right (ius Latii), and used for centuries as an intermediate step between non-Roman status and full Roman citizenship.^8 >   - Rome was now the master of central Italy and spent the next decade organizing and pushing forward its frontier through conquest and colonization. - The Romans soon confronted the Samnites of the middle Liris (modern Liri) River valley, sparking the Second, or Great, Samnite War (326-304 BC). During the first half of the war Rome suffered serious defeats, but the second half saw Rome's recovery, reorganization, and ultimate victory. - In 321 BC a Roman army was trapped in a narrow canyon near the Caudine Forks and compelled to surrender, and Rome was forced to sign a five-year treaty. 0 .;  - In 315 BC, after the resumption of hostilities, Rome suffered a crushing defeat at Lautulae. Ancient sources state that Rome initially borrowed hoplite tactics from the Etruscans (used during the 6th or 5th centuries BC) but later adopted the manipular system of the Samnites, probably as a result of Samnite success at this time. - The manipular formation resembled a checkerboard pattern, in which solid squares of soldiers weret separated by empty square spaces. It was far more flexible than the solidly massed hoplite formation, allowing the army to maneuver better on rugged terrain. The system was retained throughout the republic and into the empire. [+N0 .W  - During these same years Rome organized a simple navy, constructed its first military roads (construction of the Via Appia was begun in 312 BC and of the Via Valeria in 306), and increased the size of its annual military levy.- During the period 334-295 BC, Rome founded 13 colonies against the Samnites and created six new tribes in annexed territory. During the last years of the war, the Romans also extended their power into northern Etruria and Umbria. Several successful campaigns forced the cities in these areas to become Rome's allies. }B; D ȉ - The Great Samnite War finally ended in Rome's victory. During the final phase of this war, Rome, on another front, concluded its third treaty with Carthage (306 BC), in which the Carthaginians acknowledged all of Italy as Rome's sphere of influence.1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)KN1' L#The Third Century BC Facts4J/ . "B:e  s5=Rf  QD?⢺=z}b!- The Third Samnite War (298-290 BC) was the last desperate attempt of the Samnites to remain independent. They persuaded the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls to join them. - Rome emerged victorious at the battle of Sentinum in 295 and spent the remainder of the war putting down any possible Samnite resistance. The Samnites were bound to Rome by a series of alliances.- Rome spent the 280s BC putting down unrest in northern Italy, but its attention was soon directed to the far south as well by a quarrel between the Greek city of Thurii and a Samnite tribe. Thurii called upon the assistance of Rome, whose naval operations in the area provoked a war with the Greek city of Tarentum. As in previous conflicts with Italian peoples, Tarentum summoned military aid from mainland Greece, calling upon King Pyrrhus of Epirus, one of the most brilliant generals of the ancient world.J-D V_   ⊡֙ 3- The Pyrrhic War, 280-275 BC, Pyrrhus brought 20 war elephants with his 25,000 highly trained soldiers, each elephant had a tower on its back with armed soldiers inside. - There have been plates and other objects discovered that reveal what these war elephants looked like. They were almost as large as modern elephants but much more fierce. They are extinct now.- After defeating the Romans at Heraclea and stirring up revolt among the Samnites, Pyrrhus offered peace terms that would have limited Roman power to central Italy. When the Senate became disheartened, Appius Claudius, an aged blind senator, roused their courage and persuaded them to continue fighting. g:6 :   - Pyrrhus again defeated the Romans in 279 at Asculum. His losses in the two battles numbered 7,500 (almost one-third of his entire force). When congratulated on his victory, Pyrrhus, according to Plutarch, "replied . . . that one other such would utterly undo him." This type of victory has been referred to as a Pyrrhic victory. - Pyrrhus then left Italy and aided the Greeks of Sicily against Carthage; he eventually returned to Italy and was defeated by the Romans in 275 BC at Beneventum. He then returned to Greece, while Rome put down resistance in Italy and took Tarentum itself by siege in 272.-L f     \Fjq - By 270 BC Rome had more citizens and well-trained soldiers than any other Mediterranean power. - By 275 BC Rome ruled the entire Italian Peninsula. Rome was now the unquestioned master of Italy. Roman territory was a broad belt across central Italy, from sea to sea. - Any conquered peoples were obligated to provide Rome with military forces in wartime.- In principle, each province was to be administered in accordance with its lex provinciae, a set of rules drawn up by the conquering commander and a senatorial embassy. The lex provinciae laid down the organization of taxation, which varied from province to province.4. *  o- During the republic, tax collection was left to private companies of publicani, they were called this because they won by highest bid the contract to collect the revenues. It was the governor's responsibility to keep the publicani within the bounds of the lex provinciae so that they did not exploit the helpless provincials too mercilessly, but this was difficult. Governors expected to make a profit from their term of office, and some collaborated with the publicani to strip the provinces of their wealth.8 >   - According to the Roman census of 225 BC, Rome could call upon 700,000 infantry and 70,000 cavalry from its own citizens and allies. - The conquest of Italy provided Rome with considerable manpower, and forced it to develop military, political, and legal institutions and practices for conquering and absorbing foreign peoples. - The Pyrrhic War demonstrated that Rome's civilian army could wage a successful war against highly skilled armies of the Mediterranean world.b: D C_@h (Also see Punic Wars Facts)1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)E1m $ The Punic Wars Facts4 / . "B A P   ȉ- Rome placed loyal, Latin speaking citizens and colonies in strategic areas throughout Italy to promote a Roman way of living and thinking.- Rome's rapid expansion brought it almost immediately into conflict with non-Italian powers. - In the south, the main opponent was Carthage. In violation of the treaty of 306, which had placed Sicily under Carthaginian rule, Rome crossed the straits of Messana (between Italy and Sicily) embarking on war.   J b_  [ € - Rome's wars with Carthage are known as the "Punic Wars"; the Romans called the Carthaginians Poeni [Phoenicians], from which derived the adjective "Punic."- Polybius, who wrote his history in order to explain to other Greeks the reasons for Roman success, believed that after their victory over Hannibal the Romans conceived the aim of dominating all 1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)J _ 1n Lh%_ CThe First Punic War Facts4  / . "BZ _  Q p [퉀    - The historian Polybius said that this war was the most destructive war in terms of casualties in the history of wars up to this time, including the wars of Alexander the Great. - 120 soldiers were awaiting the drawbridge to board the enemy ship and fight.- Carthaginian warships had underwater battering rams.- The navigators used the sun, moon and stars to calculate their position in the sea. - There were huge lighthouses at the biggest harbors including the massive Lighthouse of Alexandria. @6 : ȉ - The main cause of the first outbreak of the War between Carthage and Rome was a crisis in the city of Messana (Messina) who had applied for help to both Rome and Carthage. The Carthaginians arrived first and brought somewhat of a solution. The arriving Roman commander, forced his way into the city and seized the Carthaginian admiral during a discussion and forced him to withdraw. This aggression involved Rome in war with Carthage and Syracuse.- The Romans overcam @ e the Carthaginians at Messana. In 262 they besieged and captured the Carthaginian base at Agrigentum on the south coast of the island. The first years of the war left little doubt that Roman had intentions beyond the protection of Messana.^& ]C8 >M   - In 260 the Romans built their first large fleet of standard battleships. At Mylae (Milazzo), off the north Sicilian coast, their admiral Gaius Duilius defeated a Carthaginian squadron of more maneuverable ships by grappling and boarding. - A large Roman fleet sailed out in 256and defeated the entire Carthaginian fleet off Cape Ecnomus (near modern Licata), and established a fortified camp on African soil at Clypea (Klibia in Tunisia). - Rome only lost one naval battle in the entire war but lost a serious amout of ships to stormsoB@C- * 1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)K]CD1.I&DIThe Second Punic War Facts4CKD/ . "B DVFA P €  - Hannibal lived from 247-182 BC.- Since Rome now ruled the Sea they could choose the field of battle. They decided to send one army to Spain and another to Sicily and Africa. - Hannibal acted strategically and began a series of operations that dictated the course of the war for the greater part of its duration. He developed a plan by cutting off their source of strength in which he invaded Italy, thus causing a disruption of the league. NKDHN j   Rf  - Hannibal's chances of ever reaching Italy seemed small, for the sea was guarded by the Roman fleets and the land route was long and treacherous but he was very determined.- Hannibal lost over 10,000 men and many elephants crossing the Alps.- Hannibal picked up an army of Gauls along his way through the Alps.- While Hannibal was attacking on the north, the Macedonians were attacking on the east.- The Latin allies held firm and every freeman and slave was drafted for military service.VVFIE X#  [C_@h- When Scipio moved into Spain he crushed Hannibal's rear support.- For Polybius, the Second Punic War illustrated the superiority of the strong Roman constitution over Hannibal's individual genius.1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)JHDJ1Y h'DJ.The Third Punic War Facts4IxJ/ . "B}DJBMM h C_@hȉ m - After the Second Punic War, Carthage had recovered to the point that in 191 it offered to repay the remainder of the 50-year tribute of 200 talents per year in one lump sum.- Carthage's neighbour, the Numidian king Masinissa, had been granted as a reward for his support of Rome at the Battle of Zama his paternal kingdom and the western Numidian kingdom ruled by Syphax. - After a series of losses and numerous Numidian attacks, the Carthaginians in 151 decided to fight back, violating the treaty of 201 When a Roman delegation observed thisRome was provided with the casus belli for a declaration of war in 149.cxJOL f/ ⊡֙   -Polybius claimed that the Senate had decided on this war "long before." - It was Cato the Elder who cried "Carthago Delenda est" (Carthage must be destroyed) which resulted in the famous slogan. Carthage desperately tried to make amends, executing their own generals who had fought against the Numidians, surrendering to Rome, handing over hostages, armour, and artillery. - Rome finally agreed that: Carthage must be abandoned and the population moved to a new site inland. Carthage had no choice but to fight.BMm8 >    - Rome sent huge land and naval fOmIorces under both consuls of 149, Lucius Marcius Censorinus and Manius Manilius. - Rome knew they would win but the heavy fortifications of Carthage delayed the Roman victory. The young Scipio Aemilianus was elected consul for 147, and by popular vote he was assigned the task of bringing the war to an end. He blockaded the city by land and sea, inflicting terrible suffering. - Finally, in 146, the Roman army took Carthage, enslaved its remaining 50,000 inhabitants, burned the buildings to the ground, and ritually sowed the site with salt to guarantee that nothing would ever grow there again. O.; D  \Fjq - Carthaginian territory was annexed as the province of Africa.1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Hmv1?I(vmRoman Citizenship Facts4./ . "B`vKA P   F[- Rome placed loyal, Latin speaking citizens and colonies in strategic areas throughout Italy to promote a Roman way of living and thinking.- Rome offered different classes of citizenship to the people of the allied or conquered towns. One class of citizenship offered full voting privileges and an opportunity for the man or his descendents to gain a magistracy or membership in the Roman senate.- The Latin War (340-338 BC) was quickly decided in Rome's favour. Virtually all of Latium was given Roman citizenship and became Roman territory, but the towns retained their local governments. "mP n  (jD[ - The large states of Praeneste and Tibur maintained somewhat of an independence by becoming Rome's military allies. - The Latin League was abolished; but the legal rights that the Latins had enjoyed among themselves were retained by Rome as a legal status, the Latin right (ius Latii), and used for centuries as an intermediate step between non-Roman status and full Roman citizenship.1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)PK1Qv)=The Republican Government Facts4m/ . "B9 @  - Senior officials of the Roman Republic derived their insignia from the Etruscans: curule chair, purple-bordered toga (toga praetexta), and bundle of rods (fasces). - Early Rome was a city-state and had kings (Romulus, Servius Tullius, Numa Pompilius, etc.) The Romans found out very early that they did not favor kings and their abuses of power, even if the king was a good ruler. In 509 B.C. Tarquin the Proud was overthrown and the Republic was founded. ]']6 :O  ⊡֙- By the third century the consuls (two consuls were elected to serve for one year) had similar authority as the early kings except for the fact that they could only serve in office for one year. This would put a limit on the possibility of a dictatorship. In fact if one consul thought the other was getting too powerful he could veto the other consul's actions. We get our word "veto" from the Latin word which means "I forbid." - The consuls were in charge of government and also of the army. The 300 citizen Senate advised them at all times. They also maintained the treasury as well as foreign policy and they served for life. In the history of the Roman Republic the Senate was always the most powerful group. In order to be elected to the Senate, a person had to be of the Patrician class.`"> JE <  - Only the Assembly could approve or disapprove of one of their laws and only the assembly elected Candidates for the office of consul. - There was always a basic concept of checks and balances.- The modern US constitution is based on these basic concepts of checks and balances within the ancient government of the Roman Republic. Whether it be]m the President, the Congress, or the courts, none can dominate the government. Each branch has a way to check the actions of the other and the actions of each branch balance the others. 1]8 >   - Though many of the Greek city-states, such as Sparta, were ruled by a king, there were some forms of democracy emerging. The most well known of these early democracies was Athens. The Golden Age of Athenian democracy began about 500 BC and lasted for a just over one hundred years. - These democracies were not very much like the governments we call democracies today because only the citizens could vote and hold office.- In most classical governments, women had few rights or none at all.D V }d  - It wasn't long before the Plebeians argued for more rights. They won the right to elect tribunes, who could veto any senatorial law. They only won the right to have the protection of the tribunes because they protested by refusing to go to war. Power constantly shifted between the Plebians and the Patricians.LATER HISTORY- During the time of the Civil Wars and the Imperators, the real power was held by the generals in command of the largest armies. ]s> J?   *n- Octavian, later given the title "Augustus" by the Senate, was also given the titles "Princeps" and "Pontifex Maximus", and was given tremendous power to reform the Republic. He is considered to be the first Emperor but he never proclaimed himself as absolute ruler. - The Romans maintained the delusion of having a Republic until quite late in the Empire. - The Emperor was considered as simply First Citizen or "Princeps" until the time of Diocletian (A. D. 284-305.) At this time, the Emperor became a remote, absolute despot surrounded with pomp and ceremony, like a Mesopotamian ruler. Assassination was considered anacceptable tool of politics throughout these times. Many emperors were deposed and executed by the Praetorian Prefect (head of the palace guard) and his troops. =D V     - The throne was even sold at public auction in 193 A.D. - By the end of the Classical Age, the Roman West disintegrated into petty kingdoms ruled in a very similar way to the early tribes. Although technology and learning had advanced, political organization and government had regressed several thousand years. 1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Bs1r *The Roman Legions;=& * The Roman Legions[G2 2 The Roman armies developed many of their warfare techniques from the Etruscans and they improved upon them. They also used the tactics of Alexander the Great and the Greeks, including the Greek phalanx warfare. But Roman commanders knew that the phalanxes were too large and too slow to be useful in the many wars they were encountering. 4{/ . "(CGR r    The LegionThe generals devised innovative new plans for the organization of their armies for war. They reorganized their troops into legions of 6,000 men. They divided these into smaller more mobile units of 120 soldiers that would route the slow moving phalanxes of their attackers. The LegionariesRoman soldiers known as legionaries were very well trained and disciplined. Deserting was met by punishment of death. The discipline within the legions was so strict and their methods so brutal that they eventually brought fear into the entire known world. !{=A P  The legionaries built a massive network of roads up and down the Italian Peninsula which soon became major trade routes. They also set up military cities known as coloniae==. Once the Roman army had conquered an enemy they would treat them remarkably well by giving them partial rights and maybe even citizenship especially if the conquered enemy would contribute anything to help fight in Rome's wars such as soldiers or ships. Military Organization and DevelopmentMB R    Looking back upon history no people have been more affected by their military institutions than that of Rome. The Roman military system rested upon the responsibility of the male citizen to render military service. Early organization of the army probably followed the Homeric method with nobles in chariots and an army of common people. As Rome developed under the Etruscan's, a long, closed phalanx had been developed as the basic formation. Definite improvements in the military organization were made in the fourth century BC. At that time soldiers pay was introduced and the legionary formation developed. The legion originally contained about 4,000 men divided into smaller units for flexibility of movement in a country. The throwing of the javelin also was adopted and the cavalry was strengthened. The many Roman wars forced them to develop a universal military training system and Roman army discipline was vastly superior to that of nearly all peoples she met on the battlefield. The Roman military was well organized and their insistence upon fortified camps was another definite advantage which Roman military training included. In military matters at least, Rome could face the future with confidence.mA=, (1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)GM1 v+vBThe Geography of Italy@A& 4 The Geography of ItalyS, &Italy was the most important land in the western Mediterranean area. It is very important to appreciate the the geography of this area for an appropriate understanding of its history and to know for certain that it was destined to be the home of a great civilization, just as Jerusalem, was destined to be the home of a great king.4A/ . "v Y    The NorthOn the north , Italy is, for the most part, protected by the tremendous mountains known as the Alps, which acted as a barrier wall against the barbarians of central Europe. The WestIn the western portion of Italy are large fertile plains which extend all the way to the Sea. The EastAlong the eastern coast and running from north to south are the Apennine mountains, which make the eastern part of Italy almost innaccessible. These mountains divided the many peoples of Italy, not into many city-states as in Greece, but into two classes: the poor, mountain tribes, and the wealthy plainsmen. % F Z  The CoastThroughout Italy's 2000 miles of coastland, there are actually very few deep bays and good harbors. If any decent ones did exist they were generally on the south or western coasts. Facing WestGeographically Italy and Rome faced west. This may be why the Romans turned an early gaze upon Spain, Gaul, and Britain. Italy's central position was extremely helpful in dominating the whole Mediterranean area once they had become united as a single state. s% g@N jK  The Nearby IslandsThe island of Sicily was more or less a stepping stone to Africa and also served to bring Rome into contact with the Orient. Two other close islands, Sardinia and Corsica, have always followed Italy's footsteps culturally, maybe because their rugged mountains limited economic growth. Central Italy and Its ResourcesItaly and its nearby islands contained a wealth of natural resources such as iron, copper, tin, gold, an g@d silver. Building materials, including a variety of stones and timber, were available.  vBU xu The ClimateThe climate, like other Mediterranean lands, had a nice mild temperature, without extreme heat or cold weather for the most part. All in all, Italy was endowed naturally with many of the essential ingredients required for the development of a single civilization, and at an early age it became a beautiful attraction to hordes of wanderers.1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Bg@B1,BXIPrehistoric italy;vBB& * Prehistoric Italy%BE( Scholars have done extensive research concerning pre-civilized Italy or prehistoric, as they put it, and have come up with certain conclusions. Scientists convey that Paleolithic or Old Stone Age implements found in several parts of Italy indicate that early man had been attracted to this area. Paleolithic man buried his dead in "shallow trenches," and with him his crude stone axes and stone scrapers; he apparently had not yet developed pottery and lived as a hunter finding shelter in natural caves.BH0 .SThe Neolithic, or New Stone Age, which brings with it new types of implements, blends easily into the new succeeding Copper Age. Aside from improved tools, man now constructed huts and lived in villages. The burial customs showed few significant changes aside from the increasingly elaborate tombs. Pottery and weaving appeared, as did herding and agriculture which were all significant developments.Boats, also important in the progress of civilization, were introduced at this time. Italy and Sicily show relations with the Aegean and Balkan cultures during this period, and northern Italy reveals connections with areas in central Europe and Spain. The general physical type of these men was that characteristic of the Mediterranean race, which were from the eastern Mediterranean area. Already in the prehistoric era, migrations of peoples from neighboring territories to the east from across the Adriatic Sea, had occurred.g?EXI( ~1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)HHI1-I&OInvaders from the NorthAXII& 6 Invaders from the NorthING \#    INVADERS DURING THE BRONZE AGE (2000-1000 B.C.) Invaders from the north side of the Alps pushed their way into Italy about 2000 B.C. Their culture was similar to that in Switzerland and the upper Danube Basin. They were known as "lake dwellers" because they commonly built their houses on piles in lakes and rivers, probably to protect themselves from sudden attack. As the centuries went on, other invaders gradually moved southward who are called the "terremare" people. They were mainly known for their practice of the cremation of their dead and the burying of the ashes in jars. were also the western Indo-European invaders coming into Greece at approximately the same time. After Greece, these invaders came into Italy in many waves. They became the historic italic or Italian tribes who later gave their language to all Italy. They brought with them unique customs and a new bronze technology devoted specifically to materials used in warfare. Along with the Illyrian invaders during the second millennium all these bands of invaders make it very difficult to know too much detail regarding the study of conditions in Italy during this period.mAI&O, (1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Q NwO1.wOEtruscans Phoenicians and GreeksT.&OO& \ Etruscan, Phoenician, and Greek InfluencesOwOmG \ Om&OyyRIt is quite possible that a new Indo-European invasion occurred around 1000 BC, and we know for sure that there were definite movements and various changes within the Italic peninsula during the tenth century BC. For the Romans the three main cultural influences were:The EtruscansThe Etruscans, invaders from the Aegean Sea area, settled on the Italian west coast to the north of the Tiber River during the early part of the tenth century BC. They brought their own customs, traditions, and in many ways a very superior culture, and it was this culture that left a permanent mark on the soon emerging Roman civilization. Etruscan influence gave a particular character to Roman art, architecture, and sports. The arch is an Etruscan invention, and the gladiatorial combats of later Rome had their origin in the Etruscan culture. (O9 @ ȉThe PhoeniciansThe Phoenicians, who had impressed the Greeks with their early commercial activities and influenced changes in Greece culturally, also were significant in the west. Carthage in northern Africa was founded as a Phoenician colony, in the ninth century BC, and from here these famous traders rapidly established colonies and trading posts at almost every strategic point on the Mediterranean Sea, including the islands of Sicily and Sardinia which were closest to the Italian mainland. Because the Phoenicians traded much with the Etruscans they also became important for the early culture of Italy, yet because of all their colonies set up for trade on the western Mediterranean they became potentially dangerous politically. mk; D7 The GreeksThe Greeks began to make their influence felt in Italy by the seventh century BC. One of the first Greek cities on the Italian peninsula was Cumae, and from here the Greek influences spread northward. But with the Etruscans and the Phoenicians competing so heavily it became difficult for them to settle in too many areas in the peninsula, especially in the north. While the Etruscans made their mark on the developing Romans politically, the Greeks exerted an even stronger influence. Traders brought their culture with them, and, though they learned the Etruscan alphabet, the Greek alphabet was adapted by the Romans to their Latin tongue. I0 .3Even though the Romans remained essentially an agrarian people until the third century BC, eventually the Greek system of coinage was accepted, and Rome began to issue copper and bronze coins in the fourth century BC. Greek religion also influenced the Roman people as did the Etruscan religion, and the Greeks also put a strong emphasis on ritual. Literature, science, and philosophy all came west with the Greeks. Yet this was not all developed before the sixth century. The process continued almost as long as the Roman state existed. Romans never possessed the Greek appreciation of the harmonious and the beautiful, nor had they the imagination ot the Greeks. As far as science, the Romans could make no contribution. Their genius was devoted to the fields of war and government.g?k( ~1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Id1M/dMore on the Latin LeagueC& : The Latin League and Romeh(d@ NQ D[ (jThe Italian people, in the early centuries of the first millennium BC, found themselves surrounded by these various new invaders. At first the Italians occupied the center of the peninsula, but later they separated into two main divisions. The so-called "highlanders" took the central and eastern portions. The Latins, or "lowlanders," dwelt in the west. Because of their relations with the Etruscans, the Latins became more thoroughly civilized than the highlanders. It wasn't long before their settlements grew into cities, and these became city-states. Although these city-states were independent, they were bound together by the necessity of defending themselves against the Etruscans and other enemies. Early in the first millennium BC the Latins formed what was known as the Latin League. Id; D RomeOne of the cities in this confederation was Rome. Originally a settlement on the Palatine Hill, populated by shepherds, farmers, and traders, Rome grew into a city when another settlement on Quirinal Hill was incorporated. The low land between the Palatine and the Quirinal became the Forum. Soon the surrounding hills were settled and they, too, were added to Rome. Later the Wall of Servius was built around all these settlements. Rome's had many advantages, especially the defensibility of its location. Pirates could not strike it from the sea. Seven hills fortified it against the Etruscans. The Tiber, Italy's largest navigable river, made trade easy. In addition, Rome was in the center of Italy and that made it a fortunate position for an ambitious state.g?( ~1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)Cd1 0QRome's Early Kings<J& , Rome's Early Kings&p# TJM jPI(`',`GLOS_Kings_Coin') "CBpGA P`ȵRAsThe early history of Rome has always been an interesting mixture of heroic legend and fact. According to Archaeological evidence there were people living on the Palatine and nearby hills prior to 1000 BC. The Palatine is where one of the earliest Latin settlements grew up that later became the city of Rome. According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus, who became the first Roman king and gave his name to the city. A monarchy was established in Rome under the Etruscan rulers, who gradually extended their power over the other Latin peoples inhabiting the surrounding territories. Alba Longa, once the leading Latin city, disappeared under Etruscan aggression. According to later tradition several building projects and new techniques in the crafts to this period of Etruscan control, during which Roman culture became essentially Etruscan, even though Latin speech and Latin consciousness remained. Rome was ruled by seven legendary kings from 753 BC until 509 B C when Tarquin the Proud was overthrown by the Roman people and a republic was established. Y, &Around 500 BC, the Etruscan tyranny provoked these Latin peoples to active opposition and in then a revolt, the Etruscan king and his followers were driven into exile. Thus, there was ushered in a new era of Roman history.G)E XPI(`',`GLOS_Romulus') PI(`',`GLOS_Numa_Pompilius')  PI(`',`GLOS_Tullus_Hostilius')  PI(`',`GLOS_Ancus_Martius') "PI(`',`GLOS_Tarquinius_Priscus') PI(`',`GLOS_Servius_Tullus') #PI(`',`GLOS_Tarquinius_Superbus') RomulusNuma PompiliusTullus Hostilius Ancus MartiusTarquinius PriscusServius TullusTarquinius Superbus(YQY Y J[ €The Greek historian Polybius described the scene of Hannibal crossing the Alps:"After nine days' climb Hannibal's army reached the snowcovered summit of the pass over the Alps--all the time being attacked by the mountain tribes. However, when the enemy now attacked the column, the elephants were of great use to the Carthaginians. The enemy was so terrified of the animals strange appearance that they dared not come anywhere near them."d>I &L & | -Polybius qCK L . ,1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)B&L L 1 =L O Livy and Hannibal;L M & * Livy and HannibalL N F ZA&m  €The Roman historian Titus Livius, or Livy described the forcefulness of Hannibal's leadership in a passage from his book "History of Rome:""...It was under Hannibal that the soldiers displayed greatest confidence and daring. He was fearless in undertaking dangerous enterprises, he was prudent in discharging them. Toil could not weary his body or subdue his spirit. Heat and cold he endured alike."K%M EO & J -Livy g?N O ( ~1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)NEO 1 > Livy About Rome's Early KingsO O G!O S & B Livy About Rome's Early Kings\ 2 4&mThe Roman Historian Livy describes Rome's first kings. Here are some brief quotes:XS J b`ȵ  Romulus(753-715 BC)"Go," he said, "and tell the Romans that by heaven's will my Rome shall be capital of the world. Let them learn to be soldiers. Let them know, and teach their children, that no power on earth can stand against Roman arms." Having spoken these words, he was taken up again into the sky. Livy, History I, xvi& # V# 3 6F  Numa Pompilius(715-673 BC)& % # l: 2 2uOnce Rome's Neighbors had considered her not so much as a city as an armed camp in their midst threatening the general peace; now they came up to revere her so profoundly as a community dedicated wholly to worship, that the mere thought of offering her violence seemed like sacrilege. Livy, History I, xxi&% # g u v}  0o  Tullus Hostilius(673-641 BC)In his view, Rome had been allowed to lapse into senility, and his one object was to find cause for renewed military adventure.Livy, History I, xviiiAncus Martius(641-616 BC)His fame as both soldier and administrator was unsurpassed by any previous occupant of the throne.Livy, History I, xxxv& #  Lj  Ns   Roman Military Organization  8 ( The Roman army was one of the greatest military forces that the world has ever seen. In ancient times most of the major armies won their victories by outnumbering their foes, yet the Roman's won their victories mainly because of its discipline and determination. It was not long before Rome began to enlist a full-time army and give them generous wages. The peasant-farmer would become a full-time soldier and would enlist for sometimes 20 years becoming very skilled in war. / K > J The New LegionsThe army was well organized with a strict chain of command. The army was broken down into legions of 6,000 men. Each legion was self sufficient and supplied their own workers necessory for survival during long campaigns without having to return home to Rome for supplies. Doctors, nurses, engineers, metalworkers and many more workers would travel with its legion. (note: more about the Roman army and its legions in part 2 of this series)mA8 , (1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)9K 1F@ Timeline E < H"D1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)G 1 EA Y Timeline 1000 - 900 BC< W G ^z"E WK% Timeline 1000 - 900 BCBiblical History Timeline u d u !"#$%  Near East Egypt Persia Europe Greece Rome India Far East2000-1000 BCE: Rome - Indo-European immigrants slowly inhabit Italy by way of the Alps. They bring the horse, the wheeled cart, and artistic knowledge of bronze work to the Italian peninsula. Two different groups, the Greeks and the Etruscans, occupy different regions of the peninsula during the eighth century.-Phoenicia founded (c. 1000 B.C.)/W X ~        -Phoenician alphabet developed (c. 1000 B.C.)-Aramaeans overrun much of Assyria (c. 1000 B.C.)-Kingdoms of Media and Parsa (Persia) founded by migrating Aryans (c. 1000 B.C.)-Lydians from Asia Minor settle in Italy (c. 1000 B.C.)-Ionians settle on the west coast of Asia Minor (c. 1000 B.C.)-iron in use in Greece ( c. 1000 B.C. )-Mayans settle in the Yucatan Peninsula ( c. 1000 B.C. )-colonization of Samoa in the South Pacific ( c. 1000 B.C. )$u Q p       -David is the king of Judah and Israel ( 1000 B.C. - 960 B.C. )-David, king of Israel, captures Jerusalem and makes it the capital of Israel (c. 1000 B.C.)-King Hiram I rules Tyre (969-936 B.C.)-Solomon becomes king of Israel and builds Yahweh Temple ( 960 B.C. - 925 B.C. )-Assyria reclaims lands lost to the Aramaean invasion (934-859 B.C.)-Shesonq sacks Jerusalem (c. 925 B.C.)-Israel divides into two kingdoms: Judah and Israel (c. 922 B.C.)^ Y 3 6 -Hebrew alphabet develops 1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)F 1FՇB Timeline 900 - 800 BC;Y ! G ^x"E WK% Timeline 900 - 800 BCBiblical History TimelineT ր !"#$%%  ȉ  Near East Egypt Persia Europe Greece Rome India Far East-first Greek city-states ( c. 900 B.C. )-Phoenician city of Carthage founded ( 878 B.C. )-Egypt divides into five kingdoms (c. 828 - 712 B.C.)-Omri rules Israel (876 B.C.) 1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)F! ? 15 EC?  Timeline 800 - 700 BC; G ^x"E WK% Timeline 800 - 700 BCBiblical History Timeline ? ܀ !"#$% &'(&Near East Egypt Persia Europe Greece Rome India Far EastB.C.800 Etruscans arrive in Italy by way of the Sea 800 Zapotec hieroglyphs developed 800 Traditional date for the Iliad and Odyssey written by Homer 800 Greek alphabet first used 800 Phoenicians settle in Cyprus800 Earliest Iron Age societies develop in Germany and Austria c ?%)`ȵPFh)R 750 Greek migrants settle on the Spanish coast, Sicily and southern Italy776 First recorded Olympic Games held at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, Greece 774 Assyrian incursions of Phoenicia begin 770 Eastern Zhou dynasty in China, capital moved from Hao to Luoyang 753 Legendary date for the founding of Rome by Romulus and Remus 750 Etruscan Kings rule Rome750 Kushites occupy Egypt   _ { "  750 iron working in Egypt 750 Scythians are driven westward toward the Black Sea750 Athens and Sparta become a major power druing the Archaic period745 Tiglath-Pileser III reigns over Assyria743 Sparta initiates the first Messenian War.738 Assyria invades Phoenicia 734 Tyre falls to Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria 733 Syracuse is founded on Sicily by the Greeks729 Tiglath-Pileser captures Babylon and reigns as king!  X ~ 725 King Midas rules over Phrygia 722 Sargon II of Assyria captures Samaria, the capital of Israel722 The northern kingdom of Israel comes to an end.722 Sargon II of Assyria deports 28,000 Israelites who become the "Ten Lost Tribes" 721 Chaldaeans enter Babylonia and compete for the Babylonian throne 721 Sargon II defeats the Urartians720 Egypt reunited under Nubian rule (XXVth Dynasty)709 Phrygia becomes a tributary to Assyria 7  K do"⢺706 Tarentum is established in southern Italy by Sparta701 Sennacherib, king of Assyria begins his campaign on the west to Phoenicia701 Sennacherib, king of Assyria beseiges Jerusalem701 Assyrians invade and conquer most of Phoenicia 1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)F  1. Շ D  Timeline 700 - 600 BC; _ G ^x"E WK% Timeline 700 - 600 BCBiblical History Timeline(  = !"#$%!""Near East Egypt Persia Europe Greece Rome India Far EastB.C.700 BC Achaemenes, first king of Parsa 695 Cimmerians invade Phrygia685 Gyges founds the Mermnad dynasty in Lydia 685 Assyrians destroy Memphis, Thebes and flood Babylon,683 Athens ends its rule of hereditary kings replaced by chosen archons672 first recorded exploration of Africa by Phoenicians 7_ _    ""671 Assyrian rule in Egypt, Esarhaddon captures Memphis667 The Nubian dynasty comes to an end668 Assyrian empire at its greatest extent663 Egypt becomes independant, 26th dynasty is the last great period652 Babylonians rebel against their Assyrian rulers651 Cimmerian invaders driven from Lydia by Ardys 650 Cimmerian invaders plow through Syria and Palestine650 coinage invented in Lydia650 Oracle of Delphi reaches the height of its influence ^ s!#R#640 Macedonia founded by Perdiccas630 birth of Zoroaster, founder of the Persian religion 625 Etruscan influence reaches Rome and Rome expands626 Chaldaean king, Nabopolassar, takes Babylon throne from Assryria621 Athens first written laws by Dracon616 Tarquin kings rule Rome 615 Cyaxares of Media allies with Nabopolassar of Babylon against Assyria612 Babylon, Medes, and Scythians destroy Assyria; Nineveh falls  X ~U "$609 Assyrian Empire comes to an end609 Babylonian empire reaches to the borders of Egypt608 Egyptian King Necho defeat Josiah at the battle of Megiddo605 Nebuchadnezzar II becomes king of Babylon605 Alyattes rules Lydia604 Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilds Babylon605 Nebuchadnezzar II captures Jerusalem and takes the hebrews into exile.600 Many Aryian kings emerge across northern India; Mahabharata begins  7 ڀ3 !"#$% #R#Near East Egypt Persia Europe Greece Rome India Far EastB.C.399 Socrates is accused of corrupting Athenian youth and gets death sentence396 Veii, Etruscan city, falls to Rome and the Celts; Etruscan civilization is falling396 Rome begins conquest of Italy 395 Athens, Argos, Corinth & Thebes form a league and against Sparta394 Sparta defeats the League0 n e ##Rf #394 Greek states war with each other391 Romans under a dictator (Camillus) defeat the Etruscans390 Gauls sack and burn Rome but fail to take the capital384 Birth of Aristotle (philosopher and scientist)382 Philip II (Philip of Macedon) is born 380 Last real Egyptian dynasty the XXXth367 The first plebeian consul is elected to the assembly359 Illyrians invade western Macedonia 359 Philip of Macedon is elected king of Macedonia> k Y%!#ȉ#s5 #358 Philip II repulses the Illyrian invasion and extends kingdom356 Birth of Alexander the Great 350 Crossbow invented in China 350 Revolt of the Jews against Artaxerxes III in Persia 348 Rome signs treaty with Carthage 343 The First Samnite War between Rome and the Samnites343 Artaxerxes III of Persia recaptures Egypt and founds the 31st dynasty340 The Latin Wars340 Macedonia conquers Thrace. n W |i##(j#!339 Fourth Sacred War, between Macedonia and Athens338? The first Roman coinage 338 Tribes and cities of Latin League revolt against Rome338 Romans are victorious at Trifanum, and the League is dissolved338 Philip of Macedon defeats invading Athenian and Theban armies at Chaeronea338 Philip of Macedon unites all Greece under his rule336 Artaxerxes III is assassinated; succeeded by Darius lIl on Persian throne@ _ 336 Philip of Macedon assassinated 336 He is succeeded by his son, Alexander III, known as "the Great"334 Alexander the Great begins campaign against Persia 334 Alexander defeats Darius III in Anatolia.334 Lydia becomes a tributary of Macedon 333 Alexander the Great defeats Darius III again at battle of Issus. 333 Persia is conquered by Alexander the Great 333 Phrygia falls under Macedonian rule333 Israel comes under the rule of Alexander the Great  X ~w!332 Alexander takes the city of Tyre after siege332 End of Phoenician empire332 remants of the Persian Empire fall to Alexander the Great 332 Tyre falls to Alexander the Great332 Alexander the Great is welcomed in Egypt, begins his new city Alexandria331 Alexander renews Persian campaign and defeats Darius III at Arbela331 Persian capital of Persepolis burned by Alexander the Great331 Persians defeated at GaugamelaU 8 X ~!#$ 330 Darius III is assassinated, leaving Alexander in control of Persia327 Second Samnite War, Roman troops are defeated and humiliated327 Alexander begins invasion of India324 Alexander the Great dies (age 33) in Babylon (no named successor)323 Alexander's body is buried at Alexandria, Egypt323 Lydia absorbed into the Seleucid kingdom 323 Ptolemy Soter becomes pharoah of Egypt after Alexander's death321 Alexander's generals fight the "War of the Diadochi" over the conquered lands9 } ^ #$$ \Fjq###321 Hellenistic period begins312 The "Via Appia" (Appian Way) and "Aqua Appia" are constructed321 C8 } K handragupta founds Mauryan dynasty320 Maurya takes control of Magadha and crosses the Indus into central India320 Egypt takes Libya as a province310 The Etruscans and Samnites attack Rome, but are defeated at Lake Vadimo307 Two of Alexander's generals rule Greece, (Antigonus I and Demetrius I)306 A trade treaty is agreed between Rome and Carthage.)8  Q p$$#%305 Mauryan Empire expands after the defeat of Seleucus I Nicator304 Seleucus gives up his claim on India to Chandragupta in exchange for 500 elephants304 Rome makes peace with the Samnites and other enemies305 Seleucus I becomes king, founding Seleucid dynasty (rules Syria)301 Phrygia becomes a part of the Seleucid empire301 Ptolemy I rules Palestine and Egypt300 Chinese states build huge walls against the barbarians, still fight each other also} ` 0 .300 Seleucus controls Iran, Mesopotamia, n. Syria and most of Asia Minor1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)F  1 ׅH XI Timeline 300 - 200 BC;` ( G ^x"E WK% Timeline 300 - 200 BCBiblical History Timelinet .  !"#$% %##Rfs5D[ #Near East Egypt Persia Europe Greece Rome India Far EastB.C.300 Rice farming begins in Japan 300 Latin gradually wins over other Italic languages298 Gauls join Samnites and Latins against Rome in the Third Samnite War297 Lighthouse at Alexandria built290 Third Samnite War ends with Roman victory in central Italy/( ] ^ ##⊡֙ ""287 Full equality between patricians and plebeians is agreed287 The plebeians pass a new law: the decisions of the assembly can override the Senate287 Birth of Archimedes (Greek mathematician)285 Reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Egypt)279 Gauls invade Macedonia278 Three Hellenistic kingdoms developed278 Ptolemies in Egypt, Seleucids in Babylonia & Syria, and Antigonids in Macedonia276 Antigonus Gonatus drives the Gauls from Macedonia!. ~ ] #=z}b!#"$"#276 Birth of Euclid (mathematician)275 Pyrrhus of Epirus invades Italy with his fearful elephant cavalry and 20,000 soldiers 275 Pyrrhus and his weakend army leave Italy, power of Greece in s. Italy is broken275 Colossus of Rhodes is completed273 King Asoka (Buddhist) rules Mauryan empire uniting central and northern India. 272 The Gauls sack Delphi while heading to Asia Minor265 Rome dominates the entire Italian peninsulaG] d ###C_@hȉ#265 Rome begins pursuing a larger empire. Many more wars develop.264 First recorded public gladiator fight in Rome264 First Punic War between Rome and Carthage262 Antigonus Gonatus, king of Macedonia, conquers some of the Greek states254 Rome takes Panormus in Sicily from Carthage250 Judea is part of Ptolemaic empire based in Egypt250 Hebrew scriptures are translated into Greek (Septuagint)250 Apollonius (Greek mathematician) begins work in astronomy~  j [!# € ###\Fjq"k  247 Arsaces founds the Parthian dynasty246 Birth of Hannibal the great war general and enemy of Rome246 Ptolemy III rules rules in Egypt241 End of First Punic War241 Carthage gives up Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia and pays Rome an indemnity241 Sicily becomes the first Roman province239 Carthaginian mercenaries revolt which Hamilcar Barca crushes239 Egyptians introduce the concept of the leap yearO 7B a " 7B ` ##$"#""%238 Carthaginians begin conquest of Spain237 Birth of Scipio Africanus, the general who leads Rome in the Second Punic War234 Cato the Elder is born232 The Mauryan Empire begins to disintregate and Greeks set up kingdoms229 Dardanians invade Macedonia225 Gallic invasion crushed at Telamon, n. Italy 223 Antiochus III (the Great) succeeds his father and restores power to Seleucid empire221 Ch'in dynasty in China begins with Shih Huang Ti, declares himself emperor,/ fD ^ % ####ʕ #221 The founding of China221 Philip V rules Macedonia221 Ptolemy IV Philopater rules in Egypt218 Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage 218 Hannibal crosses the Pyrannes then the Alps with elephants and invades Italy217 Hannibal defeats Roman army at Lake Trasimene in Italy216 Hannibal wins another great victory, at Cannae (worst defeats the Romar s suffer)215 Hannibal is defeated by the Roman, Marcellus, at Nola in southern Italy7B kF Q pi%#%#%%%215 The Great Wall of China is built 214 Marcellus begins conquest of Sicily212 Shi Huangdi has all historical documents burned and books are banned211 First Macedonian War, in which the Macedonians and the Carthaginians fight Rome210 Silk-based material is used for writing on, and Chinese script is standardized209 Civil war in China results in the overthrow of the Ch'in dynasty 207 Former Han dynasty in China fD yH d U## #[퉀##m%206 Scipio defeats the Carthaginians in Spain205 Rome and Macedonia sign a non-aggression pact 205 Reign of Ptolemy V Epiphanes in Egypt205 Polybius is born (historian)203 Rosetta Stone carved (records Epiphanes ascension)203 Hannibal is recalled to Carthage to repel a Roman invasion by Scipio202 Hannibal is defeated by Scipio at Zama in n. Africa202 Reign of the Han dynasty founded by Lui PangkF XI 7 J   ⊡֙70 BCE: Rome - A close friend of Horace, the poet VIRGIL (or VERGIL) authors The Eclogues and The Aeneid. He is later considered a prophet of CHRISTIANITY in the Middle Ages. He dies in 19 BCE. 65 BCE: Rome - Horace authors the Odes, which glorify Roman imperialism. Horace's literature exemplifies the fusion of Epicureanism and STOICISM. He dies in 8 BCE. 52 BCE: Rome - Pompey is elected as sole consul by the Senate, and Caesar is declared an enemy of the Roman Republic. Caesar, at first stationed in Gaul, marches into Rome in 49 BCE, and in 48 BCE, the two men war at Pharsalus in Greece. With the defeat of Pompey, Caesar campaigns in Egypt and Asia Minor before returning to Rome. #o (  46 BCE: Rome - Caesar is appointed dictator and assumes total control from the Senate. On a charge that he intends to make himself king, he is assassinated on the Ides of March (44 BCE) by a group leadership led by Brutus and Cassius. Among Caesar's contributions to Rome are the 365 day calendar with an extra day every four years, agricultural wealth for Rome and urban culture in the West due to his efforts to expand westward, and the cultural assimilation of the various regions under Roman rule. Dn ( 9 42 BCE: Rome - Having learned of Caesar's death while stationed in Ga _ ul, Octavian returns to Rome to collect his inheritance as sole heir to his granduncle's empire. Upon his arrival he aligns himself with two of Caesar's friends, Mark Antony and Lepidus, in an attempt to overthrow the aristocratic group responsible for Caesar's murder. Octavian and his allies defeat Brutus and Cassias near Philippi. Following the victory, a quarrel develops between Octavian and his forces in the west and Mark Antony and his new ally, Cleopatra. $  (  31 BCE: Rome - Antony and Cleopatra are defeated by Octavian, ensuring the prosperity of Greek ideals without threat from the eastern principles of despotism. His victory begins a new Roman era, called the Principate or Early Empire. The Senate and army bestow the name of Augustus and emperor ("victorious general") upon Octavian, and he is commonly referred to as Augustus. Having gained more land for Rome than any other ruler before him, Augustus dies in 14 CE with his rule having lasted 44 years.   1 0 1 CE: Rome - Though the exact year is not known, a sixth century monk attributes this time to the birth of Jesus of Nazareth in Judea. The first four books of the New Testament (written later) are the only surviving account of Jesus' career which consists of preaching love of God and one's neighbor, healing the sick, teaching humility by example and professing the end of the world and the establishment of heaven. 1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)L f 1BĄKf g Timeline - Biblical Historyc) : DT"E*Main Events in Biblical Historyf g Y          HISTORICAL TIME CHART (Biblical and Historical)Note: Biblical dating follows that of several scholars in my Bibliography, esp. Whitcomb and Boyer. Some dates are uncertain. There is also some overlap, especially in the case of the judges and the kings.B.C. 2090 Abraham called by God2067 Isaac born2007 Jacob born1992 Abraham dies1944 Isaac dies1877 Jacob arrives in Egypt1860 Jacob dies in Egypt" f y          1806 Joseph dies in Egypt1730 Hyksos invasion of Egypt; Hebrews bondage begins.1728 Hammurabi of Sumer born1570 Hyksos expelled from Egypt; Amose I founds 18th dynasty1548 Amenhotep I becomes pharaoh of Egypt1548 Hebrew midwives ordered to destroy all Hebrew male children1528 Thutmose I becomes pharaoh; 1528 All newborn Hebrew males are to be cast into the Nile 1525 Moses born 1510 Thutmose II becomes pharaoh F D t             1504 Hatshepsut becomes pharaoh 1487 Moses pees Egypt 1483 Thutmose III becomes pharaoh 1483 The great oppression of the Hebrews begins 1450 Amenhotep II becomes pharaoh 1447 The Exodus begins 1446 The Tabernacle constructed 1423 Thutmose IV becomes pharaoh 1410 Amenhotep III becomes pharaoh1407 Moses dies; Joshua conquers Canaan 1400 Conquest of Canaan completed1377 Akhnaton becomes pharaoh; inaugurates monotheistic reforms 8 | Ҁm              1375 Othniel becomes judge 1319 Ehud becomes judge 1318 Rameses I founds the 19th dynasty in Egypt1240 Deborah and Barak judge Israel1194 Gideon becomes judge1167 Eli born1155 Abimelech usurps power in Israel 1152 Tola becomes judge 1131 Jair becomes judge 1109 Eli becomes priest1105 Samuel born1089 Jephthah becomes judge 1083 Ibzan becomes judge 1071 Elon becomes judge; Samson becomes judgeD  f g          1069 Samuel begins to ministe|   r1066 Abdon becomes judge1043 Saul becomes king1011 Saul and Jonathan slain; David becomes king of Judah1004 David becomes king over all Israel971 Solomon ascends the throne966 Solomon begins to build the Temple in Jerusalem945 Sheshhonk ( Shishak) becomes pharaoh of Egypt931 Rehoboam becomes king of Israel and Judah931 Jeroboam rebels; sets Up a rival kingdom in the north!|  m i           913 Abijam becomes king of Judah911 Asa becomes king of Judah 910 Nadab becomes king of Israel 909 Bausha becomes king of Israel890 Benhadad becomes king of Syria886 Elah becomes king of Israel; Zimri becomes king of Israel 885 Tibni becomes king of Israel 883 Ashurbanipal II becomes king of Assyria 880 Omri becomes king of Israel 874 Ahab becomes king of Israel 873 Jehoshaphat becomes king of Judah  t S            859 Shalmaneser III becomes king of Assyria858 Elijah begins to prophesy853 Ahaziah becomes king of Israel ;853 Jehoram becomes king of Judah852 Joram becomes king of Israel852 Elisha begins to prophesy841 Jehu becomes king of Israel 841 Ahaziah becomes king of Judah841 Athaliah seizes the throne of Judah841 Hazael becomes king of Syria835 Joash becomes king of Judah830 Joel prophecies   m A           814 Jehoahaz becomes king of Israel801 Benhadad II becomes king of Syria798 Jehoash becomes king of Israel796 Amaziah becomes king of Judah790 Uzziah becomes co-regent of Judah783 Shalmaneser IV becomes king of Assyria783 Jonah begins his ministry782 Jeroboam II becomes king of Israel776 Olympic games begin in Greece767 Uzziah becomes full king of Judah764 Amos begins to prophesy  m W           755 Hosea begins to prophesy753 Rome founded; Zechariah becomes king of Israel752 Shallum becomes king of Israel752 Menahem becomes king of Israel745 Tiglath-pileser III becomes king of Assyria742 Pekahiah becomes king of Israel740 Pekah becomes king of Israel739 Uzziah dies; Isaiah begins to prophesy 739 Jotham becomes king of Judah736 Micah begins to prophesy735 Ahaz becomes king of Judah  f Q          732 Hoshea becomes king of Israel727 Shalmaneser IV becomes king of Assyria722 Sargon II becomes king of Assyria Samaria falls; 722 The ten tribes of Israel go into captivity715 Hezekiah becomes king of Judah705 Sennacherib becomes king of Assyria701 Judah invaded by the Assyrians686 Manasseh becomes king of Judah681 Esarhaddon becomes king of Assyria669 Ashurbanipal becomes king of Assyria- ? { Āe             660 Zoroaster born648 Nahum predicts the fall of Nineveh642 Amon becomes king of Judah640 Josiah becomes king of Judah634 Zephaniah begins to prophesy627 Jeremiah begins to prophesy626 Nabopolasser becomes king of Babylon622 Revival in Judah619 Habakkuk begins to prophesy612 Nineveh falls609 Neco II becomes pharaoh of Egypt609 Jehoahaz becomes king of Judah609 Jehoiakim becomes king of Judah  W@ e O         605 Nebuchadnezzar becomes king of Babylon 605 The Babylonians invade Judah Daniel begins to prophesy597 Jehoachin becomes king of Judah 597 Zedekiah becomes king of Judah593 Ezekiel begins to prophesy586 The Babylonians destroy Jerusalem and the Temple586 The Jews deported to Babylon586 Gedaliah becomes governor of Jerusa? W@  lem 586 The rabbis preempt the priests as the holders of divine truth? gB f U          563 Buddhism founded by Siddhartha553 Belshazzar becomes regent in Babylon550 Cyrus becomes king of Persia550 The temple of Artemis erected at Ephesus550 Confucius begins to teach 539 Babylon falls to the Medes and Persians539 Darius the Mede rules in Babylon 538 Zerubbabel and Joshua lead a small party back to Palestine 536 The Temple started in Jerusalem 530 Cambyses becomes king of Persia W@ D m _           521 Smerdis becomes king of Persia521 Darius I Hystapses becomes king of Persia 520 Zechariah begins to prophesy 520 Haggai begins to prophesy 520 Construction of the Jerusalem Temple resumed 516 The Temple completed 509 The Roman Republic founded 486 Xerxes becomes king of Persia484 Herodotus the historian born 480 The Greeks defeat Xerxes at Salamis 479 The Greeks defeat Xerxes at ThermopalyegB F _ q         478 Esther becomes queen of Persia 478 Esther saves the Jews of the empire from extermination 473 The Feast of Purim started 469 Socrates born464 Artaxerxes Longimanus becomes king of Persia 458 Ezra takes a small contingent of Jews back to Palestine 447 The building of the Parthenon commenced 445 Nehemiah takes a small contingent of Jews back to Palestine 443 Nehemiah and Ezra read the Scriptures to the JewsD H f i          443 The beginnings of the Midrash; the Sopherim (Scribes) flourish 436 Malachi begins to prophesy 423 Darius II becomes king of Persia 404 Artaxerxes II becomes king of Persia 400 The Midrash begins to develop399 Socrates condemned to death 359 Artaxerxes III becomes king of Persia 359 Philip becomes king of Macedonia 342 Epicurius teaches his philosophy336 Darius III Codomannus becomes king of Persia F J f c          336 Alexander the Great becomes king of Greece 335 Aristotle teaches at Athens 333 The Battle of Issus fought; Alexander defeats the Persians 333 Alexander takes Egypt 332 Alexander destroys Tyre 331 Alexander seizes Babylon 330 Darius III of Persia slain 329 Alexander marries Roxana in a symbolic gesture of uniting East and West 327 Alexander invades India 323 Alexander claims to be the son of Zeus3H L f           323 Alexander dies 323 Alexander's empire divided between his four chief generals323 Ptolemy I Soter takes Egypt 320 Ptolemy I seizes Palestine 311 Seleucus I Nicator takes Babylon 300 Rome becomes a major world power in the western Mediterranean300 Seleucus I adds Syria to his realm 285 Ptolemy II Philadelphius becomes king of Egypt 285 Between 285 and 130 the Septuagint translated 280 Antiochus I Soter becomes king of Syria J O k I    C_@hȉ     276 The first Syro-Egyptian war begins 275 Ptolemy of Egypt invades Syria 274 Hinduism codified in India264 Rome's first Punic war against Carthage begins 261 Antiochus II Theos (the God) becomes king of Syria 260 The second Syro-Egyptian war begins 252 Antiochus II marries Bernice, daughter of Ptolemy II 250 The Parthian kingdom founded246 Seleucus II Callinicus becomes king of Syria ?L X l           €246 Ptolemy III Euergetes becomes king of Egypt 246 The third Syro-Egyptian war begins 245 Ptolemy invades Syria 240 Seleucus O X  invades Egypt223 Antiochus III (the Great) becomes king of Syria221 Ptolemy IV Philopater becomes king of Egypt 221 The fourth Syro-Egyptian war begins219 Antiochus the Great invades Egypt218 Rome's second Punic war against Carthage begins217 Hannibal invades Italy Ptolemy IV invades Syria; Battle of Raphia( O _          215 Rome's first Macedonian war begins206 Rome drives Carthage out of Spain203 Ptolemy V ( Epiphanes ) becomes king of Egypt201 The fifth Syro-Egyptian war begins Carthage surrenders to Rome200 Rome's second Macedonian war begins200 The Mishna begins to appear among the Jews193 Ptolemy V marries Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus III190 Antiochus III defeated by Romans at Magnesia187 Seleucus IV Philopator becomes king of SyriaIX Ʌ X ~        181 Ptolemy VI Philomater becomes king of Egypt 175 Antiochus IV Epiphanes becomes king of Syria171 Ptolemy VII becomes co-regent of Egypt with Ptolemy VI171 Rome's third Macedonian war begins 171 Mithridates I begins the conquest of Babylonia and Media, 171 He adds those countries to Elam, Persia, and Bactra to form the Parthian Empire169 Antiochus Epiphanes captures Jerusalem 168 The Romans interfere in Antiochus's war with Egypt and prevent his capturing Alexandria, X ~        168 Antiochus pollutes the Temple in Jerusalem and suspends the sacrifices of the Jews166 Matthias leads the Jews in revolt against Antiochus Epiphanes165 The Jerusalem Temple repaired and cleansed164 Antiochus Epiphanes dies154 The Jews in Egypt build a temple at Leontopolis149 Rome's third Punic war against Carthage begins Rome's fourth Macedonian war begins146 The Romans destroy Carthage135 John Hyrcanus becomes high priest in JerusalemɅ _ q         133 Rome begins to expand her empire eastward130 The Pharisees begin to emerge as a sect 124 Mithridates II (the Great) conquers Scythia, adds it to the Parthian Empire, 124 Mithridates II makes a treaty with Rome120 Hyrcanus repudiates the Pharisees and declares himself a Sadducee106 Cicero born88 Rome's first Mithridatic war begins83 Rome's second Mithridatic war begins74 Rome's third Mithridatic war begins# / f {          64 Pompey captures Jerusalem; 64 Pompey leaves the Maccabean high priest Hyrcanus in power 64 Pompey puts Antipater as civil adviser 60 The first Triumvirate at Rome (Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey )59 Julius Caesar becomes proconsul; Pompey marries Julia, daughter of Caesar58 Caesar conquers Gaul54 Caesar invades Britain49 Caesar crosses the Rubicon48 Pompey slain in Egypt 48 Caesar makes Cleopatra queen of Egypt+ Z s q        \Fjq   44 Caesar becomes dictator of Rome for life 44 Caesar assassinated (Ides of March)43 The second Triumvirate at Rome (Anthony, Lepidus, and Octavian )40 Herod appointed king37 Herod captures Jerusalem 31 Battle of Actium, Anthony slain, 31 Octavian becomes master of Rome, the final triumph of Empire30 Egypt becomes a Roman province30 Shammai fourished30 Hillel flourished30 Philo of Alexandria fourished/ o W           21 Octavian assumed the title of Augustus20 Herod begins to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple4 Herod dies4 THE BIRTH OF JESUS A.D.14 Augustus dies 14 Tiberius becomes Roman emperor26 Jesus begins to teach; He characterizes rabbinic teaching (the Mishna) as "vain tradition'30 Jesus crucifiZ  ed and raised from the dead30 Full Pentecost; the Christian church is born37 Caligula becomes Roman emperorZ f S          40 Gentiles are added to the church with the conversion of Cornelius41 Claudius becomes Roman emperor42 Antioch becomes the new center of church activity43 Theudas claims to be Messiah and is executed54 Nero becomes Roman emperor59 The apostle Paul is imprisoned at Caesarea60 Paul appears before Agrippa61 Paul a prisoner at Rome66 The Jews of Judea revolt against Rome68 Paul martyred at Rome f A          69 Jerusalem beseiged by the Romans69 Jochanan ben Zakkai seeks an audience with Vespasian69 Vespasian becomes Roman emperor70 Jerusalem falls; the Temple burned; the Jews deported73 The last stand of the Jewish rebels at Masada79 Titus becomes Roman emperor81 Domitian becomes Roman emperor96 Nerva becomes Roman emperor98 Trajan becomes Roman emperor113 Rome goes to war with Parthia{ g W |       116 A further Jewish revolt against Rome is suppressed with great severity117 Hadrian becomes Roman emperor132 Bar Kochba claims to be Messiah and leads a revolt against Rome132 Judea depopulated and the Jews denationalized by the Romans138 Antoninus Pius becomes Roman emperor150 Tertullian born1999 Bible History Online (http://www.bible-history.com)5 1OL TimeZ$g 6 " Ȁ++"GlossaryK 8 @& ȂH,պVAAediles?6 1 2 ȂH%Aeneas> 1 2 ȂHieAequiC A 1 2$ ȂHAsAlba LongaJ 1 22 ȂHAncient Italy MapFA 1 2* ȂH0oAncus MartiusB  1 2" ȂH<ApenninesC V 1 2$ ȂH_^Appian WayH 1 2. 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" ȂH,WK^ׄ1 24 ȂH6rWar Gallery Relief.) " ȂH,Z= ׄB1 2 ȂHmZama)k&  ȂH,1B1Nb4k. ,h Ȁ  Aediles4 Aediles served as mayors of the city1/1O/߆v߆: D Ȁ  0hF[AeneasIn Roman legend he was the father of Lavinia and king of Latium at the time of the arrival of Aeneas.1/1PcS߆cY  Ȁ   [' F[p AequiThe early enemies of Rome were as follows: (see map)1. Early enemies: Etruscans (N), Sabines (NE), Aequi (E), Volsci (S). 2. Latium and Etruria. Cisalpine Gaul. Campania and Samnium. Umbria and Picenum. Lucania and Apulia.11QKjcKM h Ȁ  F[@,%`ȵPFhAlba LongaA city of ancient Latium, in the Alban Hills near Lake Albano, located 12 miles SE of Rome. It was already a city before 1100 B.C. and considered the most powerful in Latium at the time. Legend says that it was founded by Ascanius, son of Aeneas, and that Romulus and Remus were born there, therefore making it the mother city of Rome.1|1R|̊PK̊7 >4 Ȁ  " Ancient Italy Map1|1S̊4 6 Ȁ   Ancus MartiusLegendary fourth king of ancient Rome (640-616 BC). This king is supposed to have enlarged the area of Rome.11TGb)G9 @S Ȁ  mu ApenninesItal. Appennino, a mountain range running the entire length of the Italian peninsula from NW to SW. It extends south 840 miles from the Cadibona Pass in Liguria, NW Italy, where the Apennines join with the Ligurian Alps, to the Strait of Messina. Their Highest peak is 9585 ft.1x1 UxcMGD V Ȁ  "& 3⢺Appian Way(Latin "Via Appia"), most famous of the ancient Roman roads, built in 312 BC under Appius Claudius Caecus. It connected Rome with Capua and was later extended to Beneventum, Tarentum, and Brundisium. It was the chief highway to Greece and the East. Its total length was more than 350 miles. It was the first strand of what was to become a great web of paved highways throughout the whole Mediterranean world. There was nothing like it and without it Rome could not have won its tremendous empire. The use of cemented stone blocks has preserved it to the presentxG day. N%xc) K Ȁ Roman roads were built so well that some are still in use today. They built their roads in this manner: from bottom to top they contained rubble, flat slabs in mortar, concrete and gravel, and tightly laid flat paving stones. Each road had its own curb (curb stones) and a drainage ditch.11V'Rc'A P Ȁ  ⊡֙=z_^Appius Claudius(Appius Claudius Caecus) A Roman censor from (312-308 BC). He helped the lower classes of people in public affairs. He was consul in 307 and 296 BC and later he convinced the Senate to reject the peace proposals made by Pyrrhus. He constructed the first Roman aqueduct and began construction of the Appian Way.1X1MWXt't/ , Ȁ  Appius Claudius Sabinus Inregillenis(or Regillensis) He was an ancient Roman general and a Sabine. He came with his tribe to Rome in 504 BC. He also became was a decemvir (451-449 BC), one of ten men appointed to codify Roman law.1X1XntnJ d Ȁ  %As`ȵPFh AscaniusIn Roman legend he was the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa, where Romulus and Remus were born.111Yn/ , Ȁ  AssemblyThe Assembly consisted of all male citizens of military age. They would agree and approve on certain decisions and they could veto any important decision made concerning war, peace and justice.11vZE 8 > Ȁ  "FBarbarians and Heads Some of these barbarian tribes would cut off the heads of their enemies and place them around their neck to ward off evil spirits since they believed that the soul dwelt within the head even after death. Trophy heads were placed on poles or nailed to homes or city gates. They would even sling a detached head from around their neck at their enemy in order to terrify the enemy and ward off evil spirits. The Celts also placed skulls in their food shelters to help keep their grain free from rot.1F1[Fn4 8 Ȁ  =zBattle of BeneventumAt Beneventum (now Benevento) Pyrrhus was barely defeated (275 BC) by the Romans.1F1\}H5 8 Ȁ  s5Battle of SentiumThe Samnites and all of her allies were severely defeated at the Battle of Sentium in 296 BC. Many of Rome's enemies were being weakened by continually fighting each other. Now with Rome's effective policies for preserving unity they were destined to succeed. Rome was prepared to conquer all of Italy.11]bVbE Z Ȁ  "G VxBKA 40 - Registered Version Registration11\^+b; D Ȁ  s5F[CamilliusWith their city destroyed a leader named Camillius attempted to rebuild Rome and raise strong walls around her seven hills. Around 380 BC he organized what was left of the army and introduced new tactics and weapons made of iron. He even developed new laws regarding Roman citizenship. They began to regain their lost territory and, with the help of the Samnites, a tribe from central Italy, they conquered the area again and this made them the most powerful people in Latium.11h_7<7G \ Ȁ  €ȉC_@hRfCannaeScene of a major battle (216 BC) near the ancient village of Cannae, in Apulia (Puglia), southeastern Italy, between the Romans and Hannibal of Carthage during the Second Punic War. Th7e Romans were crushed by the troops of Hannibal, with the help of his allies--the Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards. The Romans were surrounded and cut to pieces. Only 14,000 Roman soldiers escaped, and 10,000 more were captured; the rest were killed. The Carthaginians only lost around 6,000 men.1h1+`hb7b5 8 Ȁ  C_@hCarthageAn ancient city-state in N Africa, near modern Tunis. It was founded by the Phoenicians in the middle of the ninth century BC and destroyed in 146 BC in the last of the Punic Wars.1h1,a btA PA Ȁ  ȉ⊡֙C_@hCato the Elder234 - 149 BC. Marcus Porcius Cato was a wealthy Roman landowner who strongly believed in the traditional Roman Republican values and stood as a symbol for those ideals. He believed that the rural, farming life was the best and most virtuous life for a Roman citizen. He believed that the Greek culture and ways that were brought back to Rome by her conquering armies actually did more to weaken the Roman people than to strengthen the state. He also saw Carthage as a major menace to Rome and, when he was a Senator, ended every speech he made with the words "Carthage must be destroyed", regardless of what the rest of the speech was about. He even brought a huge bunch of grapes, grown in Carthagenian soil, to a meeting of the Senate in order to impress upon the rest of the senators that Carthage's great agricultural capacity posed a dangerous threat to Roman leadership in the Mediterranean. It was partly due to Cato's constant inveighing against Carthage that Rome imposed an impossible ultimatum upon the city. This led to the Third Punic War in which Carthage was burned, her inhabitants slaughtered, and even the stones from which the city was built were scattered. The Romans even symbolically sowed the earth with salt around the site of the destroyed city in effect saying that Carthage would never rise from the ashes. One hundred years later, Carthage was an important Roman town in North Africa.  1 0 Ȁ  Cato served as quaestor, aedile, praetor, consul, and censor in the Roman government. He also served as a military general, winning major victories in Spain. He used his powers as censor to get rid of many senators whom he felt were a corrupting influence on Roman society. Cato the Elder wrote the first history of Rome that was not an epic poem. Parts of this work, the Origines, still survive but most of it is lost. He also wrote a treatise on agriculture that still survives.1t 1b _ r _ . , Ȁ  CensorsThere were also 2 Censors (ex-consuls) who took the census, assessed the taxes, named senators, etc.1  1gc 6_ C T Ȁ  ⊡֙< Checks and BalancesThe consuls were in charge of government and also of the army. The 300 citizen Senate advised them at all times. In the history of the Roman Republic the Senate was always the most powerful group. Only the Assembly could approve or disapprove of one of their laws and only the assembly elected Candidates for the office of consul. There was always a basic concept of checks and balances.The modern US constitution is based on these basic concepts of checks and balances within the ancient government of the Roman Republic. Whether it be the President, the Congress, or the courts, none can dominate the government. Each branch has a way to check the actions of the other and the actions of each branch balance the others.1 1d@@5 8- Ȁ  ieCincinnatus(Lucius or Titus Quinctius Cincinnatus) He was a fifth century BC Roman military hero. He was consul in 460 B.C. and dictator twice (458 and 439). According to tradition, in his first dictatorship @he came from his farm to defeat the Aequi and Volscians, who were attacking from the east and southeast. Later he returned from battle, resigned his dictatorship, and went home to his farm.1@1e@QBR@QB8 >7 Ȁ  "Circus Maximus The great ancient Roman circus between the Palatine and Aventine hills. The Romans architectural developments far surpassed that of their teachers, the Etruscans. Rome built the Circus Maximus (an arena for games that held seats for thousands of spectators).1@B1fBBi;QBB. ,v Ȁ  CitizenCitizens had full rights and full privileges.1BC1gCF1BMEQ p Ȁ  o+'H  CitizensWhen Rome conquered a city the defeated people would fall into one of four classes. Citizens, Municipia, Latin Allies, and Italian Allies. Other areas maintained their domestic independence but Rome dictated their foreign policies.Citizens had full rights and full privileges.Municipia received Roman citizenship without the right to vote. They were allowed a local self-government and the rights of trade. They also served in the army and paid taxes.2CF1 0 Ȁ  Latin Allies had no citizenship but were allowed the rights of trade, they also equipped Rome with foreign legions and were self-governed.Italian Allies were Roman protectorates. They sent troop levies to Rome, and they shared in the spoils of war.1MEF1hFJ5FHQ p Ȁ  o+'H  CitizenshipWhen Rome conquered a city the defeated people would fall into one of four classes: Citizens, Municipia, Latin Allies, and Italian Allies. Other areas maintained their domestic independence but Rome dictated their foreign policies. Citizens had full rights and full privileges.Municipia received Roman citizenship without the right to vote. They were allowed a local self-government and the rights of trade. They also served in the army and paid taxes.2FJ1 0 Ȁ  Latin Allies had no citizenship but were allowed the rights of trade, they also equipped Rome with foreign legions and were self-governed.Italian Allies were Roman protectorates. They sent troop levies to Rome, and they shared in the spoils of war.1HHJ1iHJNB JM5 8 Ȁ  5~ClientsIn ancient Rome a Client was a plebeian who lived under the patronage of a patrician. The Clients were usually peasant farmers who rented land. The Clients were peasant farmers who rented land. They would follow a certain patron and perform political duties, including assassinations, and lying in court, if it would help further his patron's political career. In return, the client often received money, a job, or an invitation to dinner at the patron's house. A dinner invitation may not seem like much to us today, but in Roman times it could mean a great place in society if he appeared at the right dinner parties. His prestige in society would be much more enhanced if he were seen by the rich and famous at only one dinner party hosted by a powerful patron. HJN)  Ȁ This patron-client relationship led to many interesting situations in ancient Rome. Sometimes candidates for various government magistracies would travel around Rome with several hundred or even a few thousand of their clients.1MN1jN2i2NA7 l ]3 4 Ȁ   Coriolanus(Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus) He was a late fifth century BC legendary Roman military hero. He was a Roman patrician who is said to have derived his name from the capture of the Volscian city Corioli. 1̇1ṁx> J Ȁ  "5C_@hCorvus Rome, being very inferior and inexperienced in sea battles had to think quickly. After finding an abandoned Carthaginian warship they built 100 duplicates in 60 days. They soon built over 200 warships and won huge victories at sea. They also developed a strategy where they invented a large hook like drawbridge called the Corvus or Raven and would thrust it out and catch a hold of the enemy ship which would then allow 120 soldiers to march onto the vessel. This tactic would turn their naval battle into a land battle and it proved successful for Rome , who had won every major sea battle of the first Punic War.1̇1znI7 >& Ȁ  "GCover Page1-1Z o-{J> J Ȁ    DanielDaniel (606-534 B.C.) "Dani El" (My Judge is God)Daniel was taken captive during Nebuchadnezzar's first attack on Jerusalem in 607 B.C., he became a chief minister at the royal court in Babylon. God used him mightily through dreams and interpretation of visions.In the third year of Cyrus (conqueror of Babylon, and founder of the Persian Empire) Daniel had a series of visions through which God revealed to the minutest details the future concerning the Jews as well as the ultimate fate of each world governing empire from his own day on through to the second coming of Christ. He specifically mentions Babylon, and then Mede-Persia, and then Greece, and the fourth being the most powerful, was the Roman empire. -#1 09 Ȁ  Some of the famous miracles of the Bible are found in Daniel such as The Fiery Furnace, The Handwriting on the Wall, and Daniel in the Lion's Den. Daniel was a man of incredible character and his book is considered one of the most important prophetic books of the Old Testament. Some of the topics mentioned are: the antichrist, the great tribulation, the second coming of Christ, thJ#e resurrection and the judgements. Probably the most important passages in Daniel are in chapter 9 which deal with the exact time of the death of the Messiah. After 7 + 62 (69) weeks (seven year periods) the Messiah would be "cut off" which is a clear prediction of His death.X J{8 >A Ȁ   Daniel also saw a vision of the Messiah in chapter 7 as the "Son of Man" coming with the clouds of heaven:Dan 7:13-14"I was watching in the night visions, and behold, One like the Son of Man, coming with the clouds of heaven! He came to the Ancient of Days, and they brought Him near before Him. Then to Him was given dominion and glory and a kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve Him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and His kingdom the one which shall not be destroyed.1#1p{3 4a Ȁ   Democracy(In Greek it means "rule of the people"). The term originated in ancient Greece to designate a government where the people (or their elected agents) share in directing the activities of the state, as distinct from governments controlled by a single class, select group, or autocrat. Democracy insists that decisions be imposed only by the consent of the majority and that they conform to the principle of equality.11q/ ,c Ȁ  DictatorWhen Rome was in a time of crisis they would temporarily appoint a dictator (one whose word was law), and only he could override the decision made by the consuls.11r8 >! Ȁ  "9Elephant Coin This coin from Spain depicts one of Hannibal's elephants which became a symbol of his courageous journey across the Alps.11sNF Z Ȁ  "*=z Elephant Copper Bar Pyrrhus brought 20 war elephants with his invading army which terribly frightened the Romans who had never gone up against them in battle. This copper bar currency commerates the Roman routing of elephants in battle.BRITISH MUSEUM1H1tH\4 8 Ȁ  =zEpirusAn ancient district in NW Greece and S Albania. King Pyrrhus was from Epirus.1H 1ru JA J5 8 Ȁ  REtruriaAn ancient country located between the Arno and Tiber rivers. It was the territory of the Etruscans, who in the 6th century BC spread Etruscan civilization throughout much of Italy. They were later forced back into Etruria and eventually disintegrated.1 {1v{6J69 @ Ȁ  p EtruscanPeople of Etruria. The word Etruscan can pertain to their inhabitants, civilization, art, or language. Etruria was an ancient country located between the Arno and Tiber rivers. It was the territory of the Etruscans, who in the 6th century BC spread Etruscan civilization throughout much of Italy. They were later forced back into Etruria and eventually disintegrated.1{g1wgZ6@ N Ȁ  " Etruscan Sarcophagus This Etruscan male head is from a 6th century BC sarcophagus. The Etruscans took well care for their dead. They believed that the soul dwelt in the tomb and if it was cared for with the necessities and luxuries of life then the spirit would be happy, if not it would come to haunt them.MUSEO DI VILLA GIULIA, ROME1g21x2A P9 Ȁ  D[pREtrusciThe Greeks called the Etruscans Tyrsenoi or Tyrrhenoi, while the Latins referred to them as Tusci or Etrusci. In Latin their cou2ntry was Tuscia or Etruria. According to the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus (fl. c. 20 BC), the Etruscans called themselves Rasenna, which was also found among their writings. The Etruscan language was spoken by close neighbours of the ancient Romans.12L1JyLee8 > Ȁ  "Farmer Figure Many plebeians were farmers, and during the early republic the farms were very small and usually run by a single family with one or two slaves. The ox was the single most important animal on a farm, pulling ploughs and carts. Farming became a very important industry for the Romans. They eventually developed effective ways of making farming very productive. They brought new methods and tools and spread new crops, fruit and vegetables throughout the world.1L1zYeY/ ,) Ȁ  GarrisonA permenant post with body of troops stationed in a well fortified place. Rome had strong garrisons of soldiers at strategic borders.11{$Y/ , Ȁ  GaulsThe Gauls were enemies of Rome. They were from gaul (Latin Gallia), which was an ancient term for the land S and W of the Rhine, W of the Alps, and N of the Pyrenees. They were also referred to as the Celts, and called Gauls by the Romans. Gaul (modern France) probably had been there since 600 B.C. The Gaul in Italy were referred to in two ways - Cisalpine Gaul (Cisalpine means in Latin "on this side the Alps"), and Transalpine Gaul; (Transalpine means in Latin "on this side the Po").HU x Ȁ  [ie' F[pThe early enemies of Rome were as follows: (see map)1. Early enemies: Etruscans (N), Sabines (NE), Aequi (E), Volsci (S). 2. Latium and Etruria. Cisalpine Gaul. Campania and Samnium. Umbria and Picenum. Lucania and Apulia.1'1P|'F F 5 8 Ȁ  ⊡֙GrammaticusThe Grammaticus taught the sons of craftsmen and merchants correct sentence structure and speaking form. He had the right to swat the child across the back with a stick if he made grammar mistakes. In early times the Grammaticus was not always highly respected in Roman society and during the Republican period, the Senate banned all philosophers and grammaticii from Rome because they corrupted the minds of young Romans by teaching them to be "lazy and overly clever."1'w 1S}w  "F  / , Ȁ  gravitasThe father in the traditional Roman home was a very stern figure, and believed his sons shouldn't be pampered but must build character. It was important that the young man develop gravitas, a serious and sturdy sense of purpose.1w  1~ K8 C T Ȁ  €&m HamilcarIn 238 BC on the coast of north Africa a great military general named Hamilcar had just lost a war to Rome over the territory of the island of Sicily and he prepares to go to Spain.He had a young son named Hannibal and Livy describes the scene:"Hannibal, then about 9 years old, was childishly teasing his father to take him to Spain with him. His father still angry at the loss to Rome led him to the altar and made him swear to be the enemy of Rome as soon as he was able." I K1 01 Ȁ  -Livy Hamilcar did bring his son Hannibal to Spain with him and taught him military strategy. Hamilcar died in battle 9 years later in 229 BC. In 219 BC (20 years after his oath) Hannibal fulfilled what he swore and became the greatest enemy Rome had ever faced.1|16| C8KAC T Ȁ  k &m HannibalIn 238 BC on the coast of north Africa a great milita|AKry general named Hamilcar had just lost a war to Rome over the territory of the island of Sicily and he prepares to go to Spain.He had a young son named Hannibal and Livy describes the scene:"Hannibal, then about 9 years old, was childishly teasing his father to take him to Spain with him. His father still angry at the loss to Rome led him to the altar and made him swear to be the enemy of Rome as soon as he was able." I| C1 01 Ȁ  -Livy Hamilcar did bring his son Hannibal to Spain with him and taught him military strategy. Hamilcar died in battle 9 years later in 229 BC. In 219 BC (20 years after his oath) Hannibal fulfilled what he swore and became the greatest enemy Rome had ever faced.1A:C1:CDb CDL f Ȁ  "8mȉ Hannibal Coin This coin (Punic shekel) is one of the few known likenesses we have of Hannibal, one of the greatest military strategists of all time, he pillaged Italy for more than 10 years and almost ruined Rome. Hannibal was defeated by Scipio at Zama in north Africa in 202 BC when he was called home to defend Carthage.BRITISH MUSEUM1:CE1rEZFADZF@ N Ȁ  "6 Infantry Warship Mural This 1st Century AD mural from Pompeii depicts how the Roman warships were really "floating infantry units" equipped with grapples, to capture the enemy vessel, and boarding-parties of legionaries.HOUSE OF VETTII, POMPEII1EF1F=GZF=G/ , Ȁ  Italian AlliesItalian Allies were Roman protectorates. They sent troop levies to Rome, and they shared in the spoils of war.1FnG1nGGY'=GG2 4N Ȁ   JanusThe spirit of the doorway1nGG1GHGH/ , Ȁ  Judiciary Branch of GovernmentThe judiciary branch of government were the 6 Praetors (elected for 2 years) who were the high judges.1GH1HjKXHjK/ , Ȁ  Kings CoinThe king would dress in a purple trimmed cloak and high - topped boots of red leather. He sat upon a throne of ivory known as a curule chair. These are often seen in reliefs and on the reverse of coins and were constructed using crossed elephant tusks for legs. The kings were accompanied by twelve lictors as he traveled about the city. The lictors each bore a fasces, a bundle of rods which symbolized the power over life and death held by the King of Rome. The axe symbolized the power to execute quicly and mercifully, while the rods symbolized the power to punish with beatings.1HK1KeLjKeL9 @# Ȁ  F[ Lake RegillusIt was in ancient Latium, SE of Rome. It was the scene of a battle (496 B.C.) this victory gave Rome supremacy in Latium.1KL1|LLKeLL7 >* Ȁ  "HLanguage Map1LM1MMLM3 4? Ȁ   Latin AlliesLatin Allies had no citizenship but were allowed the rights of trade, they also equipped Rome with foreign legions and were self-governed.1MN1N^)M5 8S Ȁ  D[Latin LeagueThe Italian people, in the early centuries of the first millennium BC, found themselves surrounded by various new invaders. At first the Italians occupied the center of the peninsula, but later they separated into two main divisions. The so-called "highlanders" took the central and eastern portions. The Latins, or "lowlanders," dwelt in the west. Because of their relations with the Etruscans, the Latins became more tNMhoroughly civilized than the highlanders. It wasn't long before their settlements grew into cities, and these became city-states. Although these city-states were independent, they were bound together by the necessity of defending themselves against the Etruscans and other enemies. Early in the first millennium BC the Latins formed what was known as the Latin League.1N1bzb8 @ Ȁ  F[ LatinsAn Italic people dwelling in the south part of ancient Italy, particularly of the great plain of Latium. 11W&b? L Ȁ  D[yy LatiumA country in ancient Italy, SE of Rome. In early Roman times Latium was inhabited by the Latins, the Etruscans (N of the Tiber River), and several Italic tribes. In the 3d cent. BC, Rome conquered all of Latium. 11]8 @ Ȁ  % LaviniaIn Roman legend she was the daughter of Latinus and second wife of Aeneas. 11ZiZA P Ȁ  RRf<뉀LiguresLatin LIGUS, or LIGUR, plural LIGURES, they were ancient peoples who inhabited the northwestern Mediterranean coast from the mouth of the Ebro River in Spain to the mouth of the Arno River in Italy in the 1st millennium BC. The Etruscan expansion in the plain of the Po and the invasion of the Gauls forced the Ligurians to settle between the Alps and the Apennines. They defended themselves so well against the Romans that they gained a reputation with the ancients as being very fierce. The ancient Greeks gave all the peoples of the western world the common designation of Ligyes or Ligurians.11DZ3 4 Ȁ   LivyLivy, Titus Livius (59 BC-17 AD) His life work was the History of Rome from its founding in 753 BC to Drusus in 9 BC. Of the original 142 books of his work (published in sections) 35 remain (Books I-X, XXI-XLV).1ψ1|ψK @ N Ȁ  "/ Local Magistrate Statue This life-sized bronze statue (probably 3rd century BC), was found near Lake Trasimene and the inscription reveals that it was a likeness of a local magistrate. This is also the pose of a Roman orator. MUSEO ARCHAEOLOGICO, FLORENCE1ψK1TKn#n; D Ȁ  ⢺s5LucaniansLucania was an ancient region of S Italy. It was bounded on the east by the Gulf of Tarentum and by Apulia, on the north by Samnium and Campania, on the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the south by Bruttium. Italic tribes and Greek colonists lived there before the Roman conquest in the third century BC. Their chief cities were Heraclea and Metapontum on the Gulf of Tarentum and Paestum and Buxentum on the Tyrrhenian coast. The non-Greek Lucanians were Samnites.1K1\$n8 >K Ȁ  "man and wife paintingIn this painting (uncovered in Pompeii), probably done for this couple's wedding, the woman is shown holding the kind of wax tablet the Romans used for everyday writing like grocery lists and schoolchildrens' lessons. She has a writing stylus pressed to her lips.1,1,e.7 >^ Ȁ  "Map - Italian Peninsula (6th Cent. BC)1,Ž1ŽR7 >8 Ȁ  "Map - Mediterranean1ŽE1EP7 >4 Ȁ  "IMap of Punic Wars1EƏ1Ə'U'7 >> Ȁ  ">MaƏ'p of Roman Expansion1ƏX1Xm'< F Ȁ  " Mediterranean Italy was indeed close to all their big neighbors, Spain in the west, Greece in the east, and Africa in the south. Over the centuries Rome expanded its borders all the way to each of these places believing that "the gods destined Rome to rule the world." They even gave the Mediterranean Sea a new name, "Mare Nostrum" which means "our sea."1X21;2< </ , Ȁ  MessinaGreek ZANKLE, Latin MESSANA, capital of Messina provincia, extreme northeastern Sicily, Italy. It lies on the lower slopes of the Peloritani Mountains, on the Strait of Messina opposite Reggio di Calabria.12m1m:<:; D% Ȁ  <DMiddle Class and PoorThe middle class and poor were represented in 2 assemblies: The Assembly of Centuries, and The Assembly of Tribes.1mk1kR:7 >8 Ȁ  "JModern Map of Italy1k1/ , Ȁ  MunicipiaMunicipia received Roman citizenship without the right to vote. They were allowed a local self-government and the rights of trade. They also served in the army and paid taxes.1 1 `4 8 Ȁ  s5NaplesA city in southern Italy who had pleaded with Rome for help against the Samnites.1 1s 5 8 Ȁ  h݉nomenThe first and last name of a Roman were similar to the way we use them today. The first two names, the praenomen and nomen, were much like first and last names in our time. The nomen was the family name, passed from a father to all of his children. Just like today, certain family names carried more prestige than others. A boy was given a praenomen name at birth and was known by it to his family and close friends. Many boys were given exactly the same praenomen and nomen. Ps1 0 Ȁ  Most popular praenomina were always represented on official documents and inscriptions with a standard abbreviation.It is almost always noticed that most Roman names end with the letters "us", all the truly Roman praenomen and nomen ended in the letters "us," even the ones often given different endings in modern translations.11Os; D Ȁ  `ȵfNuma PompiliusSecond legendary Sabine king of Rome (715-673 BC). According to legend he was king of Rome, successor to Romulus. Most of the religious rites of ancient and modern Rome were developed by him. He was supposedly responsible for the pontifices, flamens (sacred priests), vestal virgins, the building of the temple of Janus, and the reorganization of the calendar into days. His reign was a peaceful one compared with that of Tullius Hostilius who succeeded him.11kxJk. , Ȁ  OscansAn Italic people dwelling in the south part of ancient Italy.11b4k. ,h Ȁ  Palentine HillOne of the seven hills of Rome.1/1D/E E; D Ȁ  YR5~paterThe family was the most important part of Roman society. The main person in charge legally of the family was the pater or father. He even had the power of life or death within the family. If the matron, the woman of the house, was of a dignified social status, the power of the father was somewhat restrained. Originally called by the Latin title of paterfamilias, the father evolved into the p/Eatron of Roman Republican and early Imperial society.1/v1 vNENA P/ Ȁ  Y _5 8} Ȁ  }b!PyrrhusPyrrhus was the king of Epirus and was the first Greek (Hellenic) general to face the Romans. In 280 BC he came to aid the Greeks in Italy (Tarentum) and brought with him his fearful elephant cavalry along with 20,000 soldiers and barely won a brutal victory. His Phalanx defeated the Rome's legionary armies twice. Pyrrhus had won the victory but at the expense of a major part of his army. He said, "If we win one more victory against the Romans we shall be totally ruined." This is where the term "Pyyhric Victory" originated where the winner suffers more loss than that which he gained. His army was soon too diminished to continue and he left Rome in 275 BC leaving Rome as the undisputed champion of central and southern Italy. 2 years later Pyrrhus fled to Argos, where he was killed by a mob in the street.'$  Ȁ 1_1և> J Ȁ  ")}b!Pyrrhus Bust Pyrrhus was the king of Epirus and was the first Greek (Hellenic) general to face the Romans. In 280 BC he came to aid the Greeks in Italy (Tarentum) and brought with him his fearful elephant cavalry along with 20,000 soldiers and barely won a brutal victory. His Phalanx defeated the Rome's legionary armies twice. His army was soon too diminished to continue and he left Rome in 275 BC leaving Rome as the undisputed champion of central and southern Italy.D( 8 Ȁ MUSEO NAZIONALE, NAPLES1ևK1Ki;. ,v Ȁ  Quaestors8 Quaestors acted as treasurers of the city1K1yD V Ȁ  "5C_@hRaven Rome, being very inferior and inexperienced in sea battles had to think quickly. After finding an abandoned Carthaginian warship they built 100 duplicates in 60 days. They soon built over 200 warships and won huge victories at sea. They also developed a strategy where they invented a large hook like drawbridge called the Corvus or Raven and would thrust it out and catch a hold of the enemy ship which would then allow 120 soldiers to march onto the vessel. This tactic would turn their naval battle into a land battle and it proved successful for Rome , who had won every major sea battle of the first Punic War.1Ӌ1Ӌt9G; Ds Ȁ    RegistrationThank you for downloading BKA #40a - The History of Rome - Part IThere is no charge for viewing this program although if you find it useful and decide to keep it the registration fee is $7.95. By registering you will help make it possible for me to produce many more programs as this one.Ӌ(  aThis program contains part one of a four part series spanning Roman history from 1000 BC to 400 AD. These programs include a general overview of Roman history with maps, timelines, photos, illustrations and a glossary. They will assist the student of Biblical history in understanding the Roman era, with an emphasis on God working in this time period, as well as the triumph of Christianity.GW |c Ȁ       Instructions are very self explanatory. Information is easily accessible and searchable. My thanks to my friend Georgina for her artwork and support. You can visit my webstore at: http://www.bible-history.com/store Or you can send a check through mail:Rusty Russell28362 Laura La Plante Dr.Agoura Hills, CA 91301If you have any questions or comments please feel free to email me at: rusty@bible-history.comrC/ . Ȁ  or you can visit my website at:http://www.bible-history.com11`w`8 @ Ȁ  `ȵ RemusHe was one of the two twins (sons of Mars) in Roman legend. He was later killed by his brother Romulus.11Z`; D? Ȁ  `ȵRRomeThe ancient Italian kingdom, republic, and empire whose capital was the city of Rome. Ancient Rome was built on the east, or left, bank of the Tiber. The seven hills of the ancient city are the Palatine, Capitoline, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, and Aventine. Tradition tells of the founding of Rome by Romulus in 753 BC and of rule by the Tarquin family, the Etruscan royal house. The young city was probably under Etruscan rule until 500 BC, when the Romans overthrew the monarchy and established the Roman republic. '$  Ȁ 1C1RCd!dA P Ȁ  PFhAsyyRomulusIn Roman legend he was the founder of Rome. He and his twin, Remus, were sons of Mars and Rhea Silvia, daughter of Numitor, king of Alba Longa. Amulius, who overthrew Numitor's throne, cast them into the Tiber River, but they floated ashore. They were suckled by a she-wolf and reared by a shepherd. When they grew up they slew Amulius and made Numitor king. They then founded a city (traditionally 753 BC) on the spot where they were rescued from the Tiber. They later quarreled, and Romulus killed Remus. Romulus populated Rome with fugitives from other countries and gave them wives abducted from the Sabine tribe. After a long reign Romulus vanished in a thunderstorm. He was later worshiped as the god Quirinus.1C1`/dG \ Ȁ  s5[ie'SabelliansThey were of a group of early Italian peoples including the Samnites and Sabines. The northern Sabellians were invading the lands of the Aequi, and the Volsci which drove them down into Italy to attack Rome.11n; D Ȁ  &m`ȵSabinesAncient people of central Italy, dwelling mainly in the Sabine Hills (Apennines) northeast of Rome. Very little information has been found concerning them. They were probably Oscan-speaking (Sabelli). Livy wrote of the rape of the Sabine women to supply wives for the womanless followers of Romulus. They were overthrown by the Romans about 290 BC.112 6; D Ȁ  =z €SamnitesThey were a people of ancient Italy. Their country was Samnium in Central Italy. The Samnites were Oscan-speaking and therefore were among the Sabelli. They were mainly a group made up of farmers from various tribes and around the fourth century BC they came into conflict with the Romans over Campania. There was probably a good deal of warfare before the three Samnite Wars (343-341 BC, 326-304 BC, 298-290 BC), after which the Romans won control of central and S Italy. Although the Samnites continued to fight against Rome with Pyrrhus, Hannibal and later Marius in the Social War, they were crushed in 82 BC by Sulla before the gates of Rome and most of them were killed. Some survivors were sold into slavery and the rest were Romanized.  - (= Ȁ  note: The Tabula Agnonensis, a bronze tablet that carries an inscription engraved in the full Oscan alphabet, is an important record of their language. 1=1=Z L f Ȁ  "; €C_@h Scipio Bust This bust from Herculaneum is of Scipio Africanus, a great general and statesman who was devoted to Greek culture and inventor of many war tactics and new ideas. Hannibal fell to Scipio which ended the second Punic war.MUSEO NAZIONALE, NAPLES1=1<M5 81 Ȁ  <SenateThe Senate were also a body of patricians, 300 citizens from the wealthiest families of Rome.They also maintained the treasury as well as foreign policy and they served for life. They outweighed the Assembly of Centuries and advised the consuls, proposed laws, and approved new construction of roads, temples and military defenses. They were supposedly an advisory body but in actuality they were the center of all policy decisions concerning foreign affairs, military matters, finances, public land, and state religion. '<$  Ȁ 1m1|mK<5 8- Ȁ  ⊡֙Servian WallThe governing council of Republican Rome. The Senate was established very early and was an outgrowth of the council of the kings. By the 3d cent. B.C. the senate was a group of 300 men with a high degree of political, legislative, and administrative power at Rome. There was a consistent method of ways to checks on its power, usually made by the tribunes. The members were chosen by the censors and included supposedly the best citizens, but really the senate consisted of ex-magistrates, almost entirely members of a special families from either the patrician or plebeian classes. Membership was usually for life. During the third and second centuries BC the senate governed the armies, established treaties, organized new territory, and controlled financial matters.1m1[ * / , Ȁ  Servius TullusThe legendary sixth king of ancient Rome 578 - 534 BC who built the city walls and whose accession to the throne was prophesied by Tanaquil, the widow of Priscus. He was assassinated by his daughter Tullia and her husband Tarquin.1D 1D    3 4 Ȁ   Seven HillsThe seven hills of the ancient city are the Palatine, Capitoline, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, and Aventine.1D 2 12  c  L f Ȁ  "KRPFh Shewolf Statue This great bronze Etruscan shewolf was discovered on the Capitoline. This statue of a weary protective she-wolf with a lions mane dates back to about 480 BC and became the emblem for Rome. The babies (Romulus and Remus sucking) were added later sometime during the renaissance (15th cent. BC.).PALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORI, ROME12  1     B R1 Ȁ  " 4 Slave Mosaic Slaves the property of their owners and completely subject to their masters in Rome. They had no freedom or rights whatsoever.1  1'  8 > Ȁ  " Slaves Slaves the property of their owners and completely subject to their masters in Rome. They had no freedom or rights whatsoever unless it was bestowed upon them by their master.1 C1C3 4% Ȁ   StatesmanA person with great wisdom and ability in directing the affairs of Roman government and in dealing with important public issues.1C919%@%@8 >S Ȁ  "Straw Roofed Huts Early villagers around the Italian Peninsula lived in straw roofed huts. Rome advanced quickly and developed walled citi9%@es with paved streets.19V@1V@*D%@*D5 8? Ȁ  {*Suetonius69 - about 140 AD. GAIVS SVETONIVS TRANQVILLVS was a Roman writer of the first and second centuries AD who wrote about the lives of the first Roman emperors and their families. Suetonius concentrated on the private lives of the people he wrote about, while Tacitus, another contemporary historian, wrote about political events and the emperors conducted affairs of state. Both Suetonius and Tacitus, however, wrote a lot about scandalous events and the immoral and pleasure-seeking lifestyles of the Roman aristocrats of the time. Unlike Tacitus, Suetonius did try to report events fairly and didn't attempt to paint every emperor as a power hungry tyrant who ruled at the expense of traditional Roman rights and freedoms. His most famous work was The Lives of the Caesars, often translated and titled The Twelve Caesars. Suetonius was a friend of Pliny the Younger, who also wrote about events of the period.1V@[D1H[DrKxC*DG5 8 Ȁ  \FjqTacitus56 or 57 - about 117 AD. CORNELIVS TACITVS was a Roman historian who lived during the First early Second Cent. AD. His most famous works include The Histories and The Annals of Imperial Rome. He also wrote The Agricola, much of which is now lost. Born into a wealthy family living in Gaul or Northern Italy, Tacitus received the best education available to a Roman from a good family. Public speaking skills, oratory and debate, were considered the most important areas of study for a young man destined for a career in imperial service or senatorial office. Tacitus was a senator during the reign of Domitian and was later to fill the post of consul, the highest office open to a Roman who was not emperor. After his consulship, he was given the governorship of the large province of Anatolia (much of modern Turkey). p[DrK/ , Ȁ ⊡֙Tacitus hated great concentration of power in the hands of the early emperors. Though he hated imperial power and in his writings tries to paint every emperor as a corrupt despot, he hated civil war and anarchy even more. He had a particularly heavy bias against the emperor Tiberius, whom he portrayed as a sinister and cruel emperor, purging his opponents from the Senate by having them tried for treason and executed. He showed scorn for Claudius and Nero, and even his writings about Augustus contained some belittling innuendoes and snide remarks. His writing is full of tales of corruption, government scandal, and innocent people being destroyed or having their good names ruined because of the emperors lust for power. It was Tacitus belief that the emperor had so much power in his hands that no man could occupy the throne without being corrupted by that power.1GK1K^MrK^M; D Ȁ  =z}b!TarentumTarentum is the Latin name for Taranto, which was in S Italy, on the Gulf of Taranto, an arm of the Ionian Sea. Taranto was a town of Magna Graecia and was powerful enough to resist the Romans until 272 B.C. The city called upon King Pyrrhus of Epirus (in Greece) to come to their aid since they were mainly a commercial city and not able to match armies with Rome.1KM1M'Nf^M'N2 4 Ȁ   Tarquinius Priscus(Lucius Tarquinius Priscus). The legendary fifth king of Rome (616-578 BC).1MXN19XNl'Nl5 8 Ȁ  Y Tarquinius Superbus(Lucius Tarquinius Superbus) "Tarquin the Proud" was the legendary seventh king of ancient Rome. (534-510 BC). He was the last of the Tarquins to rule Rome. He murdered Tullus and seized the throne. Under his rule the Etruscans were at the height of their power, and the authority of the monarchy was absolute. He was despised by the people for hXNl'Nis tyranny, and cast out by the senate in 510 BC and the Republic was established in 509 B C.1XN1eу l/ , Ȁ  TarquinsAround 575 BC. the Etruscans inhabited Rome and their kings (an aristocratic family known as the Tarquins) ruled Rome for the next 66 years. Rome had really benefited from their influence because they were so advanced. They taught the Romans their alphabet and how to build their houses with tile roofs. They also taught them many other building techniques, including the famous "arch" which had, later on, been attributed to Rome for its invention. The streets were laid out over the once mosquito infested swamps, and at the center of the city was the great square called the Forum, which became the seat of Roman government and law. The Tarquins also built temples and taught the Romans their many religious rituals.'у$  Ȁ 11U&$у&/ , Ȁ  The Assembly of CenturiesThere was also a body of patricians within the legislative branch known as the Assembly of Centuries (named for a military formation of 100 men "centum") and these were elected into office. They could declare war.1W1W&/ ,# Ȁ  The Assembly of TribesA legislative assembly of elected officials called tribunes and questors who passed laws and conducted minor trials.1WH1H[-. ,Z Ȁ  The GeniusThe guardian angel or spirit1HԆ1Ԇ2^02. ,` Ȁ  The LaresThe guardians of family property1Ԇc1cća32ć. ,f Ȁ  The PenatesThe guardians of household stores1c1KVćK7 >@ Ȁ  "The Seven Hills of Rome1|1|{@K; D Ȁ  ⢺ €ThuriiAn ancient city of Magna Graecia, S Italy, in Bruttium, on the Gulf of Tarentum. It was founded by Pericles in 443 B.C. to replace ruined Sybaris. New Greek colonists came who later allied with Rome and Thurii was pillaged in 204 BC by Hannibal. Rome revived the colony in 193 BC, but it did not thrive.1|(1{(rJrE X  Ȁ  R<F[ Tiber RiverItal. Tevere, Latin Tiberis, river, 251 mi (404 km) long, rising in the Etruscan Apennines, central Italy. It flows generally S across Tuscany, Umbria, and N Latium, then SW through Rome to empty into the Tyrrhenian Sea by two mouths. 1(1J`r2/ , Ȁ  Titus Livy59 BC - 17 AD. Titus Livy, the famous Augustan historian was born in the Northern Italian city of Padua. His History of Rome was and still is one of the most popular pieces of classical literature. Much of what Livy included in his history was legend and epic drama, but this style was considered good history in Roman times. Though his history consisted of one hundred forty-two books, only thirty-five remain. Byzantine writers later paraphrased much of his work that is now lost. The first five books of Livy's History of Rome From its Foundations are available in an English translation.\3) g Ȁ Livy wrote during the Age of Augustus, a time during which Rome was powerful, prosperous, and still expanding. Livy crafted a history that he thought heroic enough for the greatest empire on Earth at the time. He borrowed freely from Virgils Aeneid. Though Livy is not considered a serious scholar today and his history is not taken to be faultlessly accurate, reading Livy can tell us much about who the Romans were a2rnd what they thought of themselves and the rest of the world. He provides a window on the Roman soul and character of the First Century AD.1215 8C Ȁ  }뉀TribunesThe 10 Tribunes, elected by the Plebeians, protected the rights of the people from the decisions made by the senate. They had power to veto any government decision. The Plebeians' demanded that the patricians would hear the tribunes and because of the fear of losing their military and labor forces the patricians agreed. They became so protected that anyone injuring a Tribune could be put to death.11Za,35 8Y Ȁ  %TroyAn ancient city made famous by Homer's account of the Trojan War. It is also called Ilion or, in Latin, Ilium. Its site is almost universally accepted as the mound now named Hissarlik, in Asian Turkey, located 4 miles from the mouth of the Dardanelles. It has been definitely established that the Troy of the Trojan War was a Phrygian city and the center of a region known as Troas. The culture of the Trojans dates from the Bronze Age. The Romans, believing that they themselves were descendants of Aeneas and other Trojans, favored the city.'Z$  Ȁ 131k:Z5 8  Ȁ  AsTullus HostiliusLegendary third king of ancient Rome. 672 - 641 BC. Tullius Hostilius was famous for his warlike exploits. He conquered much surrounding territory and added it to the growing area of land ruled by Rome. During his reign a long, drawn - out war was fought between Rome and Alba Longa. Rome eventually won and vanquished her rival city. The reign of Tullius Hostilius symbolizes the ambitious and warlike nature of the Roman people. According to legend he levelled Rome to the ground in 665 BC.11(5 8 Ȁ  }뉀Twelve Tables of LawThe Plebeians still felt inferior because they really never knew exactly what the laws were. The laws had never been put into writing and were only known by the patricians. The Plebeians insisted that the government write down the laws. Finally in 451 BC the patricians agreed to engrave the laws on 12 bronze tablets and to set them in the Forum for all to see. These 12 Tables became the basis for all future Roman law.11zL. , Ȁ  UmbriansAn Italic people dwelling in the north part of ancient Italy.11~~/ ,  Ȁ  UniversitiesGreat universities also existed in the Mediterranean world. The best were at Athens and alexandria, and also Rome herself, although Rome had the best schools for the practice of law and government. In Athens, a student could get a classical education studying Greek dramas, poetry, logic, mathematics, or philosopy (science, mathematics, and other branches of knowledge).11L~; D Ȁ  h݉╺gusIt is almost always noticed that most Roman names end with the letters "us", all the truly Roman praenomen and nomen ended in the letters "us," even the ones often given different endings in modern translations.11MR$M. ,H Ȁ  VestaThe spirit of the hearth1~1r~fMc  Ȁ  D[  [ie F[pVolsciA people of ancient Italy. They occupied the country SE of the Alban Hills. They were early enemies of the Romans and Latins. Wars against Rome continued from the sixth century BC for about 200 years until the Volscians were completely conquered and Romanized.The early e~Mnemies of Rome were as follows: (see map)1. Early enemies: Etruscans (N), Sabines (NE), Aequi (E), Volsci (S). 2. Latium and Etruria. Cisalpine Gaul. Campania and Samnium. Umbria and Picenum. Lucania and Apulia.'~$  Ȁ 1H1}HL @ N Ȁ  "2 War Gallery Relief This relief of a Roman war gallery depicts how the infantry was awaiting on board fresh for battle (slaves were rowing the ship) to hook the enemy ship and cross the drawbridge to fight their sea battles on the enemy deck. VATICAN, ROME1H1c#A P Ȁ  €C_@h&mZamaScene of the famous battle (202 BC) with a victory of the Romans led by Scipio Africanus over the Carthaginians commanded by Hannibal. It was the last battle of the Second Punic War. The battle took place at a site identified by the Roman historian Livy as Naraggara (now Saqiyat Sidi Yusuf, Tunisia). The name Zama was given to the site (which modern historians have never really identified) by the Roman historian Cornelius Nepos about 150 years after the battle.{Gc4 6 Ȁ ȉ Carthage had no choice but to accept Scipio's peace terms whereby it gave up Spain to Rome, surrendered its warships, and began paying a 10,000 talents within 50-year indemnity to Rome. Scipio was awarded the surname Africanus in tribute of his victory. Hannibal escaped from the battle and soon returned to Carthage.11U$c" 11w-ArialTahomaCourier NewTimes New Roman0$8x!fF V˄zȊh!>jD@ $Ʌ#(%l\S $R%^ %0&#a|##"\ < 4$TDoh,7#Jm Ą "p !* $ Q$ X, v4 T "Zۃn!&VNA~8 $< ! ! ׅb ՇE: %S F!"F9$~ L"4 !!k!X#" "t]#K#>Q%| !.!#%& !%"w"8&$zl +##xe%2=!na!.$p%rv y"? "D&:\t%DH (R X'l%0ׅ^  n$ $!!ERa@ b?^ %FH%r]$J,!d %C "P?#fb!*#v%xh  be !"Pi6A !n  L& $$H' v I$B(  n%%Lن "N$-!N%!!Æl "%`"6 ǃvI !ۈ Hi%MZLm I  &=4 a Æ4H m A   M ?\ ׅR '  v  ?A Lvǃhm LIĄFׅb ՇE%I/&;)F24L%BibliographyCreditsEarly Roman SocietyEarly Roman Society Facts Etruscans Phoenicians and GreeksGlossaryHannibal and HamilcarIntroductionInvaders from the North Latium & Geography$Latium & Geography Facts(Livy About Rome's Early Kings,Livy and Hannibal0Maps4More Conquest of Southern Italy8More on the Latin League<Moving Toward Democracy@Political InstitutionsDPolitical Institutions FactsHPolybius and HannibalLPrehistoric italyPRead FirstTReligion of RomeXRoman Citizenship\Roman Citizenship Facts`Roman Military OrganizationdRome and CarthagehRome's Development of a ConstitutionlRome's Early KingspRome's First KingstRome's First Kings FactsxRome's First Punic War|Rome's Methods of DominationRome's Second Punic WarRomulus and RemusRomulus and Remus FactsTable of Contents$The Conquests of Southern ItalyThe Dawn of RomeThe Dawn of Rome FactsThe Early RepublicThe EtruscansThe Etruscans FactsThe Fifth Century BCThe Fifth Century BC FactsThe First Punic WarThe First Punic War FactsThe Fourth Century BCThe Geography of ItalyThe LatinsThe Latins FactsThe Punic WarsThe Punic Wars (264-146 BC)The Republican GovernmentThe Republican Government FactsThe Roman Conguest of Southern ItalyThe Roman LegionsThe Second Punic WarThe Second Punic War FactsThe Third Century BCThe Third Century BC FactsThe Third Punic WarThe Third Punic War FactsTimeTimelineTimeline - Biblical HistoryTimeline 100 - 1 BC Timeline 1000 - 900 BCTimeline 200 - 100 BCTimeline 300 - 200 BCTimeline 400 - 300 BCTimeline 500 - 400 BC Timeline 600 - 500 BC$entsTimeline 700 - 600 BC(Timeline 800 - 700 BC,Timeline 900 - 800 BC0The Early RepublicThe EtruscansThe Etruscans FactsThe Fifth Century BCThe Fifth Century BC FactsThe First Punic WarThe First Punic War FactsThe Fourth Century BCThe Geography of ItalyThe LatinsThe Latins FactsThe Punic WarsThe Punic Wars (264-146 BC)The Republican GovernmentThe Republican Government FactsThe Roman Conguest of Southern ItalyThe Roman LegionsThe Second Punic WarThe Second Punic War FactsThe Third Century BCThe Third Century BC FactsThe Third Punic WarThe Third Punic War FactsTimeTimelineTimeline - Biblical HistoryTimeline 100 - 1 BC Timeline 1000 - 900 BCTimeline 200 - 100 BCTimeline 300 - 200 BCTimeline 400 - 300 BCTimeline 500 - 400 BC Timeline 600 - 500 BC$entsThe Conquests of Southern ItalyTimeline 700 - 600 BC/&;)LzVWelcome!HIntroductionR The Dawn of RomeTable of ContentsRomulus and Remus?The LatinsRome's First KingsThe EtruscansLatium & GeographyPolitical InstitutionsaEarly Roman Society Religion of RomeThe Fifth Century BCThe Fourth Century BCThe Third Century BCRoman CitizenshipThe Republican GovernmentThe Punic Wars (264-146 BC)The First Punic WarǃThe Second Punic WarLThe Third Punic WarRead FirstBibliography Credits' The Dawn of Rome Facts\ Romulus and Remus Facts The Etruscans FactsA The Latins Facts Rome's First Kings Factsm Maps Latium & Geography Facts  Political Institutions Facts Early Roman Society Factsv The Fifth Century BC Facts The Fourth Century BC Factsm The Third Century BC FactsLThe Punic Wars FactsThe First Punic War FactshThe Second Punic War FactsIThe Third Punic War FactsRoman Citizenship FactsThe Republican Government FactsvThe Roman LegionsThe Geography of ItalyPrehistoric italyInvaders from the NorthEtruscans Phoenicians and GreeksMore on the Latin LeagueMRome's Early KingsThe Early RepublicThe Roman Conquest of Central ItalyMore Conquests of Central ItalyׅThe Conquests of Southern ItalyRome's Methods of DominationRome's Development of a ConstitutionAMoving Toward DemocracyRome and Carthage?Illyrian and Gallic InvasionsHannibal and Scipio4Hannibal and HamilcarPolybius and HannibalLivy and Hannibal Livy About Rome's Early KingsRoman Military Organization TimelineFTimeline 1000 - 900 BCETimeline 900 - 800 BCՇTimeline 800 - 700 BCTimeline 700 - 600 BC Timeline 600 - 500 BCTimeline 500 - 400 BC Timeline 400 - 300 BCbTimeline 300 - 200 BCׅTimeline 200 - 100 BCTimeline 100 - 1 BCTimeline - Biblical HistoryĄTimeÆGlossaryLZt A%wd†0xψN V7a; Ѓv_  v ^ H ; H  { } ' O !z!a!!'!!!! 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